60.1507.01 Ionizing Radiation

PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS
HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT
IONIZING RADIATION
(GUIDELINE)
PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Rev 1
1 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
PREFACE
PETRONAS Technical Standards (PTS) publications reflect the views, at the time of publication, of
PETRONAS OPUs/Divisions.
They are based on the experience acquired during the involvement with the design, construction, operation
and maintenance of processing units and facilities. Where appropriate they are based on, or reference is
made to, national and international standards and codes of practice.
The objective is to set the recommended standard for good technical practice to be applied by PETRONAS'
OPUs in oil and gas production facilities, refineries, gas processing plants, chemical plants, marketing
facilities or any other such facility, and thereby to achieve maximum technical and economic benefit from
standardisation.
The information set forth in these publications is provided to users for their consideration and decision to
implement. This is of particular importance where PTS may not cover every requirement or diversity of
condition at each locality. The system of PTS is expected to be sufficiently flexible to allow individual
operating units to adapt the information set forth in PTS to their own environment and requirements.
When Contractors or Manufacturers/Suppliers use PTS they shall be solely responsible for the quality of
work and the attainment of the required design and engineering standards. In particular, for those
requirements not specifically covered, the Principal will expect them to follow those design and engineering
practices which will achieve the same level of integrity as reflected in the PTS. If in doubt, the Contractor or
Manufacturer/Supplier shall, without detracting from his own responsibility, consult the Principal or its
technical advisor.
The right to use PTS rests with three categories of users:
1) PETRONAS and its affiliates
2) Other parties who are authorised to use PTS subject to appropriate contractual
arrangements.
3) Contractors/subcontractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers under a contract with

users referred to under 1) and 2) which requires that tenders for projects,
materials supplied or - generally - work performed on behalf of the said users
comply with the relevant standards.
Subject to any particular terms and conditions as may be set forth in specific agreements with users,
PETRONAS disclaims any liability of whatsoever nature for any damage (including injury or death)
suffered by any company or person whomsoever as a result of or in connection with the use, application or
implementation of any PTS, combination of PTS or any part thereof. The benefit of this disclaimer shall
inure in all respects to PETRONAS and/or any company affiliated to PETRONAS that may issue PTS or
require the use of PTS.
Without prejudice to any specific terms in respect of confidentiality under relevant contractual arrangements,
PTS shall not, without the prior written consent of PETRONAS, be disclosed by users to any company or
person whomsoever and the PTS shall be used exclusively for the purpose they have been provided to the
user. They shall be returned after use, including any copies which shall only be made by users with the
express prior written consent of PETRONAS. The copyright of PTS vests in PETRONAS. Users shall
arrange for PTS to be held in safe custody and PETRONAS may at any time require information satisfactory
to PETRONAS in order to ascertain how users implement this requirement.
2 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
3. MANAGEMENT OF RADIATION EXPOSURE
3.1 Dose equivalent limits
3.2 Classification of radiological work
3.3 Derived dose equivalent limits
3.4 Medical Surveillance of Workers
4. ORGANIZATION
4.1 Radiation Advisory Committee
4.2 The Radiation Protection Adviser
4.3 The Safety Adviser
4.4 The Medical Officer
4.5 Authorized Person
4.6 Radiological worker
4.7 Registration and registers
4.7.1 Registers
4.7.2 Purchase and disposal
4.8 Contractors' responsibilities
5. WORKING PROCEDURES
5.1 Recommended maximum activity for sources for own use
5.2 Shielding, storage and transport
5.2.1 Shielding
5.2.2 Storage
5.2.3 Transport
5.3 Handling procedures and personal protection
5.3.1 The three golden rules
5.3.2 Guidelines
5.4 Inspection for contamination
5.4.1 Packages and transport containers
5.4.2 Sealed radioactive substances
5.5 Decontamination
5.6 Waste handling and disposal
5.6.1 Handling
5.6.2 Disposal
5.7 Effect of radioactivity on detection devices
6. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
6.1 Foreseeing an emergency
6.2 In an emergency
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX Basic considerations, definition of units and calculation examples

A.
A.1 Introduction on units
A.2 Some definitions of quantities in radiation dosimetry
A.2.1 Activity
3 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
A.2.2 Half-life
A.2.3 Absorbed dose
A.2.4 Dose equivalent
A.2.5 Fluence rate or flux
A.2.6 Quality factor
A.3 Relations between SI and old units
A.3.1 Activity
A.3.2 Exposure
A.3.3 Absorbed dose or dose
A.4 Some further relations
A.5 Shielding
A.5.1 Shielding of gamma and X rays
A.5.2 Shielding of neutrons
A.5.3 Shielding of alpha particles
A.5.4 Shielding of beta particles
A.6 Example calculations
APPENDIX B. Commonly used radioactive substances; their application and classification
APPENDIX C. Natural Background Radiation
APPENDIX D. Summary of basic consideration on hazards related to ionizing radiation
APPENDIX E. Example of work permit
APPENDIX F. Recommended training and courses
APPENDIX G. Medical surveillance
APPENDIX H. Example of registration card for radioactive substances
APPENDIX I. Controlled area and warning signs
The UNSCEAR reference distribution for occupational exposure and the
APPENDIX J.
classification
working conditions in categories A and B
APPENDIX K. Some guidance for the use of unsealed radioactive substances
K.1 Introduction
K.2 Limitation of Unsealed Radioactive Substances
K.3 Storage
K.4 Handling and Personal Protection
K.5 Limits on contamination
K.5.1 Maximum permissible levels for surface contamination
K.5.2 Methods for skin decontamination
K.5.3 Maximum permissible product and effluent contamination
GLOSSARY
4 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
5 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
1. INTRODUCTION
This Guide contains recommendations for protective measures against ionizing

radiation for use in PETRONAS.
In those countries where matters dealt with in this Guide are governed by statutory
regulations or national codes of practice, these must of course be observed. In any
case, it is recommended that, where the advice in this Guide and national
regulations differ, the more stringent requirements should be adopted.
This Guide covers only those subjects frequently encountered in OPU/JV and does
not, for instance, cover the handling of unsealed radioactive substances in detail,
although some aspects are discussed in Appendix K. If such radioactive substances
are to be handled, certified workers with procedures for this purpose should be in
charge of the activities. Transport of radioactive substances is not covered either;
information on this can be found in the relevant International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) publication.
The Guide is set out in three main sections:
Chapter 2 gives a summary of recommendations and serves as an information brief

for Management on the general implications of radiation hazards and the
recommendations related to protection against them.
Chapters 3 to 7 are meant for those people in an organization who are actually
involved in the implementation of safety measures against radiation hazards,
namely the HSE Adviser, the Medical Officer and the Radiation Protection
Adviser.
The Appendices give background information and more detail on specific subjects.
They should be read selectively depending on the specific task the reader has in the
radiation safety organization.
Because of the arrangement in three parts, and the need to satisfy those who wish
to read one part only, some duplication occurs. This is considered unavoidable, but
acceptable.
The Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological

Protection (ICRP) have been used as the main source for the Guide. One of the
later publications (ICRP Publication No. 26, issued in 1977 - ICRP 26, for short)
introduces several new concepts with respect to protection against ionizing
radiation and these are now being incorporated in most existing legislation on such
protection. For example, Euratom have based their standards mainly on the
th
recommendation of ICRP 26 (Publications of the European Community, 17
September 1980), and consequently the member countries of the European
Community are committed to adopting these new concepts.
The Atomic Energy Licensing Act – AELA and its addendum regulations is the
6 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
umbrella legislation for all radiological related activities in Malaysia. OPU/JV
operates to this requirement, local legislation or this guide whichever is deemed to
be more stringent. If an OPU/JV needs additional advice on radioactive materials
or ionizing radiation, Corporate HSE is the contact to decide whether a person who
has received a radiation dose above the recommended limit:
- should be suspended from radiological work
- could resume such work;
- review the state of health of radiological workers when considered necessary,

taking into account the nature and extent of exposure and the person's state of
health.
CONTRACTORS
Where Contractor employees are engaged in radiological work on OPU/JV premises, they
should observe both Statutory and OPU/JV Regulations. This should be stated as a
condition in the contract.
STORAGE AND TRANSPORT
Radioactive substances should be kept in specially designed containers with proper

shielding, shutters and locks. When not being used radioactive substances should be kept
in a specially designed storage place which should be locked. The storage and containers
should be clearly marked with the warning sign and the words DANGER-
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL in indelible print.
The dose equivalent rate outside the storage place should not exceed 1 µSv/h in areas
accessible to members of the general public. Inside premises not accessible to the general
public a limit of 2.5 µSv/h can be accepted. The stated limits apply directly outside the
fence in cases where special containment with a fence or wall with access under lock and
key are used.
The removal and transport of radioactive substances should be done only by authorized
personnel. Any change in the location of radioactive substances should be reported to and
registered by the RAC.
X-ray equipment should be provided with a lock on the main circuit.
Only authorized personnel should have access to the keys of the various locks.
MAINTENANCE
If damage or corrosion of radiation sources is found or leakage suspected, the Radiation

Protection Adviser should be informed immediately.
X-ray equipment should be inspected for radiation leakage and proper functioning of all
7 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
safety provisions at least yearly by authorized personnel. In the case of irregularities, the
Radiation Protection Adviser should be informed immediately.
8 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
2. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 BASIC RULES
The following basic rules (given in Publication No. 26 of the International

Commission on Radiological Protection) should be applied when using ionizing
radiation:
Quote:
- No practice shall be adopted unless its introduction produces a positive net

benefit. (1)
- All exposures shall be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable (2), economic

and social factors being taken into account.
- The dose equivalent to individuals shall not exceed the recommended limits.
- Unquote.
2.2 DOSE LIMITS
The recommended occupational dose limits are:
- The whole body annual dose limit should not exceed 50 mSv (14) over one
year. This limit is generally referred to as "the dose equivalent limit". (4) and
AELA, Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Regulation
- Individuals below the age of 18 years should not be involved in radiological

work. (14)
- The average annual dose equivalent received during employment as a

radiological worker should not exceed 5 mSv. (5)
CLASSIFICATION
Any person who may be occupationally exposed to a dose equivalent exceeding 5

mSv over one year should be classified as a radiological worker.
A person classified as a radiological worker should be medically examined before

starting such work. (14)
Working conditions should be classified in two categories according to whether a

dose equivalent of 15 mSv/a
- might be exceeded (Category A),
- is most unlikely to be exceeded (Category B).
9 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Typical examples of working conditions A are
- well logging operations with radioactive sources or neutron generators;
- non-destructive testing (NDT) with gamma sources or high-voltage X-ray

equipment.
EXPOSURE MONITORING
The dose rate received by a radiological worker should be measured using

monitoring devices suitable for the type of radiation involved.
(1) Cost-benefit principle.
(2) ALARA principle.
(3) mSv = millisievert: a measure for the ionizing radiation received by the
human body.
(4) These recommendations correspond to those of ICRP 26 and the European

Community Publication of September 1980.
(5) Atomic Energy Licensing Act (Malaysia) and its addendum regulations.
For external irradiation (gamma and X rays) it is recommended that the worker be
provided with a radiation monitoring badge which is submitted for read-out every
three months, or, if exposure is suspected, immediately thereafter.
Persons working in conditions A should be subject to strict individual monitoring.

Personal radiation monitors should be provided in addition to the badges.
ORGANIZATION
Radiation Advisory Committee (RAC)
At OPU/JV where radioactive substances are handled or where equipment is

present which may produce ionizing radiation, a Radiation Advisory Committee
should be formed. This committee should consist of at least the Medical Officer,
the HSE Adviser or Inspector and the Radiation Protection Adviser, who is the
focal point on the location for all matters concerning ionizing radiation (see
below).
The RAC is in charge of the supervision and control of all matters concerning
ionizing radiation. The RAC should maintain records of:
the names of all radiological workers;
10 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
radioactive substances;
equipment producing ionizing radiation;

permits;
test data and inspection measurements;
the purchase and disposal of radioactive substances.
Radioactive substances or equipment producing ionizing radiation should be

purchased only after approval by the RAC.
The Radiation Protection Officer (RPO)
The Radiation Protection Officer should
be trained in radiation hygiene and have knowledge of all local regulations on

ionizing radiation as well as the recommendations laid down in this Guide;
advise the RAC on the authorization and training of persons for work
involving ionizing radiation;
advise the RAC which persons should be classified as radiological workers

and whether working conditions should be classified as A or B;
be in charge of the implementation of the safety measures, personal protection

devices to be used and selection of appropriate monitoring devices and badges.
The Medical Officer
The Medical Officer should
carry out medical examinations and keep a record of all previous exposures to
ionizing radiation of persons classified as radiological workers;
decide whether a person who has received a radiation dose above the
recommended limit
* should be suspended from radiological work
* could resume such work;
review the state of health of radiological workers when he considers necessary,

taking into account the nature and extent of exposure and the person's state of
health.
CONTRACTORS
11 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Where Contractor employees are engaged in radiological work on OPU/JV premises, they
should observe both Statutory and OPU/JV Regulations. This should be stated as a
condition in the contract.
STORAGE AND TRANSPORT
Radioactive substances should be kept in specially designed containers with proper

shielding, shutters and locks. When not being used radioactive substances should be kept
in a specially designed storage place which should be locked. The storage and containers
should be clearly marked with the warning sign and the words DANGER-
RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL in indelible print.
The dose equivalent rate outside the storage place should not exceed 1 µSv/h in areas
accessible to members of the general public. Inside premises not accessible to the general
public a limit of 2.5 µSv/h can be accepted. The stated limits apply directly outside the
fence in cases where special containment with a fence or wall with access under lock and
key are used.
The removal and transport of radioactive substances should be done only by authorized
personnel. Any change in the location of radioactive substances should be reported to and
registered by the RAC.
X-ray equipment should be provided with a lock on the main circuit.
Only authorized personnel should have access to the keys of the various locks.
MAINTENANCE
If damage or corrosion of radiation sources is found or leakage suspected, the RPA should
be informed immediately.
X-ray equipment should be inspected for radiation leakage and proper functioning of all
safety provisions at least yearly by authorized personnel. In the case of irregularities, the
RPA should be informed immediately.
DEMARCATION
An area where radiological work is to be carried out should be fenced off and clearly
marked with the proper warning signs. Unauthorized personnel should not be permitted to
enter such an area. Outside such an area the radiation dose equivalent rate normally should
not exceed 2.5 µSv/h at the fence. Special approval by the RPA is necessary if a higher
limit is required outside the fenced-off area.
EMERGENCIES
The RPA should advise the RAC regarding the regulations and any special equipment to
be at hand in case of an emergency.
12 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Emergency regulations should be posted at each place where radioactive substances or
equipment producing ionizing radiation are used or stored.
The RPA should be responsible for organizing emergency drills.
If a person has received a radiation dose above the dose limit, or internal or external
contamination by radioactive substances has been found or is suspected, the RPA must be
notified immediately. He should decide on the action to be taken, in consultation with
other members of the RAC as necessary.
UNSEALED RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
Routine use of unsealed radioactive substances should be avoided whenever possible.

