AN APPLIED MODEL OF TEACHING MATERIALS TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’

SPEAKING SKILL

Abstract
An Applied Model of Teaching Materials to Improve Students’ Speaking Skill showed the
best results of the experimental study done to the students of the English Study Program of
Teacher Training and Educational Science Faculty Serambi Mekkah University Banda Aceh.
The subject was specifically applied to the students of the mentioned institution, in terms of
finding out its impact to the teaching- learning process of students’ speaking skill referred to
the principles of language teaching. The main target of this study is to produce the teaching
materials in the form of textbook; therefore, it is done in three years. The first year was
focused on preparing the research instrument. The second year will be concerned with all
kinds of revising the instrument. While the last year will get various kinds of data to revise
the teaching materials to become simple, practical, and applicable handbook labelled of
Book-ISBN branded for the speaking class.

Keywords: Model, Teaching Materials, Improving Speaking Skill

A. Introduction
1. Background of the Study
As a matter of facts, the English Study Program of Teacher Training and Educational
Faculty Serambi Mekkah University Banda Aceh students’ speaking ability is still very low.
Globally speakingg, they are the students of private universities not only in Kota Banda
Aceh and Aceh Besar, but also almost of the private university students in the Aceh province,
especially the English Study Program students of Teacher Training and Educational Science
Faculty, Serambi Mekkah University, Banda Aceh.
Regarding to the real fact, the researcher becomes enthusiastic to study it about how it
occurred and how to find out its solution. This problematic case is very crucial to be searched
in more focus, unless it would be worse if it is not cared seriously and there is no way out
from lecturers, particularly those who teach the teaching subjects, i.e. the speaking skill. It
could be certainly said that the educational quality will be getting left-behind sooner or later.
It is like a nightmare when we try to imagine the students of biology department do not speak
English well. The problem could be raised by asking who is to blame when this fact happens.
It must be referred and aimed to lecturers who directly hold the front line in teaching,
particularly those who teach about the subject of teaching English.
Another concern is about the lecturers’ efforts to improve the students’ speaking
English. They have to think and then create the proper way in teaching character; therefore,
the students master the English language well. Such a kind of character of speaker has long
been a staple of training in rhetoric and rhetorical theory. In this case, Thomas M. Rivers
(2004: 247-260) says that:

“What I propose to do is supply a kind of heuroristic, or a primer, for those who are
considering character education as a meaningful part of their pedagogical objectives. My
approach will be based on my personal experience with character education issues, but I
believe it will be a fair representation of substantive matters that have legs across the
curriculum.”
Based on the statement quoted from Rivers above, we can understand that the question can
also become up together with the fact that the students’ English skill is very low in speaking
English. This phenomena shown by the students in the daily conversation. How the
lecturers should deal with English teaching model in teaching and learning process.
Supporting the above statement, Giorgio Brunello and Lorenzo Rocco (2008:1866-1887) say
that:
“The essential reason for the existence of hierarchy with public schools dominated by private
institutions is that the latter must be of higher peer quality than the former, otherwise no
students would be willing to pay to attend a private school. In their model, state schools act
as residual repositories, taking in all those students who do not in private schools.”
So, based the statement above, we can create a good question, namely “Is there any proper
English teaching model that could be developed to the students teaching process, especially
to the students of English department at private universities?” This question influenced the
researcher’s motivation to try to get the proof toward the students of Serambi Mekkah
University. In short, through this study, the researcher is interested in doing a research
entitled: Using Applied Model of Teaching Materials to Improve Students’ Speaking Skill.

2. The Problem of the Study

The writer would like to formulate the main problem of this study, i.e. “Is using an applied
model of teaching materials better to improve the English Study Program of FKIP-USM
students’ speaking skill rather than using other models in the achievement of Teafle I and
Teafle II subjects?”.

3. The Hypothesis
The hypothesis of this study is “using an applied model of teaching materials is better to
improve the English Study Program of
FKIP-USM students’ speaking skill rather than using other models in the achievement of
teaching the Teafle I and Teafle II subjects”.