Handling of such substances should be carried out only by specially equipped and trained
personnel specializing in this subject.
In the case of a test with unsealed radioactive substances, the RPA should ensure that no
radiation hazard exists for OPU/JV personnel, contractors, or any other persons.
WORK PERMITS
The RAC is responsible for ensuring that all permits needed for radiological work are
available and prepared in accordance with PTS 60.154 Permit to Work System. The
permits should be signed by the Manager in charge and the RPA or authorized personnel.
Copies of the permit should be present at the site and filed at, the RAC.
13 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
3. MANAGEMENT OF RADIATION EXPOSURE
3.1 DOSE EQUIVALENT LIMITS
ICRP 26 applies the following three basic rules for the use of ionizing radiation:
No practice shall be adopted unless its introduction produces a positive net

benefit (costbenefit principle).
All exposures shall be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable, economic and

social factors being taken into account (ALARA principle).
The dose equivalent to individuals shall not exceed the recommended limits.
Summarizing, it can be said that the third rule indicates that there is an upper limit
not to be exceeded, while the other rules reflect the acceptability of dose
equivalents in the range from zero to the upper limit.
On this basis the following occupational dose equivalent limits are recommended
by the ICRP:
The whole-body dose equivalent should not exceed 50 mSv over one year. This
limit is in general referred to as "the dose equivalent limit".
Individuals below the age of 18 years should not be involved in radiological

work.
It should be realized, however, that the safety of all individuals may not be
fully guaranteed by the three rules mentioned above, as a cost-benefit analysis
of a particular activity might justify a dose equivalent close to the limit to one
or more individuals.
For personnel of OPU/JV it is therefore recommended that:
the average annual dose equivalent received during employment as a

radiological worker should not exceed 5 mSv.
(It has been found in practice that, when the limit of 50 mSv in any one year is
applied, the average annual dose equivalent of a group of radiological workers
does not exceed 5 mSv, and, over a period of years the average dose equivalent
received by individual radiological workers is well below 5 mSv per annum)
Compliance with the above recommendation of 5 mSv/a places radiological work

within OPU/JV among the safer occupations even if during one particular year this
value is exceeded.
For the application of this recommendation it is necessary to monitor carefully the

dose equivalents of every radiological worker to prevent doses close to the limits
14 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
during successive years and to keep the average dose equivalent over the years of
employment as a radiological worker below 5 mSv/a.
This recommendation should be considered as a reference value to ensure that

radiological work within OPU/JV is as safe as any other safe occupation even if
during one particular year the reference value may have been exceeded.
The recommendations mentioned above apply to both men and women. If women
of reproductive capacity are occupationally exposed at a "regular rate" within the
recommended limits, it is most unlikely that an embryo will receive more than 5
mSv during the first two months of pregnancy. ICRP 26 states that if the
requirement of "regular rate" is fulfilled there is no need to make any distinction
between sexes. However, as soon as a pregnancy is planned or has been established
radiological work classified as condition A should be avoided (see next section).
3.2. CLASSIFICATION OF RADIOLOGICAL WORK
In any location where a dose equivalent in excess of 5 mSv/a, i.e. one tenth of the
annual limit, cannot be excluded, special precautions should be taken for protection
against ionizing radiation. All personnel in such locations should be classified as
radiological workers. Depending on the type of radiation and risks involved,
special measures should be taken to protect these workers, for example by placing
radiation monitors in the location where the radiation occurs or may occur, or by
supplying personal monitoring devices such as badges or pen dose meters. The
Radiation Protection Adviser should determine which measures should be taken
(see Section 4.2).
The working conditions may be subdivided into two categories, as shown in Table
3-1.
The objective of classifying working conditions as A or B is to simplify the safety

requirements in locations where the possibility of exposure to significant levels of
radiation is negligible and consequently condition B applies. Under conditions
classified as A there is a real possibility of exposure to radiation and radiation
safety requires more elaborate measures.
15 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
A difficulty in this subdivision is the interpretation of "might exceed" and "most
unlikely". The RPO should decide which condition is appropriate. The Euratom
norms of 1980 give some guidance. Working conditions A may be found in
establishments and plants where sealed sources are used in radiotherapy,
gammagraphy and industrial irradiators.
High-activity laboratories and plants should also be included in this category.
Appendix J gives additional guidance. In practice only very few activities in
OPU/JV would be classified as constituting condition A.
3.3. DERIVED DOSE EQUIVALENT LIMITS
From the 50 mSv/a limit derived limits of 1 mSv/week or 25 µSv/h can be used for
practical applications. The limits of exposure of individuals not registered as
radiological workers and of the public at large should be considerably lower. In
these cases a dose equivalent limit of 5 mSv/a and derived limits of 0.1 mSv/week
or 2.5 µSv/h should not be exceeded. This last derived limit is generally applied for
the outside of fenced-off areas on sites where radiological work has to be carried
out (see Chapter 5).
One of the assumptions made in the calculations of derived limits (i.e. dose
equivalent on an hourly basis) is a working time of 2000 hours per annum. This
implies the assumption that a person is continuously exposed to radiation during
this time. Only if it is certain that a person is partly involved in radiological work is
it permitted to introduce an occupancy factor.
For non-destructive testing purposes a value of 7.5 µSv/h (instead of 2.5 µSv/h) at
the outside of the fenced-off area is frequently considered acceptable. For most
practical applications of non- destructive testing it is realistic to take an occupancy
factor of less than 30% which justifies the above increase. Special approval by the
Radiation Protection Officer is necessary if a higher limit is required.
3.4. MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE
Medical surveillance of the workers shall be carried out on the workers by an

approved medical practitioner. This shall include:
a) pre-employment medical examination
b) general health surveillance
c) periodic reviews of health
d) medical examination at termination of employemnt
Nobody found to be medically unfit shall be employed as a worker for any period.
A medical record of each worker shall be kept for as long as the incumbent
16 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
remains a worker.
17 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
4. ORGANIZATION
A Radiation Advisory Committee (RAC) should be set up consisting of at least the

Radiation Protection Officer, the Medical Officer and the HSE Adviser. The task
of this Committee is to advise Management on measures and precautions necessary
to ensure safe working conditions during radiological activities on the site.
This Committee should decide on the duties and responsibilities of each of its
members. As the organizational structure will differ between the various locations,
only general recommendations are given in this Guide.
4.1 RADIATION ADVISORY COMMITTEE - RAC
The RAC is in charge of the supervision and control of all matters concerning
ionizing radiation. The RAC should take all measures required by Statutory
Regulations and the recommendations of this Guide concerning the acquisition,
storage, use and management of radioactive substances and X- ray equipment. The
Committee can delegate specific duties and responsibilities to its individual
members or to other authorized personnel.
Specific duties and responsibilities are:
To maintain records of all personnel, material and activities concerning

radiological work.
To provide instructions concerning radiation hazards and safe working

practices for all personnel whose duties necessitate the handling of radioactive
substances and X-ray equipment, and for all other personnel who are not
regularly employed on such work, but who may be exposed to radiation.
-To ensure beyond reasonable doubt that all personnel working with
radioactive substances and X-ray equipment are adequately instructed in the
use of all necessary safeguards and procedures and are supplied with such
auxiliary devices as may be necessary.
-To decide whether a person should be classified as a radiological worker and

whether working conditions should be classified as A or B.
-To ensure that Statutory Regulations are complied with and that the necessary
working procedures, emergency procedures and procedures for registration and
record-keeping are set up and adhered to.
To set up personal monitoring procedures and to ensure that radiological

workers wear radiation badges, pen dose meters or similar devices as
necessary.
To make arrangements for exposure assessments of radiation badges at

approved centres, at intervals required by local legislation but not longer than
18 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
three calendar months of continuous or discontinuous exposure. Results of
these assessments should be recorded on personal radiation dose records. When
an employee is transferred, his radiation dose record should be forwarded to his
next employer or location.
To investigate and report any incident with X-ray equipment or radioactive

substances and the circumstances of any excessive exposure to radiation.
To take measures to ensure beyond reasonable doubt that the radiation level
outside and inside a controlled area is such that no one will receive a radiation
dose in excess of the recommended limits.
To ensure that radioactivity discharged into the environment is maintained at

an average concentration below the recommended levels, by appropriate
surveying or monitoring procedures.
To appoint and discharge authorized personnel and radiological workers.
To consider for approval, before its being submitted to Management, any order
for the purchase of X-ray equipment and radioactive substances to be used on
site.
To ensure that, if contractors are carrying out radiological work, their

responsibilities are clearly stated in the contract (see Section 4.8).
4.2 THE RADIATION PROTECTION OFFICER – RPO
The Radiation Protection Officer is the focal point on the location for all matters
concerning ionizing radiation. It is essential that he should have been suitably
trained in radiation hygiene by an authorized institution; for examples of these see
Appendix F. It is recommended that the Radiation Protection Officer has a
responsible position in the OPU/JV.
The Radiation Protection Officer should have knowledge of all local regulations on
ionizing radiation as well as the recommendations laid down in this Guide and
should advise the RAC accordingly.
He should be fully acquainted with local conditions with respect to the potential
hazards of radiological work on site and during transportation, storage and waste
handling of radioactive substances.
He should notify the HSE Adviser or the RAC of the existence of any condition or
situation which may not normally be considered a radiation hazard, but may
become a hazard under special or unusual circumstances.
He should ensure that, before radiological work is carried out, the required permit
is obtained and signed and that the written precautions are followed.
19 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
He should advise the RAC on the authorization and training of persons for work
involving ionizing radiation.
He should advise the RAC which persons should be classified as radiological

workers and whether working conditions should be classified as A or B.
He should be in charge of the implementation of the safety measures and personal

protection devices to be used and he decides on the selection of appropriate
monitoring devices and badges.
He should advise the RAC with respect to the regulations and special equipment to
be at hand in case of an emergency.
He is in charge of organizing emergency drills.
If tests are being carried out the Radiation Protection Officer should ensure that no
radiation hazard exists for any person involved.
He is responsible for all keys related to the storage and use of radioactive
substances and radiation equipment.
4.3 THE HSE ADVISER
The HSE Adviser's position may be a full-time one, as is usually the case at more
complex installations, or, on smaller sites, the duty of safety supervision may be
vested in a technical employee as part of his regular duties, indeed, on some
smaller locations the Radiation Protection Adviser and the HSE Adviser may be
one and the same person.
The HSE Adviser should be informed without delay when an accident occurs or a
dangerous situation develops in order that, after consultation with Management,
the appropriate authorities be informed when necessary.
He should advise the RAC on the implementation of the Statutory Regulations and
on registration, and sees to a proper investigation and reporting of any incident
with X-ray equipment or a radioactive substance which has or could have resulted
in over-exposure to radiation.
4.4 THE MEDICAL OFFICER – MO
A Medical Officer should be available when radiological work, according to the

criteria in Section 3.2, is going to be carried out. For his duties see Appendix G.
4.4 AUTHORIZED PERSON – AP
An Authorized Person is so authorized by the RAC on the recommendation of the

RPO for a special job. He should be instructed and trained by the RPO and will
assist him as required.
20 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
4.5 RADIOLOGICAL WORKER
Any person who may be occupationally exposed to an annual dose equivalent of

more than 5 mSv, i.e. one tenth of the whole-body annual dose equivalent limit,
should be considered a radiological worker. Persons under the age of 18 years
should not be permitted to be occupationally exposed.
All radiological workers should be fully acquainted with Statutory Regulations and
with the OPU/JV rules and regulations. They should also be aware of the potential
hazards resulting from the presence of radiation at the storage site, during
transportation or on the working site, and from the equipment in use. Radiological
workers, from both OPU/JV and contractors, should wear the proper radiation
badge when carrying out radiological work (see Section 5.3). A radiological
worker should notify the RPO of the existence of any condition or situation which,
while not normally being considered a radiation hazard, may become a hazard in
special or unusual circumstances.
4.7 REGISTRATION AND REGISTERS
4.7.1 Registers
- Register of radiological workers
The names of all company personnel designated as radiological workers should

be entered in a "Radiation Dose Register" kept by the RAC. Likewise
contractors should maintain their own register.
- Personal radiation dose records
Results of exposure assessments of badges of all radiological workers should

be entered into personal radiation dose records which should be inspected by
the MO on a regular basis. These records should be kept by the MO with the
medical records. They should be kept permanently; copies should be forwarded
to the next employer or location when the person concerned is transferred.
- Registration of radioactive substances
All radioactive substances, with the exception of certain small sources (see
Appendix B), should be registered. The register should contain the following
data
- type of radioactive substances;
- sealed or unsealed source;
- nuclide;
21 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
- activity;
- date of receipt;
- location when not in storage;
- date and method of disposal (if appropriate).
Every source should have a separate number and registration card (see Appendix
H). At regular intervals, but at least every three calendar months, the presence of
all radioactive substances on site should be checked against the register.
- Register of X-ray equipment In use
This register should contain the following data
mark and type of equipment;
maximum tube voltage of the equipment;
location where equipment is in use.
- Records of wipe-testing and inspection measurements
These records should contain
o date and results of wipetesting of the sealed sources and a description of the
method used;
o date and results of inspection measurements of X-ray equipment.
See also Section 5.4.
Records of work permits
Copies of all work permits relating to radiological work should be filed at the
RAC.
Records of disposal
Radioactive substances should be disposed of in accordance with the

requirements of local legislation and records should be kept.
4.7.2 Purchase and disposal
In order to control the use of X-ray equipment and radioactive substances on site,
such equipment or substances should be purchased only with the RAC's prior
approval.
22 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Records should be kept of the transfer of radioactive waste to third parties.
For a definition of what constitutes radioactive waste and for recommendations on

the handling of radioactive waste see Section 5.6 and Appendix B.
4.8 CONTRACTORS' RESPONSIBILITIES
When OPU/JV employ contractors for radiological work, the contractor's

responsibilities should be stated in the contract, according to PTS 60.139
"Management of Contractor HSE". Additionally, the contractor should supply and
have available all emergency tools and other equipment as necessary.
23 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
5. WORKING PROCEDURES
Two sources of ionizing radiation are used
- radioactive substances and
- X-ray equipment.
The radioactive substances can be divided into 'sealed' and 'unsealed'. Most
applications of ionizing radiation involve either sealed sources or X-ray equipment.
The use of unsealed sources is primarily limited to tracer experiments. Appendix K

should be considered as indicative only of the special precautions to be taken for
these experiments. In view of the complications involved, specialist advice and
guidance should always be obtained when using unsealed sources.
5.1 RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM ACTIVITY FOR SOURCES FOR OWN

USE
The first step towards safety is to limit the number and total activity of the
available ionizing radiation sources on the location. The maximum allowed
activities of individual radiation sources and their total activity is often laid down
in local regulations.
a. Sealed radioactive sources
In the absence of Statutory Regulations, recommendations as given in Table 5-1

should be adopted. For those incidental cases where higher activity radioactive
sources are required, the services of a specialized contractor should be obtained.
This is allowed only after a positive recommendation has been given by the RPO
and/or the RAC.
24 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
b. X-ray equipment
Sealed radioactive substances have taken over a large proportion of non-

destructive testing (NDT) activities at site that were originally covered by X-ray
equipment only. A better image quality, however, can be obtained with X-ray
exposures. In addition, storage of the equipment does not create the problems
encountered with radioactive substances. Hence, X-ray equipment is
advantageously applied where accessibility is sufficient. In view of the availability
of radioactive substances with deep-penetrating radiation, it is normal practice to
limit the use of X-ray equipment to thinner specimens. At present X-ray equipment
with voltages up to 300 kV is commonly used for routine radiographic purposes.
5.2 SHIELDING, STORAGE AND TRANSPORT
An accurate update of registration of all radioactive substances should be done at

regular intervals (see Section 4.7).
Radioactive substances not in use should always be kept in a dedicated storage

place, especially designed for this purpose, as the shielding afforded by the
exposure containers does not provide sufficient long-term protection.
5.2.1 Shielding
The radioactive substances, usually in the form of pellets (for example Cc-60, Ir-
192) or ceramic beads (such as Cs-137, Am-241), are encased in seal-welded
stainless steel capsules. The capsules should be checked for leakage at regular
intervals (see Section 5.4.2). Radioactive substances emitting alpha particles, and
25 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
sources of toxicity group 1, should be doubly encapsulated.
Capsules are located inside exposure containers:
- for gamma radiation they may be of lead, tungsten alloy or depleted uranium,
or,
- for sources emitting neutrons, a medium containing hydrogen.
The containers should be provided with a shutter security lock. For NDT activities
a suitable remote control should also be provided. On the outside of the exposure
container the wording: RADIOACTIVE, in clear and indelible print, should be
shown together with the warning sign for radioactivity (see Appendix I). In
addition, the nature of the radioactive substance and its activity should be
indicated. The construction of the exposure container should be such as to provide
a fire-resistance of at least one hour.
The recommended maximum dose equivalent rate on the surface of the container is
2 mSv/h, while at a distance of 1 m from the centre of the container a maximum of
0.1 mSv/h is recommended.
Appendix A gives some examples of calculations with respect to shielding of

gamma-ray sources and X-ray equipment.
5.2.2 Storage
a. Radioactive substances
All radioactive substances not in use should be kept securely in a dedicated

store. The construction of the store should be such that it is fire-resistant for at
least one hour and should be approved by the RAC and fire-fighting
department. The storage place should be clearly marked with the warning sign
and the wording:
DANGER - RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL in clear and indelible print (see

Appendix I).
Its access hatch or door should be provided with a lock, the keys of which
should be kept by the Radiation Protection Officer or authorized personnel.
The dose equivalent rate at a distance of 10 cm from any point on the outside
of the store should not exceed 1 µSv/h in areas accessible to the general public.
Inside premises not accessible to the general public a rate of 2.5 µSv/h can be
accepted. In many cases the storage place may be a pit in the ground with a
"dog kennel" over the pit.
The stated limits then apply for the outside of the "kennel" if the access is
provided with a lock.
26 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Only authorized personnel should introduce sources into, or remove them from,
the store.
The store should be located in a room, provided with an exit, which can be
operated from the inside. The door of the storage room should be provided on
the outside with a warning sign and the wording: STORAGE RADIOACTIVE
MATERIALS. The room should be locked if no one is present. Inside the
room, which should be used only for storage of radioactive substances, the
furniture should be limited to a bare minimum. Suitable calibrated dose meters
should always be available.
It is strongly recommended that the storage room and examination area for
radiography are combined in one building to limit the transport of sources and
to enhance supervision. In this case, additional to the standard warning signs at
access points, lights and/or audible alarms should be provided to give adequate
warning before and during irradiation operations.
Sources used for permanent process measurements normally fall under the
instrumentation department's responsibility. At each location where these
sources are used a simple display should indicate where the sources are located,
whether the shutter is in an open or closed position and whether the source has
been (temporarily) removed. An obvious location for this display is the control
room of the location concerned.
b. X-ray equipment
X-ray equipment should never be left unattended, if still operable. If the

equipment is left on site for a short period, the electricity supply should be
disconnected, the equipment locked and the key kept by authorized personnel.
To prevent tampering with the equipment, it should be kept in a locked storage
room.
Separate storage rooms for radioactive substances and X-ray equipment are
advisable. Responsibility for the keys of these storage rooms rests with the
RPO
5.2.3 Transport
a. Outside the premises
The IAEA and or Malaysian “Radiation Protection (TRANSPORT)

Regulations”, whichever is appropriate, for the Safe Transport of
Radioactive Materials should be followed. They are specified in the
Radiation Protection (TRANSPORT) Regulation and IAEA Safety Series
Nos. 6 and 7 (see Chapter 7). Compliance with these regulations is the
responsibility of the consignor of the materials.
27 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
IAEA makes a distinction between A and B containers. The B type is for
high-activity radioactive substances and should be certified to meet IAEA
specifications for resistance to damage.
Transport vehicles should be provided with at least one portable fire

extinguisher of the halon type, one portable orange-coloured flashlight and
fireproof warning notices in front and rear. The warning notices should be
clearly displayed, showing the telephone number(s) of the Radiation
Protection Officer and authorities to be notified, and the steps to be taken in
the case of an accident.
Transport routes should be short and safe. Written instructions on action to

be taken in the event of accidents should be present in the vehicle. During
the transport of radioactive substances the vehicle should never be left
unattended. In the case of a defect to the vehicle, measures should be taken
immediately to safeguard the transport of the radioactive material.
Upon arrival, radioactive material should remain in its transport container

and the RPO notified. Only after receipt of a duly signed and completed
permit should the material be allowed to be transported to the relevant
department, in the packing and container as specified on the permit.
For disposal of radioactive substances it is suggested that the services of a

contractor specialized in this type of transport be obtained. Liability in case
of accident of damage should be properly covered.
b. On the premises
During transport, radioactive substances should be kept in adequately

shielded and closed containers. Scaled sources for radiography with their
exposure container should be kept inside a lead-lined box which has the
radiation warning sign on the outside. The transport container should be
properly strapped to prevent movement or loss, and be as far away as
possible from the personnel involved. During transport the shielding should
be such that the dose equivalent rate does not exceed 0.1 mSv/h at a
distance of one metre from the centre.
A portable fire extinguisher of the halon type should be at hand and

fireproof warning signs should be provided.
Any loss of radioactive material should be reported at once to the RPO and,
if applicable, to the authorities.
Suitably trained workers should be in charge of all transportation of

radioactive material.
5.3 HANDLING PROCEDURES AND PERSONAL PROTECTION
28 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Regulations for the safe handling of ionizing radiation sources should be compiled
by the RAC. It is the responsibility of all radiological workers and personnel
carrying out work on equipment containing a radioactive substance or on X-ray
equipment, or giving orders to do so, to familiarize themselves with, and adhere to,
these regulations. Errors or deficiencies in instructions or working conditions
should be reported to the RAC. The regulations should be should be clearly
exhibited at those locations where regular handling of ionizing radiation sources
takes place.
5.3.1 The Three Golden Rules
Every effort should be made to limit unnecessary exposure to radiation. The three
golden rules for the use of ionizing radiation sources for NDT purposes should be
observed:
- Keep maximum distance to the source
A good way to reduce the radiation level is to increase the distance from the
radiation source, as the dose rate diminishes with the square of the distance.
Only remote controlled equipment should, therefore, be used for radiography
purposes. The typical length of X-ray equipment cables or flexible cables of
isotope sets should not be considered as adequate to provide a safe distance.
Direct contact between source and body should be prevented under all
circumstances.
- Provide maximum shielding
For sealed sources collimators should be used. In order to limit scattered

radiation, additional shielding should be considered, for example by means of
mobile protective lead screens.
Direct radiation from X-ray tubes should be limited by the use of diaphragms.
When working on site, all available radiation obstructions such as pipes and
concrete walls should be used to the maximum extent to reduce the dose rates
received by radiological workers.
- Keep exposure time down
The time during which personnel are exposed to radiation should be

minimized. Radiological workers should move fast if they are in the radiation
zone.
The practice of applying a shift system in order to distribute the received

radiation dose evenly over the radiological workers involved is not an adequate
alternative to shielding and is therefore not recommended for this purpose.
29 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
5.3.2 Guidelines
As general guidelines for the handling of sealed ionizing radiation sources the
following recommendations are given:
- Permits
No work should be carried out without the applicable work permit(s) (see Chapter
4 and Appendix E). The instructions mentioned in work permits should be strictly
adhered to.
- Location
Whenever practicable radiography should be carried out inside a walled

enclosure especially designed for this purpose. If this is not possible, the
responsible person in charge of the area where radiation work is to be carried
out should be notified prior to and after completion of the radiological
activities.
The radiological work should be isolated from other work and all non-
authorized persons should be excluded from the area concerned.
- Radiation monitoring
There is a large variety of measuring devices for the monitoring of ionizing

radiation. The RPO is trained in the use of such devices, in general referred to
as dose meters. The most commonly used detection device is the radiation
badge which is worn on the body of the worker. Different types of badge are
used for different types of radiation. For gamma and X rays in general a badge
containing X-ray film is used, although thermoluminescence dose meters
(TLD) are gradually replacing the film badge. For simplicity, in this Guide
these devices are referred to as "radiation badges".
All radiological workers engaged in the handling of ionizing radiation sources

should be so authorized and, if applicable, wear a radiation badge. The
recommended minimum frequency for changing radiation badges is once every
three months. If a radiation exposure is suspected the badge should be read out
as soon as possible. During handling of radiation sources a proper radiation
monitor should be at hand.
Persons employed in working conditions A should be monitored more closely

than others. The RPO should decide which additional personal monitoring
devices should be used. In work with X-ray, gamma and neutron radiation,
badges should always be worn and changed at least on a monthly basis. The
RPO should establish rules with respect to the additional use of personal dose
meters which can be read out directly after the work has been completed but at
least on a daily basis.
30 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
All readings should be entered into a log-book. Copies of the readings should
be forwarded to the RAC (see Chapter 4 and/or the Medical Department for
consideration and filing.
All workers (category A and B) should be medically examined before starting