4. Specific Purposes
Based on the main problem formulated above, the writer would like to formulate about the
specific purpose of this study, i.e. creating a valid and reliable research instrument in the form
of teaching materals that could be used to improve the English Study Program of FKIP-USM
Banda Aceh toward the identification of the background of the problem in teaching English
to the students, especially the students who study the subjects of Teafle I and Teafle II (Eveen
and Odd Semesters).

5. The Significance of the Study

Since this study is in the form of quantitative nature, that is done in experimental study, it is,
ofcourse, its results could be transferred to whole subjects and objects under the same
condition as done at the experimental occasion within the same sample of the students in this
research. Theoretically, whatever the output of this study is, it could be disseminated to the
whole subject and object under the same condition.
Furthermore, the output of this experimental research would have a double meaning and more
value provided with it is being done in experimental design of study. This study is hopefully
to be considered positively by the stakeholders for the sake of next generation that could be
owned to be much better in the future.

6. The Scope of the Study

Since the expected output based on this research title is to find out a teaching materials, so the
orientation of this study is about the needs of producing an applied model of teaching
materials to iimprove the English students’ speaking skill. The basic reason to this scope of
study is referred to the fact, generally the students who learn English, for instance, the
students of the English department, especially at the Teacher Training and Educational
Science, Serambi Mekkah University Banda Aceh could not sufficiently speak English well.
Meanwhile, they have learned English for many years started from sixth grade of Elementary
school until the third year

in university. Considering about the real phenomena, the researcher assumes that there must
be something wrong with the teaching method.
Based on his assumption, the writer considers that the most important thing to do here is how
to figurize out the proper way that the lecturers should use the model method in the
application of teaching to improve students’ speaking skill.
B. Theoretical Orientation
1. Teaching the Language Skills
As we know that, there are four skills in teaching the English language. They are listening,
speaking, reading and writing skill. From the four skills, speaking is called the key of skill.
Thus, the speaking skill should be the first priority that has to be focused in teaching and
learning process. This skill would be successful when it is applied in every teaching and
learning session. A good understanding of the speaking skill is something special that can be
a model of language use. As a result of teaching, speaking can be influenced by the
development and tendency in language learning process and psychology.
To support the above statement, Lado (1975) mentioned that, “The study of language has
gone upward within language from phonology to syntax to semantics, and outward to study
of language as part of cognition and finally to the study of language as part of the total
communication system within society-what Halliday calls it as social semiotic.”
The Halliday’s statement is supported by Finn (1985) who states that: “It is important that
speaking teachers be able to make intelligent choices concerning with method and curriculum
in light of progress in such fields and linguistics, psychology, and sociology.”
From these statements, it can be understood that language teaching is closely related to the
method of teaching. The smart choice in teaching method plays an extremely important role.
Therefore, the lecturers who teach language should be smart in using the proper method in
teaching language.
Based on the above explanation, we finally understand that there are a lot of purposes from
speaking skill that can be gained through the process of teaching and learning or dialogue.
From all purposes of teaching speaking skill, there are two main dominant aspects that are
related to it. They are the skill in dialogue and the skill in learning language.

2. Teaching Speaking for Dialogue

Talking about the efficient method in teaching English, in this case teaching speaking, it
would be better to clarify about the model of teaching materials to improve students’
speaking skill. This kind of method development in teaching English toward the students who
study the Teafl-I and Teafl-II subjects at the the English Study Program of the teacher
training and educational science, Serambi Mekkah University, Banda Aceh.
Byrne (1980) states that:
“In speaking, the students’ developing a considerable range of habitual responses to specific
set of pattern of graphic shapes. When learning to speak his native language he has acquired
essential space the direction habit, he can recognize the shapes of letters in his native
language alphabet and has become skilled at speaking these in the direction his language
prescribes”.
Here, Byrne then explains more that if a foreign language uses the same alphabet as in
students’ mother tongue, that is the language equivalent (as in English to French or English to
German). By having good practices in getting used to speaking English will avoid the
students from the difficulties in learning foreign language.
Furthermore, Byrne (1980) gives details in his explanation about the development of teaching
speaking skill as follows:
“Students need to be encouraged to speak for the content of the material as they do in their
own language. Meaningful reading requires concentration upon the important element which
conveys the message. Constant attention to each word presents such an overwhelming
amount of information that the mind cannot process it all, even in the native language.”
Based on the above information, River (1971) states her opinion:
As we can see, we work together with students coming from the different field, talking with
different text (stated in the survey, text book and theoretical analysis), and using different
methodology approach as well. It can’t be concluded that all are the same about the field of
problem in certain text. The teachers had prepared text in years and if there are new thing that
are being introduced about certain texts, then the text analysis will be confused toward the
grammar such as in phrases from subject to object, the form of grammatical cohesion and non
technical vocabulary.
Based on what was explained by River, we are aware that a lecturer must be paying full of
attention to the teaching of speaking. In