radiological work (see Appendix G). The medical supervision of be maintained
during the total period of employment as a radiological worker.
Access to an area where radiological work is carried out should be prohibited to

all non-authorized persons. This area should be walled in or, in the case of
work on site, be roped off and provided with warning signs at conspicuous
points at all approach lanes warning unauthorized persons not to enter.
As a general rule the radiation level outside the work area should be less than 2.5
µSv/h.
As this level may vary considerably, owing to scattered radiation, frequent

monitoring of roped-off boundaries is required. If applicable, levels above and
below the source location should also be monitored. If the radiation limit cannot be
attained, safe working procedures should be established by the RPO and these may
include night shift working. As noted already in Section 3.3, for non-destructive
testing purposes a fencing-off value of 7.5 µSv/h (instead of 2.5 µSv/h) is
frequently considered acceptable. For most practical applications of non-
destructive testing it is realistic to take an occupancy factor of less than 30% which
justifies the above increase. The only reason why a higher level is acceptable in
such circumstances is because this is a controlled operation where constant
measurements can be carried out by specialists who will be carefully monitoring
the operation, so that dose limits will not be exceeded. This argumentation does not
apply for a storage situation. Special approval by the Radiation Protection Adviser
is necessary before the higher limit can be set.
- Organization
The RPO may decide on the number of workers who are to be engaged in any
activity involving ionizing radiation. If there is more than one person, the most
senior one should be in charge and ensure that each one knows the intended
movements of the other(s).
If daily files for source movements are kept, the senior person should enter the
required data into this file and sign for the proper use and subsequent storage of the
source. This information may also be used for source movement control (see
Section 4.7).
- Equipment
All equipment should be in proper working order and should be carefully handled.
Checks for contamination should be carried out at regular intervals (see Section
5.4).
31 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
- Planning
To facilitate fast work and to prevent unsafe situations, it is essential that actions
are planned beforehand. Activities, such as adjustment of films or lead markers and
setting up of temporary shielding, near a source in operation should be avoided.
For complicated operations, dummy exercises are strongly recommended.
- Manipulation
Authorized workers should ensure that nobody can be exposed to direct radiation;
they should make use of diaphragms and collimators to limit scattered radiation. It
is recommended that, during irradiation, radiation levels are measured frequently.
A radiation source should never be left unattended at site.
- Equipment monitoring
Upon completion of activities and before removal to storage a check should be

made to ensure that the source has been correctly returned to the container.
- Changing of radioactive substances
Only after approval by the RPO may a change of radioactive source be, carried out
by an authorized person. A suitable container for source changing should be used.
After radioactive sources have been changed, a wipe test should be carried out to
check for contamination (see Section 5.4.2).
- Emergencies
In the case of fire, X-ray equipment should be switched off and radioactive sources
should be wound back into the exposure container and immediately be removed
from site to the appropriate store. If for any reason the radiation source cannot be
removed, access to the area should be strictly controlled and, the Radiation
Protection Adviser should be warned immediately. For details on emergency
procedures, see Chapter 6.
- Over-exposure
In the case of an over-exposure the RPO should take proper action and the incident
should be immediately reported to the RAC, which should decide on measures to
be implemented for prevention in future. The Medical Officer may wish to take
action for the benefit of any personnel involved. The Radiation Protection Adviser
may suggest an extra medical examination in the case of established or suspected
overexposure. In the case of an over exposure far in excess of 50 mSv, Corporate
HSE should also be informed.
5.4 INSPECTION FOR CONTAMINATION
32 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
General
As contamination by radioactive substances can be a significant hazard to health

any external or internal contamination of the body should be prevented. Besides
radiological personnel, equipment used for work with radioactive materials may
also become contaminated. Systematic monitoring of all areas and equipment that
have been in contact with radioactive materials should therefore be carried out.
Monitoring of radiation should be performed with direct reading instruments and

by wipe-testing. For surface monitoring, the presence of alpha, beta and low-
energy gamma radiation calls for special monitoring methods and equipment. All
instruction used for monitoring should be calibrated and checked regularly. In
some cases duplication of instruments is desirable.
5.4.1 Packages and transport containers
The non-fixed radioactive contamination on any external surface of the package or

container should be kept as low as practicable and, under normal conditions of
transport, should not exceed the levels laid down in Table 5-2 below, derived from
the IAEA Safety Series No. 6.
5.4.2 Sealed radioactive substances
In general the hazard connected with a sealed radioactive substance is related to

radiation generated outside the body.
33 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
If the capsule is damaged or corroded, the radioactive substance could be released
and easily cause contamination of equipment which may lead to ingestion or
inhalation of radioactive material. Sealed radioactive sources and their containers
should therefore be regularly examined for leakage or contamination.
All substances belonging to the highest toxicity group (see Appendix B) and
substances emitting alpha radiation should be tested for contamination at least
every six months.
Other sources should be tested at least once a year. Checks should also be carried
out
- on receipt/dispatch;
- on any occasion when the source capsule suffers accidental damage, or is

thought to have done so;
- at source replacements.
Inspection for contamination is generally done by wipe- testing. Wipe tests are
carried out by making a swab from a piece of paper tissue or cotton wool
moistened in a detergent solution. Hold the swab in a pair of tongs and wipe
thoroughly the source and/or its immediate vicinity, taking care by measurement
and estimation checks that the dose received from external radiation is within
acceptable limits. Take the swab away carefully to a suitable monitor and test for
radioactivity by holding it as close as possible to the monitor, making sure not to
touch the instrument.
For the contamination limits, see Table 5-2.
If contamination is detected, the source with the container should be kept in the
storage area. Measures should be taken such that during transport and storage no
(additional) contamination of the environment takes place. The RPO should be
notified forthwith.
Records of the tests to be kept on file for at least two years (see Section 4.7).
The tests are to be carried out by authorized personnel only.
5.5 DECONTAMINATION
If contamination of personnel is detected, decontamination activities, in accordance

with instructions established by the RAC, should start immediately. Facilities and
first-aid procedures should be available. Staff should be fully acquainted with such
procedures.
The decision whether to decontaminate the equipment or to dispose of it should

take into account the value of the material compared with the risks and cost of
34 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
decontamination (cost / benefit analysis principle). If the half-life of the
contaminant is short it may be preferable to store the contaminated objects to
permit decay of activities, rather than to attempt decontamination.
5.6 WASTE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL
Radioactive waste differs from all other types of waste. Its' radioactivity decreases
only with time and its radioactive properties cannot be altered or destroyed by any
physical, chemical or biological treatment.
Sealed sources and tracer applications account for most of the industrial use of
radioactive substances. There is almost no waste disposal required in the use of
sealed sources, except for disposal of the source upon decay of its radioactivity to
levels at which it can no longer be used. Damage to the sealed source may result in
radioactive waste in the form of contaminated equipment, packing, clothing and
other accessories.
5.6.1 Handling
Waste is considered radioactive as long as its activity is higher than 100 Bq (about
3 nCi) per gramme (see Appendix B).
In general it will be desirable to sort radioactive waste and to provide separate

containers for the various 'categories. Sorting could be based on
o total activity (high, medium, low),
o half-life (long, short),
o flammability (combustible, non-combustible).
Contaminated waste should be packed in suitable plastic bags of about ten litres
capacity and subsequently be stored in separate containers for each category. The
containers should be clearly and indelibly marked with the wording:
RADIOACTIVE WASTE together with the warning sign, whilst a label should
provide data on the origin and activity of contents. Since the maximum allowable
radiation level at the surface of the container is 2 mSv/h, or 0.1 mSv/h at 1 m from
the centre, shielded containers may have to be used.
Awaiting either decay below the level of 100 Bq/g or disposal as radioactive waste,
all waste containers in use should be stored in a special store in accordance with
the requirements given in Section 5.2.2.
Removal of radioactive waste should be carried out by designated personnel under

the supervision of the RPO.
5.6.2 Disposal
35 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Decayed sources are preferably disposed of via their original supplier. If this is not
possible, and for those cases where contaminated waste disposal is involved,
Corporate HSE should be contacted (see Section 4.7.2).
Transfer of radioactive substances to other users is allowed only if the required

qualifications and requirements are covered by the other party. The dispatching
party is responsible for checking whether this is the case.
For waste handling and disposal related to the use of unsealed radioactive
substances, see
Appendix K.
5.7 EFFECT OF RADIOACTIVITY ON DETECTION DEVICES
Radiation sources emitting gamma or X-rays can influence the performance of

detection devices, depending on the strength of the source, distance between source
and detection device and the sensitivity of the devices. Typical process instruments
sensitive to external radiation sources are:
o ultraviolet flame detectors on boilers and furnaces,
o ultraviolet fire detectors,
o instruments and analysers containing radioactive substances.
In general these types of detection device are used in alarm and trip systems.
Radiation pickup can cause operational nuisance, possibly resulting in complete
trip action of a process plant, or it could make the trip system non- operational
during the time radiation is picked up.
Since the dose rate by which some devices are affected can be quite low, the
influence of ionizing radiation may be noticeable over considerable distances. In
most cases the problem can be solved by providing sufficient shielding to prevent
ionizing radiation from reaching the detection device.
Coordination with the responsible parties in the process and instrument department
is essential to avoid major upsets.
36 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
6. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
6.1 FORESEEING AN EMERGENCY
Emergency procedures should be established by the RPO before any radiological

work is started, and all personnel involved should be carefully instructed. The RPO
counsels the RAC with respect to the regulations and special equipment to be at
hand in case of an emergency. The RPO should appoint one or more Authorized
Persons to cope with an emergency and he should organize emergency drills
regularly.
If a person has received a radiation dose above the dose limit or internal or external
contamination by radioactive substances has been found or is suspected, the RPO
should be notified immediately. He should decide on the action to be taken, in
consultation with other members of the RAC as necessary.
Emergency regulations should be posted at the place where radioactive substances

or equipment producing ionizing radiation are used or stored. All staff concerned
should be fully aware of their duties in the event of an emergency.
Apart from the protective clothing to be worn routinely, a separate supply of

gloves, gowns and boots or overshoes should be available, specifically reserved for
use in emergencies only.
To cope with situations where a serious spillage of radioactive substance cannot be

excluded, a self-contained breathing apparatus with a high protection factor should
be available. See PTS 60.045 "Personal Protective Equipment".
When radioactive substances are used in an installation, consideration should be

given to situations where an upset in operation or a fire may require plant
operators, fire-fighting or first-aid personnel to enter the fenced-off area.
Emergency instructions for non-destructive testing will vary from job to job, but it
is recommended that in an emergency the radioactive source should be removed as
soon as possible by an authorized person. If this is not possible he should warn all
concerned to keep at a safe distance from the source, until appropriate recovery
measures can be taken.
6.2 IN AN EMERGENCY
Provisions should be made so that, in an emergency, the sources can be returned

quickly to the storage container by manual operation, preferably from the control
panel, with the least possible exposure of the staff concerned.
When a sealed source is damaged to an extent which involves or might involve the
spillage of a radioactive substance, authorized personnel should recover or remove
that radioactive substance. Until this has been done, all practicable measures
should be taken to prevent the dispersal of the radioactive substance and to
37 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
safeguard all persons involved. These measures may include temporary evacuation
of contaminated areas.
In the case of fire, X-ray equipment should be switched off immediately and
radioactive sources in use should be returned into the exposure container and
immediately placed in the appropriate store. If for any reason a radiation source
cannot be removed, the RPO should be warned immediately for advice.
In an emergency it may be unrealistic to adhere strictly to the recommended dose

equivalent limits, which are recommended for normal working conditions. In an
emergency the RPO has to decide on special action including exposure or even
over-exposure if risks to human life are involved.
38 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following list gives the most important relevant references. It makes no claim
to cover all facts on protection against ionizing radiation, but it may for instance
help the Radiation Protection Adviser to find background information. The
bibliography also comprises subjects like transport and the handling or storage of
unsealed radioactive substances which are not, or only briefly, covered in the
Guide.
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has issued a number of

publications. These can be ordered from:
Publishing Section IAEA, Kärntner Ring II, P.O. Box 590, A-1011 Vienna,
Austria;
Her Majesty's Stationery Office, P.O. Box 569, London SE1, UK, or Unipub Inc.,
P.O. Box 433, New York, N.Y. 10016, USA.
The Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological

Protection (ICRP) cover several publications which can be ordered from;
Pergamon Press, Headington Hill Hall, Oxford OX3 OBW, UK, or Maxwell
House, Fairview Park, Elmsford, N.Y. 10523, USA.
1. "Living with radiation", issued by the National Radiological Protection Board,

Chilton, nr. Didcot, Oxon OX II ORQ, UK.
This publication covers radiation protection in a simple and clear way.
2. IAEA Safety Series No. 1 - Safe Handling of Radionuclides.
3. IAEA Safety Series Nos. 6 and 7 - Regulations for the Safe Transport of
Radioactive Materials.
4. IAEA Technical Reports Series No. 15 -A Basic Toxicity Classification of