case a lecturer has to teach the students to understand texts, he still has to figure out how to
make them understand it orally as well.

3. Teaching Speaking for Language Learning

The most important thing in language teaching process is teaching speaking for language
learning. Therefore, there must be a measurement or what is called as criterion to understand
the tasks given to the students. According to Weir (1990):
“The criterion of efficient learning is that after a long interval the matter learnt can be applied
as effectively as necessary to new tasks. Simple memorizing has very limited value is that it
is no help in applying the knowledge to new tasks. The only learning worth name, in fact, is
learning by understanding”.
Dealing with Webster statement above, we understand that in teaching language skill (not
only speaking, but also reading, listening or writing) is the main thing to make the students
recognize and understand the text content that is being taught. Thus, a test is needed for the
students to be able to understand the given text. In this case, the traditional way in teaching
speaking is mainly focused.
4. Steps in Teaching Speaking Skill
a. Pre-speaking Activity
Before teaching speaking skill, a lecturer has to know that there is a strategy that has to be
applied to teach speaking skill, it is speaking itself. What is meant by “speaking itself” is
speaking activity before the class begins. A lecturer has to give time to students in order to
read a text before they start learning. Concerning with this matter, Byrne (1983) stated that
pre- speaking is an activity that aimed at initiating students to read before they are taught.
Based on the Byrne statement above, we understand that the teaching of speaking skill is
actually begun before the students pay attention and read the given text. Pre-teaching activity
can be designed in such a way to let the students to review the information within the text in
general, knowing what had happened and what would happen. Besides, pre-teaching is also
aimed to invite the students to think about the possibility of the text contents.

b. While Speaking Activity

As we all know, during the speaking activity, a lecturer is in a position of silence while the
students are reading text to understand the tasks given to them.
According to Harmer (1986), “speaking is a practice which is controlled by mouth and brain.
Mouth concern with the activities related to uttering any message. Brain has to cooperate to
receive and produce the message uttering by mouth. While eyes would see problems and
send them to brain and is uttered by mouth. Therefore, there will be communication in
teaching and learning process. In general, the students is willing to participate in teaching and
learning process, especially in language class where they want to express their ideas to
people”.
This statement is also supported by Byrne (1983): “A student might be looking for of what is
going to talk about, in the form of technical literature or maybe he hopes to give a speech in
his home country. The different participation level will also affect the level of receiving the
message. They also apply some linguistic behaviors in different kind of skills. In skill term,
they are called: writing, speaking, dictation and reading aloud.

c. Post Speaking Activity

The third step in speaking skill teaching is “speaking”. In this case, speaking becomes the
main point as the conclusion of what have been done during teaching and learning process.
At the time the teaching speaking skill is finished, there must be an evaluation by several
questions. Finn said “when speaking has been completed, it is time to put questions of
evaluation personally respond and to help students to relate all kinds of things with the real
world which is replaced”.