Radionuclides.
5. ICRP Publication No. 5 - Handling and disposal of radioactive materials in

hospitals and medical research establishments.
6. ICRP Publication No. 26 (1977) - Recommendations for radiation protection.
This publication gives the basic recommendations and forms the basis of this
Guide.
7. ICRP Publication No. 27 (1977) - Problems involved in developing an index of

harm.
This publication discusses some risk assessments relevant to Publication No.
39 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
26.
8. ICRP Publication No. 30 (1979 - 1982).
This publication, which consists of several volumes, deals with unsealed

radioactive sources.
9. ICRP Publications Nos. 15 rod 21 (1971).
These publications give data for protection against ionizing radiation from
external sources.
10. "Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation (1977 report)" issued by the United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

(UNSCEAR).
United Nations Publication Sales No. E.77.IX.1, New York, USA.
In this publication information can be found with respect to natural sources of

radiation, medical irradiation and doses from occupational exposures. An
updated report was issued in 1982.
11. "Radiological Health Handbook", issued by the US Department of Health,

Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Bureau of Radiological Health,
Duckville, Maryland 20852, USA. Also sold by the US Government Printing
Office, Washington DC 20402, USA (stock No. 017-011-00043-0).
12. deleted document referencing to Shell publication
13. The Official Journal of the European Communities Series L246, Volume 23,
th
17 September, 1980. Official publications of the European Communities are
available from local offices in the member states or from the office for Official
Publications of the European Communities, P.O. Box 1003, Luxembourg.
14. Radiation Protection (Basic Safety Standards) Regulations, Atomic Energy

Licensing Act
40 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX A. BASIC CONSIDERATIONS, DEFINITION OF UNITS AND
CALCULATION EXAMPLES
A.1 INTRODUCTION ON UNITS
Although a certain transition period of dual use of units is acceptable, it is

recommended that the units of the "Système International d'Unités", the SI units,
be adopted and used in preference. Throughout the Guide, therefore, these SI units
have been employed; in a few instances the unit curie has additionally been used
(in parentheses) to ease quick comparisons with "old figures", because the
conversion factor is not a very "easy" one. In Section A.2 below the definitions of
the most important radiological quantities are given, making use of the SI units.
Subsequently, in Section A.3, the old units and their conversionfrom and to SI
units will be discussed.
A.2 SOME DEFINITIONS OF QUANTITIES IN RADIATION DOSIMETRY
A.2.1 Activity (also called Radioactivity or Strength).
The quantity of a radioactive substance is described by its activity, i.e. the rate at
which spontaneous decays occur in it. Activity is expressed in a unit called the
becquerel, symbol Bq. One becquerel corresponds to one disintegration of the
radionuclide per second.
A.2.2 Half-Life.
The time it takes a radionuclide to lose half its activity by decay is called the half-
life, symbol t ½.
A.2.3 Absorbed Dose.
Ionizing radiation cannot be detected directly by the human senses, but it can be
detected and measured by a variety of means, including photographic films,
ionization chambers, Geiger tubes and scintillation counters. Measurements made
with such detectors can be interpreted in terms of the radiation dose absorbed by
the body or by a particular part of the body. Absorbed dose is expressed in a unit
called the gray, symbol Gy. It is a measure of the energy imparted by ionizing
radiation to a unit mass of matter such as tissue. One gray corresponds to one
joule of energy per kilogramme of mass.
A.2.4 Dose Equivalent.
Equal absorbed doses do not necessarily have equal biological effects. For
instance, one gray of alpha radiation is more harmful to tissue than one gray of
beta radiation, because an alpha particle, being slower and more heavily charged,
loses its energy much more densely along its path. To put all ionizing radiation on
an equal basis as regards potential to cause harm, another quantity is introduced:
the dose equivalent. It is expressed in a unit named the sievert, symbol Sv. The
41 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
dose equivalent is equal to the absorbed dose multiplied by the quality factor (see
below). This factor takes into account the way a particular radiation distributes
energy in tissue, thus influencing its effectiveness in causing harm. For alpha
particles, for example, the factor is 20, i.e. a dose of one gray of alpha radiation
corresponds to a dose equivalent of 20 Sv.
A.2.5 Fluence Rate Or Flux.
This is the number of particles passing through a unit of cross-sectional area per
unit of time. It is usually expressed in a number of particles per cm² per second.
A.2.6 Quality factor.
The quality factor Q depends on a number of properties. The table below gives a
useful summary of the most important factors.
A.3 RELATIONS BETWEEN SI AND OLD UNITS
A.3.1 Activity
1 curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 nuclear transformations per second

= 3.7 x 1010 Bq
= 37 GBq.
A.3.2 Exposure,
i.e. the measure of the ionization in air produced by gamma or X radiation
1 röntgen (R) = exposure given by a radiation field that produces ionization,

due to secondary, electrons, of 1 electrostatic unit of charge per cm³ (NTP) of
-4
air = 2.58 x 10 C/kg.
Instead of exposure, it is nowadays more customary to use the "fluence rate" or

"flux".
A.3.3 Absorbed dose or Dose
1 rad = 100 erg per gramme = 0.01 J/kg

= 0.01 Gy.
42 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
1 rem = 0.01 Sv.
Some important relations have been summarized in the table below.
43 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Table A-2. Relations between old and SI radiologal unit
Useful conversions, utilizing the prefixes of the SI to absorb the powers of ten, are:
1 mCi = 37 MBq 1 GBq = 27.03 mCi
1 µCi = 37 kBq 1 kBq = 27.03 nCi
1 nCi = 37 Bq 1 Bq = 27.03 pCi
1 mR = 0.258 µC/kg 1 µC/kg = 3.88 mR
1 rad = 10 mGy 1 mrad = 10 µGy
1 rem = 10 mSv 1 mrem = 10 µSv
For ease of reference a table of prefixes is added below.
A.4 SOME FURTHER RELATIONS
Some relations between the above units are the following (the approximate nature
being indicated by W )
The absorbed dose in air caused by an exposure of 1 röntgen is 0.869 rad;

hence
1 R W .869 rad
or 1 rad W 1.151 R
Note that the above holds only exactly for air (see the definition of "röntgen"). For the irradiation of other matter a similar
relation obtains, modified by material constants, although for water and soft tissue approximately the same relationship
obtains.
44 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Similarly, the absorbed dose in air caused by an exposure of 1 C/kg is about
33.7 gray; hence
1 C/kg W 33.7 Gy
or 1 Gy W 0.0297 C/kg
A source of activity A (GBq) producing gamma quanta with an energy E

(MeV), in the range of 0.1 to 10 MeV, at a distance of r (m), causes an
absorbed dose of approximately
0.1 5 A x E/r² mGy/h
Likewise, in old units, a source of activity A (curie) producing such gammas, at

a distance r causes an absorbed dose of approximately
0.54 A x E/r² rad/h
The above source causes an exposure of
0.58 A x E/r² R/h
The latter two relations are often condensed in the following rule of thumb,
namely that both are approximately equal to
0.6 A x E/r² (old units per hour)
A.5 SHIELDING
The radiation most commonly emitted by radioactive substances consists of alpha

particles, beta particles, neutrons and gamma rays. Another type of radiation is X-
rays from X-ray equipment. With respect to shielding, these forms of radiation
have widely different properties.
A.5.1 Shielding Of - And X Rays
The most effective materials for shielding are the heavy elements. Lea d is most
commonly used, but tungsten and depleted uranium are also applied. For a first
approximation the attenuation of the radiation is exponential. To elucidate this, a
number of typical examples are worked out in Section A-6 below for a gamma
source and an X-ray machine.
A.5.2 Shielding Of Neutrons
Neutrons are most effectively shielded by light elements such as hydrogen, lithium
or boron. The process of neutron shielding is very complex and is beyond the
scope of this Guide. For shielding purposes it is important to know that neutrons,
owing to a nuclear reaction with hydrogen, produce W-radiation with a dose
equivalent sometimes even in excess of that of the neutrons.
45 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
The most frequently used shielding material is boronated polyethylene or any other
hydrogen-rich material, such as water. Measuring the effectiveness of a shield for
neutrons is complex and should be left to the specialist. A typical shield for a 0.05
GBq californium-252 source is 5 cm boronated polyethylene.
A.5.3 Shielding Of -Particles
Energies of alpha particles are almost all in the range of 4 to 6 MeV. Although the
energy of these particles is high, their penetrating power is very low. For instance
an W-particle emitted from an americium-241 source with an energy of 5.49 MeV
can effectively be stopped by 5 cm of air. The outer layer of the human skin is
sufficient to absorb alpha particles.
Substances emitting W-particles are potentially dangerous with respect to internal

contamination in the human body. The safeguards against W-emitters can
consequently be compared to those relating to toxic chemicals.
A.5.4 Shielding Of -Particles
The dose equivalent rate of an unshielded point source of 1 GBq is roughly 10

mSv/h at a distance of 1 m. The penetrating power of W-particles is considerably
higher than that of W-particles. A typical range in air is a few metres. The surface
dose equivalent rate from a beta source is high compared to that of most gamma
sources (for the latter see Table A- 4). However, only the skin and the eyes of a
nearby person would be exposed. Thus, the organs at risk are the eyes, where
cataract of the lens may result. As the shielding is effected by a few millimetres of
most materials, the use of spectacles is recommended if W-sources are being
handled.
A 2.5 mm thick aluminium plate absorbs W-particles 100%.
46 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
A.6 EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS
The following examples show how to calculate the dose rates and the required
shielding involved in the use of a certain radioactive substance and of an X-ray
machine.
Example 1a
What is the dose rate at 1 m distance from a cesium-137 source with a strength A of 5 Ci
(= 5 x 37 GBq)? It may be added that the cesium emits gamma radiation of 0.66 MeV,
with an efficiency of 85%.
9
In the source 5 x 37 x 10 disintegrations per second occur, thus giving rise to a flux of
Following the dashed line in Figure A-1 one reads that for the gamma radiation in question
there is a flux of 88000 photons per cm² per second, for each mGy/h; thus the dose rate is
calculated as
6
D = 1.25 x 10 mGy/h = 14.2 mgy/h
88,000
Note that the estimate by rule of thumb (in old units) would have been:
47 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
2 2
D = 0.6 AxE/r = 0.6 x 5 x 0.66/1 = 1.98 rad/h, i.e. 20 mgy/h; incorporating the efficiency
of 85% this yields 17 mGy/h. Instead of using Figure A-1 one could have made use of the
information of Table A-4, as follows:
For a source of 1 GBq of Cs-137, the table gives a dose equivalent rate of 77 µSv/h. Thus,
for the source under consideration, the dose equivalent rate would be 5 x 37 x 77 µSv/h =
14.2 mSv/h.
Considering that this concerns gamma radiation, for which the quality factor equals unity,
the above dose equivalent rate may be put equal to the dose rate, thus
D = 14.2 mGy/h.
Example 1b
What should be the dose rate at 5 cm distance from the source?
The rate being 14.2 mGy/h at 1 m, i.e. 100 cm, would at 5 cm be
100² / 5² x 14.2 = 5680 mGy/h = 5.68 Gy/h
Example 2
How much lead is necessary to shield the above source sufficiently, i.e. so as to comply
with the transport limit of 0.1 mGy/h at 1 m distance?
The required reduction, the "transmission", is

3
0.1/ 14.2 = 7.04 x 10
The dashed line in Figure A-2 shows that for such a transmission some 5 cm of lead would
be sufficient.
Example 3
An X-ray machine with a tungsten target operates at 200 kV and 5 mA. What is the dose
in the primary beam, at 1 m distance, for an exposure of 5 minutes?
Figure A-3, read at a lead thickness of 0 cm, indicates that the dose, for the 200 kV
inquestion, is 0.033 Gy, at 1 m distance, for every mA and minute of exposure. Thus, for
the case in question (5 mA, 5 minutes), the dose is
D = 0.033 x 5 x 5 = 0.825 Gy
Note the high level of this dose, as compared with the 14 mGy/h, i.e. 1.2 mGy in 5
minutes, of the cesium source mentioned earlier. The following example will show,
however, that shielding of X-ray equipment will be easier.
48 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Example 4
In the above operation (5 mA, 5 minutes), how much lead is required to shield a person at
1 m distance such that he will not receive more than 0.025 mGy per exposure?
Reverting to the 1 mA, 1 minute basis, the above dose limit is:
-3 -6
0.025 x 10 / 5 x 5 = 10 Gy/(mA.min.)
The dashed line in Figure A-3 shows that, for the 200 kV machine, 0.45 cm of lead will
suffice to achieve the dose limit. Note that this is about one tenth the amount required to
shield the cesium source. At the same time this points to the potential hazard connected
with the use of X-ray equipment; a relatively small leak in the shielding may cause a
considerable dose.
In addition, with X-ray equipment one has to think of the radiation dispersed by the
irradiated object. ICRP-21 gives more information on this subject. In general,
measurements are needed to show how the radiation field is distributed around the
machine.
49 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
FIG. A-1: THE RELATION BETWEEN THE FLUX OF PHOTONS RELATIVE
TO THE DOSE RATE, AS A FUNCTION OF THE PHOTON ENERGY (FROM
ICRP 21)
50 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
FIG. A-2: ATTENUATION BY LEAD OF THE GAMMA RADIATION OF SOME
TYPICAL RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
51 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
FIG. A-3: THE ABSORBED DOSE IN THE PRIMARY BEAM OF X-RAY
EQUIPMENT WITH AND WITHOUT LEAD SHIELDING (FROM ICRP 21)
52 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX B. COMMONLY USED RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES; THEIR
APPLICATION AND CLASSIFICATION
B.1 RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
The nuclides listed in Table B-1 are widely used throughout the Group for the
applications listed alongside them. They have been arranged in order of increasing
atomic weights. Their classification into toxicity groups is discussed below.
53 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
If applied as oil/gas field tracers or during facility performance test the radionuclides are
generally applied as open radioactivity (see Appendix K). This kind of application should
only be carried out by authorised institutes, e.g. one of the Group Research laboratories or
specialised contractors. In the remainder of the application the application the
radionuclides are utilised as sealed sources.
B.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
54 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
The most important parameter for the evaluation of the risk related to work with
radioactive substances is the risk of inhalation. An encapsulated radioactive source may
leak and upon opening a container particles may be inhaled and cause internal
contamination. ICRP-5 and IAEA 15 have classified the radionuclides in radiotoxicity
groups by comparing the "annual limits of intake" (ALI) by inhalation. This quantity is a
derived dose limit which is related to the dose limit of the whole-body as given in Section
3. 1.
If one ALI is inhaled a whole-body dose equivalent of 20 mSv may result following
internal contamination of the lungs, and other organs if the nuclide is transported to other
parts of the body. The total mass of the nuclide associated with one ALI is also taken into
consideration. For some radioactive substances it is most unlikely that one ALI can be
inhaled because of the large quantities involved. Table B-2 gives a survey of the
recommended classification.
Table B-2 indicates that some nuclides are extremely toxic and should be handled
with great care. It may also be observed that the relative toxicity of two subsequent
groups differs by roughly two orders of magnitude.
Table B-3 gives the resulting classification of nuclides as given by Euratom, June
1967. It is expected that some nuclides will be classified differently because of
new calculations of the ALIs as published in ICRP-60. The revised classification,
however, is not yet implemented in any local legislation.
The most toxic nuclides are the alpha emitters such as americium-241 and
californium-252. It is obvious that sources of these nuclides should have special
attention with respect to leakage (see Section 5.4.2.).
B.3 NON-RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
Substances which have a specific activity of less than 100 Bq (about 2 nCi) per
gramme are considered "non-radioactive material". The limit is 500 Bq/g for solid
55 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
materials containing naturally occurring radioactive nuclides only (uranium,
thorium. etc.). Substances may also be considered as "non-radioactive" if the total
activity does not exceed
5 kBq (0.1 µCi) for toxicity group 1