C. The Research Methods

The output of this research is expected to be an applied model of teaching materials to
improve students’ speaking skill to the students of English Study Program of Teacher
Training and Educational Science Faculty, Serambi Mekkah University, Banda Aceh.
Besides, the output of this study can also be transferred to the same objects and subjects. It
means that if this research succeed, it

would be useful for the students all over Indonesia. In accordance with the expected output,
the researchers refer to Ary (1979) as follows:
1) Determing the research methodology (experimental research);
2) Population and sample (all students of the English Study Program of Teacher Training
and Educational Science Faculty Serambi Mekkah University, Banda Aceh);
3) The technique of data collection (experimental teaching);
4) The processing and analyzing the data (using panel procedures); and
5) Conclusion (the finding of an applied model of teaching materials to improve
students’ speaking skill.
Based on the five steps mentioned above, the research design is done by referring to the
pattern as suggested by Ary as shown in the following chart.
Chart: Independent and Dependent Variables

Group Independent variable Dependent Variable

(R) I Kinescope Film Achievement Test
(R) II Classroom discussion Achievement Test
(R) II Programmed booklet Achievement Test
By following the design as shown in table 2, we can see the main aspects of that experimental
research, they are: (a) a useful question to a researcher to figure out the answer- that is a
question about the correlation between two variables; (b) hypothesis as a characteristic of the
correlation between two variables; (c) the introduction of experiment condition and
measurement; (d) data analysis, by having this, the researcher will be able to determine the
whether there is a correlation between two variable or not.

D. The Research Results And Discussions

The results of teaching speaking skill by using applied model of teaching materials to
improve students’ speaking skill to the students of English Study Program of FKIP-USM
Banda Aceh was done to both Odd and Even Semesters.
After giving a pre-test and a post-test to both controlled group and experimental group, prior
to starting the teaching learning process, the writer gave them a pre-test that aimed at
measuring their

basic achievement about the speaking ability before they were taught and applied the theory
and the way how to speak fluently and correctly using the realia methods and other methods.
At the end of the experiment, they were provided with a pre- test and post-test in order to
identify how far the teaching learning process affects the students’ achievement toward the
subject matter.
The results of the pre-test and the post-test are processed and analyzed in two stages, namely:
1) Analyzing the achievement of the two groups of students who were taught by using an
applied model of teaching materials method.
2) Proving the writer’s hypothesis as stated in the first chapter of this study.
To work with the data, the writer found the mean score of the two groups that obtained by
each student. Then, the mean score of the two groups were analyzed by comparing the both
mean scores of the two groups. The students’ scores of pre-test and post-test achieved by the
students in experimental group can be seen in the following table 1.
Table 1: The Students’ scores of Pre Test and Post Test in Speaking By Using An Applied
Model of Teaching Materials Method Experimental Group)

No. Students’ Codes Pre Test Post Test

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16 001
002
003
004
005
006
007
008
009
010
011
012
013
014
015
016 70
65
60
70
65
70
55
60
60
65
70
50
65
65
70
70 80
80
80
80
80
80
65
75
80
70
80
60
70
80
75
70

17
18
19
20
21 017
018
019
020
021 65
55
55
50
75 70
70
70
65
80
Table 2: The Students’ scores of Pre-Test and Post-Test in Speaking By Using Other
Methods (Controlled Group)

No. Students’ Codes Pre Test Post Test

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21 022
023
024
025
026
027
028
029
030
031
032
033
034
035
036
037
038
039
040
041
042 60
70
50
50
45
80
60
65
65
70
65
60
55
55
60
60
60
60
55
60
60 70
70
60
60
60
80
80
65
70
70
70
70
65
70
70
65
70
70
60
60
75
Below, the researcher just displayed the students’ scores into a table that describes about the
results of pre-test and post-test that is easily compared between the two groups as shown in
table 3.
Table 3: The Scores of Students’ Pre Test and Post Test by Using An Applied Model of
Teaching Materials to Improve Students’ Speaking Skill.
Speaking Using Other Methods Speaking Using Applied Model

Subject X1 X2 X Subject Y1 Y2 Y
1
2 60
70 70
70 10
0 1
2 70
65 80
80 10
15

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21 50
45
80
60
65
65
70
65
60
55
55
60
60
60
60
60
55
60
60 60
60
80
80
65
70
70
70
70
65
70
70
70
65
70
70
60
60
75 10
15
0
20
0
5
0
5
10
5
15
10
10
5
10
10
5
0
5 3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21 70
65
70
55
60
60
65
70
50
65
65
70
70
65
65
55
55
50
75 80
80
80
65
75
80
70
80
60
70
80
75
70
70
70
70
70
65
80 10
15
10
10
15
20
5
10
10
5
15
5
0
5
5
15
15
15
5
21 1255 1540 410 21 1335 1550 485
With the parameters:
X1 = The pre test score of other method group X2 = The post test score of other method
group X = Deviation of Score X1 and X2
Y1 = The pre test score of other method group Y2 = The post test score of other method
group Y = Deviation of score Y1 and Y2
S = The Samples or subjects
Based on the data from all tables above, we can understand that both group students have
different achievement, either in individual form or in group form. The data analyzed using
the formula as suggested by Arikunto (1996: 305) that is:

Mx   X
N

and

My   X
N

As the results, the mean of each group is as follows:

1) The mean score of students treated the other method in teaching speaking using other
methods (controlled group) is:

Mx   X
N

Mx 

410
21

Mx = 1,9

2) The mean score of students treated the ESP model method in teaching
Speaking ability (experimental group) is:

1. The Results

My   X
N
My 

485
21

My = 2,2

As it has been mentioned above that the hypothesis of this study is that the result of teaching
speaking by using applied model method is better than teaching speaking by using other
methods.
In this case, to see whether or not the hypothesis is accepted or rejected, the writer used the
hypothesis proving formula, namely the t- test as suggested by Arikunto (1996:301) as
follows:

t  Mx  My

t  (1,9  2,2)
410  485

t   1,901
895

N (N

 1)

21(21  1)

420
t  10,01
3,19

t  3,14

db = (Nx + Ny - 2) = 21 + 21 - 2 = 40

The critical value of t (t-table) with significant level of 5% and degree of freedom 40 is 2,68.
The criteria to accept or reject the hypothesis offered by Sudijono are:
1. Hypothesis null or Null hypothesis (Ho) is accepted if the t- count equal to t-table or t-
count is greater than t-table.
2. Hypothesis alternative or Alternative hypothesis (Ha) is rejected if t-count is smaller
than t-table.
The calculated value of t-count is 3,14. Since the result of t-count (t- test) is greater than t-
table, the hypothesis is accepted. It means, the result of teaching speaking by using applied
model to improve students’ speaking skill is better than the result of teaching speaking skill
by using other methods.

2. Discussions
After doing the teaching in an experimental study to the Teafl-I and Teafl-II subjects of
students of English Study Program of FKIP-USM Banda Aceh from May 15, 2014 until June
16, 2014, the writer processed and analyzed the research results by using a simple
calculation. In another words, after doing an experimental teaching to students of the
mentioned class above, it can be understood clearly about the results of the research. Here,
the writer used the applied model method in teaching speaking skill to the students of the
students of the English Study Program of FKIP-USM (Experimental Group), while the there
was no use of the applied model method or the writer applied other methods for the second
group (Controlled Group).
Through these two different ways or methods, we could find out that, the students’ scores of
the mentioned class, that is, teaching speaking skill by using applied model method get higher
scores compared to the students who are taught speaking skill by using other methods.
E. Conclusions
Based on the descriptions that has been having discussions as given above, the key short of
this work is that the writer concludes, namely teaching speaking skill to the students of the
English Study Program of FKIP-USM Banda Aceh by using applied model of teaching
materials to improve students’ speaking skill. This method gave a much better result
compared to teaching speaking skill by using other methods to the same subjects. Here, it is
fairly suggested that those who want to teach speaking skill to the same subjects as done by
the researcher, can use the applied model of teaching materials to improve the English
department students’ speaking skill method as well as others under the same conditions.