50 kBq ( 1 µCi) for toxicity group 2
500 kBq ( 10 µCi) for toxicity group 3
5 MBq (100 µCi) for toxicity group 4.
56 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
57 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
58 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
59 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX C. NATURAL BACKGROUND RADIATION
Man is continuously subjected to cosmic radiation and radiation from radioactive nuclides
present in the crust of the earth. Additionally, there are radioactive nuclides inside the
human body, which also contribute to a radiation dose.
The primary cosmic radiation is derived from our galactic system and from the sun. This
radiation reacts with the upper layers of the atmosphere in such a way that below 20 km
the radiation is entirely of a secondary nature. Hereby photons, neutrons and protons are
formed as well as other primary particles such as pions.
At sea level the dose equivalent rate is 0.28 mSv/a. At greater height, the dose equivalent
rate is considerably higher. At 1 km height the dose equivalent rate varies between 0.6 and
0.9 mSv/a and at 10 km between 14 and 45 mSv/a. Consequently, fairly large groups of
population is are subjected to twice to three times more intensive cosmic radiation than
other groups . In this respect it is of interest to note that air passengers receive yearly a
collective dose equivalent of 4000 man-sievert (based on approximately 109 passenger-
hours per annum). It is also of interest to note that the dose equivalent increases with the
degree of latitude. During the formation of the earth several radioactive substances were
incorporated into the earths crust, Some of the very long-lived nuclides are still present
(half-life in excess of 10 9 years); Typical examples are uranium-238 and - 235, thorium-
232 and potassium40. Additionally hydrogen-3, beryllium-7, carbon-14, and sodium-22
and -24 are continuously formed by interaction of cosmic radiation with the atmosphere of
the earth. All of these radioactive nuclides contribute to naturally occurring irradiation of
man. There is a large variation in the doses received at different locations from these
various background sources of radiation. A few typical examples are:
In Aberdeen the dose equivalent rates due to granite housing can exceed 1.5
mSv/a. This is caused by the relatively high amounts of uranium and thorium
present in granite.
In Kerala (India) the average dose equivalent rate for a population of 70 000 is
estimated to be 3.8 mSv/a. This high radiation level is caused by a relatively
high concentration of naturallyoccurring radioactive nuclides in the earth.
A special case is presented by the radioactive noble gases radon and thoron (and their
decay products) which are formed from naturally occurring uranium and thorium, present
in building materials such as concrete or brick. These noble gases can be inhaled and,
combined with their radioactive decay products, deposited in the respiratory system.
An extensive discussion of all effects of naturally occurring radiation can be found in the
UNSCEAR reports; a summary of the most significant radiation sources is given in Table
C-1.
These data show that the average dose equivalent rate of man is estimated to be 1.6 mSv/a.
Table C-2 gives some information on radiation exposure of the general public, including
some nonnatural sources. If exposure from medical sources, i.e. X-ray examinations, is
added to the 1.6 mSv/a, a total of about 3 mSv is found.
60 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Table C-1. Estimated dose equivalent rates from natural sources in normal areas in
mSv/a (UNSCEAR, 1977)
61 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX D. SUMMARY OF BASIC CONSIDERATION ON HAZARDS
RELATED TO IONIZING RADIATION
RADIATION - WHAT IT INVOLVES
Radiation is a fact of life. It occurs in nature (see Appendix C) and it can be produced
artificially. Radiation producing ionization in matter is called "ionizing radiation";
examples are:
X rays and γ-rays
particle emission ( α, ß, n)
Soon after the discovery of ionizing radiation at the beginning of this century it was found
that it could be harmful to man. Although the knowledge of effects caused by radiation
has increased considerable (over the last decades there is still a limited insight in the field
of genetic effects and tumour induction at low dose rates. The main problem is that effects
of radiation cannot be distinguished from those occurring spontaneously and it is
therefore difficult to collect statistically significant data on low radiation doses.
Radiation exposure may have various detrimental effects on the human organism. These
effects are called "somatic" if they become manifest in the exposed person and "genetic"
if they affect descendants.
Effects are called "stochastic" if the probability that an effect will occur is a function of the
dose, without a threshold. According to ICRP-26, for protection purposes it is reasonable
to assume a linear relationship in the low dose ranges under consideration. Effects are
called "non-stochastic" if the severity is a function of the dose. For these effects a
threshold is assumed to exist.
At the dose range involved in radiation protection, genetic effects are regarded as being
stochastic. Some somatic effects are stochastic; of these, carcinogenesis is considered to
be the chief detrimental effect of low-dose radiation.
Some non-stochastic somatic effects are specific to particular tissues, for example
eye lens : cataract,
skin : non-malignant change,
bone marrow : haematological changes,
gonads : impairment of fertility.
A review of several non-stochastic effects at high doses is given in Table G-1 (Appendix
G).
For the changes referred to above it is likely that there is a dose threshold below which no
detrimental effects are seen. For practical radiation protection purposes it is essential that
62 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
the dose ranges are well below these thresholds.
Stochastic effects are much more difficult to assess than non-stochastic effects.
Information on these effects is obtained from the development of cancer in man from the
nuclear explosions in Japan, and from data on persons who have received radiation
treatment for certain illnesses, and on children who received prenatal radiation as a result
of diagnostic X-ray examination of the mother.
Examples of occupation-related stochastic effects, induced by ionizing radiation, are bone

cancer in the watch making industry, caused by radium or thorium used for luminous
dials, and the incidence of lung cancer as a result of inhaling the radioactive noble gas
radon in certain mines.
Available information on the risk of the induction of leukaemia and tumours in various
mammalian and human organs, however, is limited. The data show that risk of cancer
increases after a certain latency period. For leukaemia this period is approximately ten
years, although among the survivors of the atomic explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki
in 1945 a peak was reached after six years. 25 years after the radiation the frequency had
dropped to a value which no longer differs from the "spontaneous" frequency. For other
malignancies the period of enhanced risk is probably longer.
It is well known that there is a considerable difference in sensitivity to ionizing radiation

between various organs of the human body. Especially sensitive are red bone marrow for
leukaemia induction and he gonads for genetic effects. Yellow bone marrow of the bones
of the extremities and skin are far less sensitive, Consequently the distribution of a
radiation dose over the body strongly influences the risk. ICRP-60 recommends a
weighting procedure to account for the difference in sensitivity between organs. Because
mainly external radiation sources are concerned (i.e. X-ray equipment, gamma sources,
etc.) this Guide assumes all exposures to be "whole-body" exposures. This is in general a
conservative assumption.
THE QUANTIFICATION OF "RISK" RELATED TO RADIOLOGICAL WORK
ICRP-60 has listed risk factors as the number of deaths per unit of dose equivalent
(sievert) based upon the estimated likelihood of inducing fatal malignant disease, non-
stochastic changes or substantial genetic defects manifesting themselves in liveborn,
descendants. For the purpose of radiation protection not including unsealed radioactive
sources the non-stochastic effects are of limited importance as we are dealing with low
dose rates. In this range of dose rates it is assumed that there is a linear relation between
the received dose equivalent and the risk (which is of a completely stochastic nature). This
assumption is most likely conservative for low levels of ionizing radiation, as it excludes
the existence of a "threshold dose" below which no effects are assumed to be present.
Table D-1 gives the risk factors as estimated by ICRP-60 for stochastic effects.
As can be observed from this table each tissue or organ contributes a certain fraction of the
total risk factor of 16.5 x 10.³ deaths/sievert for exposure of the whole body. The risk
factor for serious genetic defects is included because such injury might well be considered
63 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
as important as a fatal injury to the exposed person himself.
The values are intended for application to an average individual regardless of age and sex,
which is of course a simplification . If a person receives a dose late in life, a cancer may
not have time to express itself' before that person dies of another cause. The risk of breast
cancer is virtually zero for men and twice the tabulated value (5 x 10³ deaths/sievert) for
women.
On the average the overall risk factor for cancer is estimated to be 12.5 x 10³
deaths/sievert (i.e. 1 death per 80 sievert not including genetic risks). With this
information it is possible to calculate the stochastic risk associated with radiological work.
As far as external radiation sources are concerned non- stochastic effects are in general not
of importance if the dose equivalent limits for stochastic effects are adhered to. A possible
exception concerns the eye lens, for which a non-stochastic limit of 150 mSv/a obtains.
In Chapter 3 it was recommended that a radiological worker should not be exposed to a

dose equivalent exceeding 50 mSv/a and the average dose over several years should not
exceed 5 mSv/a. In the UK it has been estimated that the average dose equivalent to a
radiological worker is about 4 mSv/a. A way to judge the effectiveness of the proposed
system of radiation protection is to compare the average risk of fatal cancers with the
annual risk of fatal accidents in other occupations. The assumption made in Table D-2 is
-3
that a radiological worker receives 4 mSv/a with a risk factor for fatal cancer of 12.5 x 10
per sievert, i.e. the total non-genetic risk factor arrived at in Table D-1. Hence,the risk will
be
-3 -1 -5
4 mSv/a x 12.5 x 10 SV = 5.0 x 10 a-1.
Thus, when recommendations are adhered to, radiological workers have a similar risk as
"timber and furniture workers", who are normally regarded as working in relatively safe
industries.
These data illustrate why exposure to 50 mSv/a over several years might prove
unacceptable. This would evoke a risk of
-3 -4
50 mSv/a x 12.5 x 10 SV-1 = 6.25 x 10 a-1 .
Referring to the data presented in Appendix C it is of interest to note that the limit for the
average occupational exposure of 5 mSv/a is about twice the exposure of the public at
large to natural background radiation and medical examination, which was estimated to be
3 mSv/a.
64 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Table D-2. Average annual risk of death in the UK from accident in various
industries and from cancers potentially induced among radiological worker ("Living
with radiation")
65 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX E. Example of work permit
66 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
67 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX F. RECOMMENDED TRAINING AND COURSES
68 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
69 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
70 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
71 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
72 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX G. MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE
A Medical Officer should be available if radiological work in accordance with the criteria
of Section 3.2 is to be carried out. As this Guide does not cover radiological work with
radioactive substances which could result in internal contamination, medical surveillance
for such work is not discussed.
The tasks of the Medical Officer will include performing medical examinations, deciding
on suspension from radiological work after exposure and keeping of medical records.
Medical examinations should be performed on all persons who will be classified as
radiological workers prior to their starting such work. The pre-placement medical
examination should include:
A complete medical history and occupational history, including all previous

exposures to ionizing radiation,
A clinical examination.
Haematological examination including
white cell and thrombocyte counts,
differential white count,
haemoglobin estimations,
o haematocrit.
A review of a radiological worker's health should be carried out when deemed necessary
by the Medical Officer, taking into account the nature and extent of exposure to ionizing
radiation and the worker's state of health.
The Medical Officer will decide when radiological workers
should be suspended from radiological work,

may resume such work,
taking into account the estimated radiation dose received and the worker's state of
health.
Medical records and exposure records should be kept under the responsibility of
the Medical Officer in the medical department of the OPU/JV. These records
should at least contain:
the nature and type of ionizing radiation work carried out,
the results of radiation monitoring,
the results of pre-placement and repeat medical examinations,
details on morbidity.
The records should be kept permanently and should not be destroyed after the worker has
ceased radiological work or left employment. As discussed in Appendix D distinction is
made between stochastic and non-stochastic effects caused by ionizing radiation.
Stochastic effects occur seve ral years after exposure and can only be observed in large
groups of workers. The only examples of occupationally induced stochastic effects may be
the case reported in ICRP 32 whereby miners were exposed to high concentrations of
radon (gaseous daughter of uranium-238 and thoron-232), and the induction of bone
cancer by luminous dial paint in the watch-making industry. Medical examination for
73 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
stochastic effects is therefore irrelevant to work encountered in PETRONAS companies.
As shown in Table G-1 non-stochastic health effects can be expected only after massive
over-exposure. The emphasis of surveillance should therefore lie on the scrupulous
monitoring and control of radiation exposure. Only after an over-exposure has been
established is medical examination recommended.
74 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX H. EXAMPLE OF REGISTRATION CARD FOR RADIOACTIVE
SUBSTANCES
75 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
76 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX I. CONTROLLED AREA AND WARNING SIGNS
To prevent unauthorized persons entering the fenced off area, warning signs should be
placed on all approach routes. Examples of standards for this purpose are:
ISO-R361, or the equivalent national standard (Figure I-1).
As long as international signs have not been adopted it is recommended that the trefoil
symbol, as detailed below, be used.
Warning signs should be used to stake out the place where radioactive substances are
being used, and on vehicles during transportation of radioactive substances.
Figure I-1. Warning sign
The minimum dimensions of the warning sign are as indicated in Figure I-1. When larger
dimensions are used the relative proportions must apply.
Colours:
Trefoil and borders of triangle
- Black Background
- PETRONAS Standard Yellow 4 or Yellow described in above-
77 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
mentioned standard(s)
78 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX J. THE UNSCEAR REFERENCE DISTRIBUTION FOR
OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE AND THE CLASSIFICATION WORKING
CONDITIONS IN CATEGORIES A AND B
The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation

(UNSCEAR) has published a considerable amount of data which shows that the majority
of radiological workers receive very low doses. Doses over the recommended limits were
found to be extremely rare in most working conditions, with a few notable exceptions,
such as industrial radiography and uranium mining.
From published data on exposures to ionizing radiation it may be expected that doses in
groups of workers follow a log-normal distribution. Such a distribution is not peculiar to
ionizing radiation exposures but occurs in a variety of other "populations'(*).
For the evaluation of a distribution of doses among radiological workers UNSCEAR has
proposed a reference distribution with the following characteristics:
- The distribution of annual doses is log-normal.

- The mean of the annual dose equivalent is 5 mSv, which is one tenth of the
ICRP whole-body dose equivalent limit of 50 mSv.
- The percentage of workers exceeding the dose equivalent limit of 50 mSv
is 0.1.
Figure J-1 shows the reference distribution. lt is, however, customary to give the
distribution as a straight line by plotting the logarithm of the annual dose equivalent on the
horizontal axis and the cumulative frequency on the vertical axis, as shown in Figure J-2.
From this figure it can be seen that 66.8% of the exposed population receives an annual
dose equivalent between 0 and 5 mSv, 95.6% between 0 and 15 mSv and (by definition)
99.9% between 0 and 50 mSv.
A somewhat different way of giving these numbers is by stating that, statistically, only one
individual out of 23 will receive a dose equivalent rate in excess of 15 mSv/a and one out
of 1000 will receive a dose equivalent rate in excess of 50 mSv/a.
The reference distribution of UNSCEAR has been compared with a number of actual
distributions of radiological workers as they occur in the Netherlands, and the results are
also shown in Figure J-2.
- Distributions of large populations (N between 300 and 1200) show

approximately the same slope as that of the reference distribution, although
the dose scales may differ considerably.
- Small populations of workers doing very similar type of work are
represented by curves with a steeper slope and sometimes high dose rates.
(*) The word "population" is frequently used in statistics and denotes a group of similar
objects, for example, the droplets in an aerosol, the while cells in a blood sample, the
people of a country, the radiological worker in an industry.
79 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
- By isolating subgroups out of a larger population it is sometimes possible to produce
small populations with relatively high dose rates, showing curves with a steeper slope.
Typical examples are the curves A a' a" and B b' (a" is a subgroup of a', and a' of A,
etc.).
- The reference distribution forms a division between subgroups with high dose rates
and larger populations with lower average doses.
Referring to Section 3.2 we may use the UNSCEAR reference distribution to give a firmer
definition of the working conditions A and B. The decision whether to regard a
radiological worker as working in condition A is related to the expression "might exceed"
an annual dose of three tenths of the dose limit. For working conditions B the expression
"most unlikely" is used with reference to that dose limit. Note that three tenths of the dose
equivalent limit for whole-body exposure equals 15 mSv.
It seems realistic to translate the words "might exceed" into a "probability of exceeding" a
(three tenths of the dose) limit by a few percent. Given the situation that a reference
distribution has been defined we may choose 4.4% 100% - 95.6%) as a reasonable
probability of exceeding such a limit.
Working conditions A are then defined as conditions in which a group of workers is

exposed to radiation doses with such a distribution that one or more points fall in the
region A as shown in Figure J-3. In the same way working conditions B are also shown.
Figure J-3 also shows an area where working conditions of non-radiological workers can
be found. For these groups there is only a probability of 4.4% of exceeding a radiation
dose of three hundredths of the dose limit and 0.1% of exceeding one tenth of the dose
limit (i.e. 1.5 and 5 mSv/a, respectively).
The following procedure for dividing radiological workers into categories is

recommended:
A larger population of radiological workers should be investigated to see whether

subgroups can be found which receive larger doses in a special working condition
than does the total group.
The doses of the total group or subgroups should be plotted on a log-normal
diagram as shown in Figures J-2 and J-3. Figure J-3 is divided into areas defining
non-radiological work and working conditions A and B.
If one or more points of a distribution fall in area A the total group of workers is
classified as working in conditions A. The same holds, mutatis mutandis, for non-
radiological work and conditions B.
According to these rules, as shown in Figure J-2 the workers represented by distribution a',
a", b' and C are classified as A workers and those represented by the distributions A and B
as B workers.
In most practical cases it is difficult to obtain sufficient data to make a complete log-
normal diagram of a group of workers. In that case an average annual dose may be used. It
80 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
is then assumed that the slope of the log-normal plot of the group is represented by the
slope of the reference distribution. The following simplified rules are then obtained:
Working conditions A are conditions in which workers receive an average annual

dose equivalent of one tenth of the limit or more, i.e. W5 mSv/a.
Working conditions B are conditions in which workers receive an average annual
dose equivalent of less than one tenth but more than one hundredth of the limit, i.e.
< 5 and W0.5 mSv/a.
Some typical examples of working conditions for occupational exposures are given in
Table J-1. Twocategories of direct importance to the oil industry are well logging and
radiography. On the basis of Figure J-2 and Table J-1 it is recommended that workers in
these categories be considered A workers.
It should be noted that all these considerations are based on data with respect to external
dose registration. In principle the same consideration as outlined in this appendix also
holds for workers using unsealed radioactive sources. In this case there is also a risk of
internal contamination. Because the frequency of occurrence of such incidents is
extremely low in practice no statistical data can be collected. It is recommended that work
in high-level-radiation laboratories and corresponding tracer work in the field for
Exploration and Production purposes be classified as failing under working conditions A.
81 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
FIG. J 1: THE UNSCEAR REFERENCE DISTRIBUTION FOR OCCUPATIONAL
EXPOSURE
82 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
FIG. J-2: TYPICAL EXAMPLES OF A NUMBER OF OCCUPATIONALLY
EXPOSED POPULATIONS AND ASSOCIATED SUBGROUPS IN THE
NETHERLANDS
83 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
84 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
FIG. J-3: THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN NON-RADIOLOGICAL WORK AND
WORKING CONDITIONS "A" AND "B"
85 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
APPENDIX K. SOME GUIDANCE FOR THE USE OF UNSEALED
RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
K.1 INTRODUCTION
Unsealed radioactive substances should not be used for routine purposes. Their use
is normally limited to tracer experiments, only to be carried out by specialized
personnel from either Group Research Laboratories or contractors being in the
possession of special permits.
In view of the complexity of the subject, this appendix will not attempt to be
complete in its recommendations. It should be considered as indicative for the
special problems involved in the use of unsealed radioactive substances for
industrial tracer experiments.
Explicit permission by the RAC is required to 'perform any tracer experiment.
K.2 LIMITATION OF UNSEALED RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
For tracer experiments with unsealed sources, only radioactive substances

belonging to the toxicity groups 2, 3 and 4 should be allowed, provided that no
alpha rays are emitted. For a further description of these groups see Appendix B.
Table K-1 gives recommended maximumactivity levels to be applied for tracer
tests. It is recommended that short- lived tracer material be used whenever
possible. Tracer tests for reservoir studies in oil and gas fields are not covered in
the table.
86 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
K.3 STORAGE
In view of their special nature, further to the guidelines as stipulated in Section

5.2.2, additional precautions should be taken for the storage of unsealed
radioactive substances. Special containers should be provided for such storage to
prevent not only radiation hazards but also radioactive contamination. If the source
is in fluid form, the fluid should be surrounded by material with a surplus
absorbing capacity of 100%. Sources in gaseous form should be contained in
seated containers, designed to withstand the foreseeable pressure.
For further detailed information on storage and transport see IAEA 6 and 7 (see
Chapter 7).
K.4 HANDLING AND PERSONAL PROTECTION
In view of their special nature, potential hazards such as external contamination,

skin penetration, ingestion or inhalation should be considered in addition to the
usual radiation hazards of sealed radioactive substances.
All operations should be planned so that the uncontrolled spread or dispersal of

radioactive material will be limited. The extent of the precautions to be taken will
depend on various factors such as the nature of the operation, the total activity,
radiotoxicity and other chemical and physical properties of the radioactive
substances. In all cases materials of the lowest possible specific activity and
87 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
toxicity should be selected.
The variety of factors to be considered for the handling and personal protection in
the use of unsealed radioactive substances makes the subject one of high
specialization, thus putting it outside the scope of this Guide. Requests for further
information on these aspects should be directed to the Functional focal point for
safety matters in the appropriate Service Company.
K.5 LIMITS ON CONTAMINATION
In the use of unseated radioactive substances precautions should be taken against

both external and internal contamination. In each radiological area using unsealed
substances suitable monitoring equipment should be present.
K.5.1. Maximum Permissible Levels For Surface Contamination
Table K-2 shows recommended maximum permissible levels for surface

contamination. Decontamination procedures for contaminated surfaces should be
continued until the residual contamination of the surface is reduced to an
acceptable level.
K.5.2. Methods Permissible Levels For Surface Contamination
Since the danger of unsealed radioactivity eventually being absorbed into the body
is often the most critical one, the decontamination procedures are primarily
concerned in avoiding, as far as possible, the spread of the contamination to
uncontaminated parts of the body.
As a rule, the immediate washing of contaminated areas with tepid water and soap
is the first choice. The soap should not be abrasive nor highly alkaline. Washing
should be done for a few minutes at a time, followed by drying and monitoring. If
necessary this sequence should be repeated.
88 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Table K-2. Recommended maximum permissible levels for surface contamination in
Bq/cm²
While decontaminating the face, special care should be taken to avoid

contamination of eyes or lips. Decontamination of the eyes should be undertaken
immediately, for which purpose a suitable basin for eye washing and appropriate
medically approved solutions for irrigation should be provided. Every case of
contamination of the eyes should be submitted to medical surveillance.
If contamination cannot be removed by washing, further attempts should be made

under medical supervision only.
The preferred use of short-lived tracer material has been mentioned above. In these
cases decontamination can be established by observing a waiting period. For
example if a tracer is used with a half-life of two hours, a contaminated surface is
in general clean the next day.
K.5.3 Maximum Permissible Product And Effluent Contamination
In general there is little waste associated with tracer experiments because of the
small quantities used and the short half-life of the unsealed radioactive substances
employed.
Table K-3 should be considered as indicative only of the order of magnitude in

which contamination of product and waste effluent might be allowed in the case of
industrial tracer experiments.
89 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
90 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
GLOSSARY
Absorbed dose See Dose.
The process by which radiation imparts some or all of its
Absorption energy
to any material through which it passes.
Activity The quantity of a radionuclide, described by the number of
nuclear transformations occurring in a given quantity of
material
per unit time (see becquerel and curie).
A charged particle emitted from the nucleus of an atom
Alpha particle having a
mass and charge equal in magnitude to that of a helium
nucleus,
i.e. two protons and two neutrons.
Deficiency of blood as a whole, or deficiency in the number
Anaemia of
the red cells or of the haemoglobin.
The process by which a beam of radiation is reduced in
Attenuation intensity
when passing through some material. It is the combination
of
absorption and scattering processes and leads to a decrease
in
flux density of the beam when projected through matter.
Also
called: Transmission.
The SI unit of activity. One becquerel (symbol Bq) equals
Becquerel one
nuclear transformation per second.
Charged particle emitted from the nucleus of an atom, with
a mass and charge equal in magnitude to that of the
Beta particle electron.
A clouding of the lens of the eye which obstructs the
Cataract passage of light.
Collective dose See Dose.
Contamination (Radioactive - Deposition of radioactive material in any place where it is
) not
desired particularly where its presence may be harmful. The
harm may be in initiating an experiment or a procedure, or
in
actually being a source of danger to personnel.
A defined area in which the occupational exposure of
Controlled area personnel
(to radiation) is under the supervision of the Safety Adviser.
Cosmic rays High-energy particulate and electromagnetic radiation
91 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
which
originates outside the earth's atmosphere.
A glass or metal envelope containing a gas and two
Counter (Geiger-Müller) electrodes.
Ionizing radiation causes discharges, which are registered
as
electric pulses in a counter. The number of pulses is related
to
the dose.
A similar device as a Geiger-Müller counting tube; the
Counter (Proportional -) intensity of
the electric pulses produced is proportional to the energy of
the
primary ionizing particles.
Counter (Scintillation -) A device containing material that emits light flashes when
exposed to ionizing radiation. The flashes are converted
into
electric pulses by a photo-multiplier.
The pre-SI unit of activity. One curie (abbreviated Ci) 10
Curie equals
3.7 x 10 nuclear transformations per second i.e. it equals 37
gigabecquerel.
Daughter (product) Synonym for decay product.
Decay (Radioactive-) Disintegration of the nucleus of an unstable nuclide by