TEACHING SPEAKING SKILLS

Goals and Techniques for Teaching Speaking

The goal of teaching speaking skills is communicative efficiency. Learners should be able to
make themselves understood, using their current proficiency to the fullest. They should try to
avoid confusion in the message due to faulty pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, and to
observe the social and cultural rules that apply in each communication situation.
To help students develop communicative efficiency in speaking, instructors can use a
balanced activities approach that combines language input, structured output, and
communicative output.
Language input comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading passages, and
the language heard and read outside of class. It gives learners the material they need to begin
producing language themselves.
Language input may be content oriented or form oriented.
• Content-oriented input focuses on information, whether it is a simple weather report
or an extended lecture on an academic topic. Content-oriented input may also include
descriptions of learning strategies and examples of their use.
• Form-oriented input focuses on ways of using the language: guidance from the
teacher or another source on vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar (linguistic
competence); appropriate things to say in specific contexts (discourse competence);
expectations for rate of speech, pause length, turn-taking, and other social aspects of language
use (sociolinguistic competence); and explicit instruction in phrases to use to ask for
clarification and repair miscommunication (strategic competence).
In the presentation part of a lesson, an instructor combines content-oriented and form-
oriented input. The amount of input that is actually provided in the target language depends
on students' listening proficiency and also on the situation. For students at lower levels, or in
situations where a quick explanation on a grammar topic is needed, an explanation in English
may be more appropriate than one in the target language.
Structured output focuses on correct form. In structured output, students may have options for
responses, but all of the options require them to use the specific form or structure that the
teacher has just introduced.
Structured output is designed to make learners comfortable producing specific language items
recently introduced, sometimes in combination with previously learned items. Instructors
often use structured output exercises as a transition between the presentation stage and the
practice stage of a lesson plan. textbook exercises also often make good structured output
practice activities.
In communicative output, the learners' main purpose is to complete a task, such as obtaining
information, developing a travel plan, or creating a video. To complete the task, they may use
the language that the instructor has just presented, but they also may draw on any other
vocabulary, grammar, and communication strategies that they know. In communicative
output activities, the criterion of success is whether the learner gets the message across.
Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it interferes with the message.
In everyday communication, spoken exchanges take place because there is some sort of
information gap between the participants. Communicative output activities involve a similar
real information gap. In order to complete the task, students must reduce or eliminate the
information gap. In these activities, language is a tool, not an end in itself.
In a balanced activities approach, the teacher uses a variety of activities from these different
categories of input and output. Learners at all proficiency levels, including beginners, benefit
from this variety; it is more motivating, and it is also more likely to result in effective
language learning.

Strategies for Developing Speaking Skills

Students often think that the ability to speak a language is the product of language learning,
but speaking is also a crucial part of the language learning process. Effective instructors teach
students speaking strategies -- using minimal responses, recognizing scripts, and using
language to talk about language -- that they can use to help themselves expand their
knowledge of the language and their confidence in using it. These instructors help students
learn to speak so that the students can use speaking to learn.
1. Using minimal responses
Language learners who lack confidence in their ability to participate successfully in oral
interaction often listen in silence while others do the talking. One way to encourage such
learners to begin to participate is to help them build up a stock of minimal responses that they
can use in different types of exchanges. Such responses can be especially useful for
beginners.
Minimal responses are predictable, often idiomatic phrases that conversation participants use
to indicate understanding, agreement, doubt, and other responses to what another speaker is
saying. Having a stock of such responses enables a learner to focus on what the other
participant is saying, without having to simultaneously plan a response.
2. Recognizing scripts
Some communication situations are associated with a predictable set of spoken exchanges --
a script. Greetings, apologies, compliments, invitations, and other functions that are
influenced by social and cultural norms often follow patterns or scripts. So do the
transactional exchanges involved in activities such as obtaining information and making a
purchase. In these scripts, the relationship between a speaker's turn and the one that follows it
can often be anticipated.
Instructors can help students develop speaking ability by making them aware of the scripts
for different situations so that they can predict what they will hear and what they will need to
say in response. Through interactive activities, instructors can give students practice in
managing and varying the language that different scripts contain.
3. Using language to talk about language
Language learners are often too embarrassed or shy to say anything when they do not
understand another speaker or when they realize that a conversation partner has not
understood them. Instructors can help students overcome this reticence by assuring them that
misunderstanding and the need for clarification can occur in any type of interaction, whatever
the participants' language skill levels. Instructors can also give students strategies and phrases
to use for clarification and comprehension check.
By encouraging students to use clarification phrases in class when misunderstanding occurs,
and by responding positively when they do, instructors can create an authentic practice
environment within the classroom itself. As they develop control of various clarification
strategies, students will gain confidence in their ability to manage the various communication
situations that they may encounter outside the classroom.