spontaneous emission of charged particles and/or 'Photons. The
decrease in activity of radioactive substance.
Decay constant See Disintegration constant.
Decay product A nuclide or radionuclide resulting from the radioactive
disintegration of a radionuclide, formed either directly or as the
result of successive transformations in a radioactive series.
Detector (Radiation-) Any device for converting radiant energy to a form more
suitable for observation. An instrument used to determine the
presence, and sometimes the amount, of radiation.
Disintegration (Nuclear-) A spontaneous nuclear transformation (radioactivity)

characterized by the emission of energy and/or mass from the
nucleus. When numbers of nuclei are involved, the process is
characterized by a definite half-life.
Dose A general form denoting the quantity of radiation or energy
92 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
absorbed. For special purposes it must be appropriately
qualified. If unqualified, it refers to absorbed dose.
Absorbed dose The amount of energy imparted to matter by ionizing (symbol
D) radiation per unit mass of irradiated material at the place of
interest (see Gray).
Collective dose Frequently used for collective effective dose equivalent.
Collective effective dose equivalent The quantity obtained by multiplying the average
effective dose equivalent by the numbers of persons exposed
to a given source of radiation. Expressed in man-sievert.
Frequently abbreviated to collective dose.
Cumulative dose - The total dose resulting from repeated exposures to (radiation)
radiation.
Dose equivalent (symbol H) A quantity used in radiation protection. It expresses all
radiation on a common scale for calculating the effective
absorbed dose such that biological effects can be compared . It
is defined as the product of the absorbed dose and the quality
factor (see Quality factor and Sievert).
Effective dose equivalent The quantity obtained by multiplying the dose equivalents to
various tissues and organs by the risk weighting factor
appropriate to each and summing the product. This procedure
makes it possible to compare this number with a whole-body
dose equivalent.
Maximum Permissible Dose equivalent (MPD). The greatest dose equivalent that a person
or specified part thereof shall be allowed to receive in a given
period of time. This quantity has been rejected in ICRP 26.
Threshold (dose) - The minimum absorbed dose that will produce a detectable
degree of any given effect.
Dosemeter Instrument to detect and measure ionizing radiation. For
example, a pencil- size ionization chamber with a self-
reading electrometer, used for personnel monitoring.
Dose rate (symbol D') Absorbed dose delivered per unit of time.
Dosimetry Determination of cumulative radiation dose with
(photographic-) photographic film and density measurement.
Electron An elementary particle having a negative electric charge of
1.60210 x 10-19 C and a rest mass of 9.1091 X 10 -31kg.
Electronvolt A unit of energy equivalent to the energy gained by an
electron in passing through a potential difference of one volt
(abbreviated: eV, 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 joule).
Erythema Redness of the skin due to distension of the capillaries.
Exposure A measure of the ionization produced in air by X or W-
radiation (see Röntgen).
Film badge A pack of photographic film which measures radiation
exposure for personnel monitoring. The badge may contain
two or three films of differing sensitivity and filters to shield
parts of the film from certain types of radiation.
93 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
The number of particles passing through a unit cross-
Fluence
sectional area.
Flux (fluence rate or flux density) The number of particles passing through a unit cross-
sectional area per unit of time (fluence per unit of time).
Gamma ray Short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation of nuclear origin
(range of energy from 10 keV to 9 MeV) emitted from the
nucleus.
Geiger tube See Counter (Geiger- Muller).
Genetic effect of Inheritable change, produced by the absorption of ionizing
radiation radiation.
Gonad An organ producing reproductive cells in humans and
animals; testis and ovary.
Gray The unit of absorbed dose. One gray (symbol Gy) equals one
joule per kilogramme.
Half-life (Radioactive-) (Symbol t½ ) Time required for a radioactive substance to
lose half of its activity by decay. Each radionuclide has a
unique half-life.
Ionizing radiation Radiation that produces ionization in matter. Examples are
aloha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, X rays and
neutrons.
Irradiation Exposure to radiation.
Isotopes Nuclides having the some number of protons in their nuclei,
and hence the same atomic number, but differing in the
number of neutrons, and therefore in the mass number.
Almost identical chemical properties exist between isotopes
of a particular element. The term should not be used as a
synonym for nuclide.
Joule The unit for work and energy, equal to one Newton expended
along a distance of one metre (1J = IN x 1m).
Leukaemia A usually fatal disease characterized by overproduction of
white blood cells.
Man-sievert See Collective effective dose equivalent.

Periodic or continuous determination of the amount of ionizing
Monitoring radiation or radioactive contamination present.
Monitoring of the radiation level or contamination of a particular
Area- area, building, room, or equipment.
Personal- Monitoring any part of an individual, his breath, or excretions, or
any part of his clothing.
Mutation sudden alteration of the hereditary pattern.
NDT Non-destructive testing
Neutron An elementary particle with unit atomatic mass approximately,
and no electric charge.
Newton The unit of force, which when applied to a mass of one
kilogramme will give it an acceleration of one metre per second
94 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
per second (1 N = 1 kg x 1 M/ 1 S²).
Nuclide A species of atom characterized by the number of protons and
neutrons, and the energy content.
Order of magnitude Quantity given to the nearest power of ten.
A radionuclide which, upon disintegration, yields a specified
Parent nuclide - either directly, or, as a later member of a radioactive
series.
A certain quantity of electromagnetic energy, having a
Photon particulate
character.
Proton Elementary nuclear particle with a positive electric charge equal
numerically to the charge of the electron and unit atomic mass
approximately.
Quality factor (Q) The factor by which absorbed doses are multiplied to obtain (for
radiation protection purposes) a quantity that expresses - on a
common scale for all types of ionizing radiation - the biological'
effectiveness of the absorbed dose.
Rad The pre-SI unit of absorbed dose; equal to 0.01 J/kg (see Gray).
(1) The emission and propagation of energy through space or
Radiation through a material medium in the form of waves; for instance,
the emission and propagation of electromagnetic waves, or of
sound and elastic waves.
(2) The energy propagated through space or through a material
medium as waves; for example, energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves or of elastic waves. The term radiation or
radiant energy, when unqualified, usually refers to
electromagnetic radiation. Such radiation commonly is
classified, according to frequency, as hertzian, infra-red, visible
(light), ultraviolet, X-ray, and W ray (see Photon).
(3) By extension, corpuscular emissions, such as W- and W-
radiation, or rays of mixed or unknown type, as cosmic
radiation.
Background - Radiation arising from radioactive material other than the one
directly under consideration. Background radiation due to cosmic
rays and natural radioactivity is always present. There may also
be background radiation due to the presence of radioactive
substances in other parts of the building, in the building material
itself, etc.
External - Radiation from a source outside the human body.
Internal - Radiation from a source within the body (as a result of potassium
40 or deposition of radionuclides in body tissues).
ionizing - See Ionizing radiation.
95 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Primary - The useful beam of X-ray equipment.
Scattered - Radiation which during its passage through a substance, has
been deviated in direction. It may also have been modified by a
decrease in energy.
Radioactivity The property of certain nuclides of spontaneously emitting
particles or electromagnetic radiation.
Radiography Photography with the use of ionizing radiation.
Radionuclide An unstable nuclide that emits ionizing radiation.
Rem The pre-SI unit of dose equivalent; equal to 0.01 J/kg (see
Sievert).
In connection with ionizing radiation, the probability of cancer
Risk factor and
leukaemia or genetic damage per unit dose equivalent. Usually
refers to fatal malignant diseases and serious genetic damage
Expressed in Sv-1.
Röntgen (R) The pre-SI unit of exposure. One röntgen is the dose given by a
radiation field that produces ionization, due to secondary
electrons, of one electrostatic unit of charge per cm³ (NTP) of air.
It is equal to 2.58 x 10-4 coulomb per kilogramme of air.
Sealed substance (or
A radioactive substance sealed in an impervious container which
source)
has sufficient mechanical strength to prevent contact with and
dispersion of the radioactive substance under the conditions of
use and wear for which it was designed.
Series (Radioactive-) A succession of nuclides, each of which transforms by
radioactive disintegration into the next until a stable nuclide
results. The first member is called the "parent", the intermediate
members are called "daughters", and the final stable member is
called the "end product".
Shield A body of material used to prevent or reduce the passage of
particles or radiation.
Abbreviation of "Système International d'Unités", the
SI International
System of units, recommended for general use.
Sievert The unit of (effective) dose equivalent. The sievert (symbol Sv)
has the dimension of joule per kilogramme. The dose equivalent
in sieverts is numerically equal to the absorbed dose in grays
multiplied by the quality factor (see Gray and Quality factor).
Total activity of a given nuclide per unit mass of the specific
Specific activity
material.
96 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006
Tracer (Isotopic -) The isotope or non-natural mixture of isotopes of an element
which may be incorporated into a sample to permit observation of
the course of that element, alone or in combination, through a
chemical, biological, or physical process.
Transmission See Attenuation.
Tritium The hydrogen isotope with one proton and two neutrons in the
nucleus. (Symbol: 3 H or H-3, sometimes T). 1
X rays Electromagnetic radiation of which the wave lengths are shorter
than those of visible light. They are usually produced by
bombarding a metallic target with fast electrons in a high
vacuum, as occurs in an X-ray machine.
97 PTS 60.1507.01
JUNE 2006

60.1507.01 Ionizing Radiation

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

60.1507.01 Ionizing Radiation

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

PETRONAS TECHNICAL STANDARDS

HEALTH, SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENT

The right to use PTS rests with three categories of users:

1) PETRONAS and its affiliates

3) Contractors/subcontractors and Manufacturers/Suppliers under a contract with

APPENDIX Basic considerations, definition of units and calculation examples

This Guide contains recommendations for protective measures against ionizing

The Guide is set out in three main sections:

Chapter 2 gives a summary of recommendations and serves as an information brief

The Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological

- should be suspended from radiological work

- could resume such work;

- review the state of health of radiological workers when considered necessary,

STORAGE AND TRANSPORT

Radioactive substances should be kept in specially designed containers with proper

X-ray equipment should be provided with a lock on the main circuit.

If damage or corrosion of radiation sources is found or leakage suspected, the Radiation

2.1 BASIC RULES

The following basic rules (given in Publication No. 26 of the International

- No practice shall be adopted unless its introduction produces a positive net

- All exposures shall be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable (2), economic

2.2 DOSE LIMITS

The recommended occupational dose limits are:

- Individuals below the age of 18 years should not be involved in radiological

- The average annual dose equivalent received during employment as a

Any person who may be occupationally exposed to a dose equivalent exceeding 5

A person classified as a radiological worker should be medically examined before

Working conditions should be classified in two categories according to whether a

- might be exceeded (Category A),

- is most unlikely to be exceeded (Category B).

- well logging operations with radioactive sources or neutron generators;

- non-destructive testing (NDT) with gamma sources or high-voltage X-ray

The dose rate received by a radiological worker should be measured using

(1) Cost-benefit principle.

(2) ALARA principle.

(4) These recommendations correspond to those of ICRP 26 and the European

Persons working in conditions A should be subject to strict individual monitoring.

Radiation Advisory Committee (RAC)

At OPU/JV where radioactive substances are handled or where equipment is

the names of all radiological workers;

equipment producing ionizing radiation;

test data and inspection measurements;

the purchase and disposal of radioactive substances.

Radioactive substances or equipment producing ionizing radiation should be

The Radiation Protection Officer (RPO)

The Radiation Protection Officer should

be trained in radiation hygiene and have knowledge of all local regulations on

advise the RAC which persons should be classified as radiological workers

be in charge of the implementation of the safety measures, personal protection

The Medical Officer

The Medical Officer should

* should be suspended from radiological work

* could resume such work;

review the state of health of radiological workers when he considers necessary,

STORAGE AND TRANSPORT

Radioactive substances should be kept in specially designed containers with proper

X-ray equipment should be provided with a lock on the main circuit.

The RPA should be responsible for organizing emergency drills.

UNSEALED RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

Routine use of unsealed radioactive substances should be avoided whenever possible.

3.1 DOSE EQUIVALENT LIMITS

No practice shall be adopted unless its introduction produces a positive net

All exposures shall be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable, economic and

Individuals below the age of 18 years should not be involved in radiological