Developing Speaking Activities

Traditional classroom speaking practice often takes the form of drills in which one person
asks a question and another gives an answer. The question and the answer are structured and
predictable, and often there is only one correct, predetermined answer. The purpose of asking
and answering the question is to demonstrate the ability to ask and answer the question.
In contrast, the purpose of real communication is to accomplish a task, such as conveying a
telephone message, obtaining information, or expressing an opinion. In real communication,
participants must manage uncertainty about what the other person will say. Authentic
communication involves an information gap; each participant has information that the other
does not have. In addition, to achieve their purpose, participants may have to clarify their
meaning or ask for confirmation of their own understanding.
To create classroom speaking activities that will develop communicative competence,
instructors need to incorporate a purpose and an information gap and allow for multiple forms
of expression. However, quantity alone will not necessarily produce competent speakers.
Instructors need to combine structured output activities, which allow for error correction and
increased accuracy, with communicative output activities that give students opportunities to
practice language use more freely.
Structured Output Activities
Two common kinds of structured output activities are information gap and jigsaw activities.
In both these types of activities, students complete a task by obtaining missing information, a
feature the activities have in common with real communication. However, information gap
and jigsaw activities also set up practice on specific items of language. In this respect they are
more like drills than like communication.
Information Gap Activities
• Filling the gaps in a schedule or timetable: Partner A holds an airline timetable with
some of the arrival and departure times missing. Partner B has the same timetable but with
different blank spaces. The two partners are not permitted to see each other's timetables and
must fill in the blanks by asking each other appropriate questions. The features of language
that are practiced would include questions beginning with "when" or "at what time." Answers
would be limited mostly to time expressions like "at 8:15" or "at ten in the evening."
• Completing the picture: The two partners have similar pictures, each with different
missing details, and they cooperate to find all the missing details. In another variation, no
items are missing, but similar items differ in appearance. For example, in one picture, a man
walking along the street may be wearing an overcoat, while in the other the man is wearing a
jacket. The features of grammar and vocabulary that are practiced are determined by the
content of the pictures and the items that are missing or different. Differences in the activities
depicted lead to practice of different verbs. Differences in number, size, and shape lead to
adjective practice. Differing locations would probably be described with prepositional
phrases.
These activities may be set up so that the partners must practice more than just grammatical
and lexical features. For example, the timetable activity gains a social dimension when one
partner assumes the role of a student trying to make an appointment with a partner who takes
the role of a professor. Each partner has pages from an appointment book in which certain
dates and times are already filled in and other times are still available for an appointment. Of
course, the open times don't match exactly, so there must be some polite negotiation to arrive
at a mutually convenient time for a meeting or a conference.
Jigsaw Activities
Jigsaw activities are more elaborate information gap activities that can be done with several
partners. In a jigsaw activity, each partner has one or a few pieces of the "puzzle," and the
partners must cooperate to fit all the pieces into a whole picture. The puzzle piece may take
one of several forms. It may be one panel from a comic strip or one photo from a set that tells
a story. It may be one sentence from a written narrative. It may be a tape recording of a
conversation, in which case no two partners hear exactly the same conversation.
• In one fairly simple jigsaw activity, students work in groups of four. Each student in
the group receives one panel from a comic strip. Partners may not show each other their
panels. Together the four panels present this narrative: a man takes a container of ice cream
from the freezer; he serves himself several scoops of ice cream; he sits in front of the TV
eating his ice cream; he returns with the empty bowl to the kitchen and finds that he left the
container of ice cream, now melting, on the kitchen counter. These pictures have a clear
narrative line and the partners are not likely to disagree about the appropriate sequencing.
You can make the task more demanding, however, by using pictures that lend themselves to
alternative sequences, so that the partners have to negotiate among themselves to agree on a
satisfactory sequence.
• More elaborate jigsaws may proceed in two stages. Students first work in input groups
(groups A, B, C, and D) to receive information. Each group receives a different part of the
total information for the task. Students then reorganize into groups of four with one student
each from A, B, C, and D, and use the information they received to complete the task. Such
an organization could be used, for example, when the input is given in the form of a tape
recording. Groups A, B, C, and D each hear a different recording of a short news bulletin.
The four recordings all contain the same general information, but each has one or more
details that the others do not. In the second stage, students reconstruct the complete story by
comparing the four versions.
With information gap and jigsaw activities, instructors need to be conscious of the language
demands they place on their students. If an activity calls for language your students have not
already practiced, you can brainstorm with them when setting up the activity to preview the
language they will need, eliciting what they already know and supplementing what they are
able to produce themselves.
Structured output activities can form an effective bridge between instructor modeling and
communicative output because they are partly authentic and partly artificial. Like authentic
communication, they feature information gaps that must be bridged for successful completion
of the task. However, where authentic communication allows speakers to use all of the
language they know, structured output activities lead students to practice specific features of
language and to practice only in brief sentences, not in extended discourse. Also, structured
output situations are contrived and more like games than real communication, and the
participants' social roles are irrelevant to the performance of the activity. This structure
controls the number of variables that students must deal with when they are first exposed to
new material. As they become comfortable, they can move on to true communicative output
activities.
Communicative Output Activities
Communicative output activities allow students to practice using all of the language they
know in situations that resemble real settings. In these activities, students must work together
to develop a plan, resolve a problem, or complete a task. The most common types of
communicative output activity are role plays and discussions .
In role plays, students are assigned roles and put into situations that they may eventually
encounter outside the classroom. Because role plays imitate life, the range of language
functions that may be used expands considerably. Also, the role relationships among the
students as they play their parts call for them to practice and develop their sociolinguistic
competence. They have to use language that is appropriate to the situation and to the
characters.
Students usually find role playing enjoyable, but students who lack self-confidence or have
lower proficiency levels may find them intimidating at first. To succeed with role plays:
• Prepare carefully: Introduce the activity by describing the situation and making sure
that all of the students understand it
• Set a goal or outcome: Be sure the students understand what the product of the role
play should be, whether a plan, a schedule, a group opinion, or some other product
• Use role cards: Give each student a card that describes the person or role to be played.
For lower-level students, the cards can include words or expressions that that person might
use.
• Brainstorm: Before you start the role play, have students brainstorm as a class to
predict what vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions they might use.
• Keep groups small: Less-confident students will feel more able to participate if they
do not have to compete with many voices.
• Give students time to prepare: Let them work individually to outline their ideas and
the language they will need to express them.
• Be present as a resource, not a monitor: Stay in communicative mode to answer
students' questions. Do not correct their pronunciation or grammar unless they specifically
ask you about it.
• Allow students to work at their own levels: Each student has individual language
skills, an individual approach to working in groups, and a specific role to play in the activity.
Do not expect all students to contribute equally to the discussion, or to use every grammar
point you have taught.
• Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the outcome of their role
plays.
• Do linguistic follow-up: After the role play is over, give feedback on grammar or
pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until another class period when you
plan to review pronunciation or grammar anyway.
Discussions, like role plays, succeed when the instructor prepares students first, and then gets
out of the way. To succeed with discussions:
• Prepare the students: Give them input (both topical information and language forms)
so that they will have something to say and the language with which to say it.
• Offer choices: Let students suggest the topic for discussion or choose from several
options. Discussion does not always have to be about serious issues. Students are likely to be
more motivated to participate if the topic is television programs, plans for a vacation, or news
about mutual friends. Weighty topics like how to combat pollution are not as engaging and
place heavy demands on students' linguistic competence.
• Set a goal or outcome: This can be a group product, such as a letter to the editor, or
individual reports on the views of others in the group.
• Use small groups instead of whole-class discussion: Large groups can make
participation difficult.
• Keep it short: Give students a defined period of time, not more than 8-10 minutes, for
discussion. Allow them to stop sooner if they run out of things to say.
• Allow students to participate in their own way: Not every student will feel
comfortable talking about every topic. Do not expect all of them to contribute equally to the
conversation.
• Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the results of their
discussion.
• Do linguistic follow-up: After the discussion is over, give feedback on grammar or
pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until another class period when you
plan to review pronunciation or grammar anyway.
Through well-prepared communicative output activities such as role plays and discussions,
you can encourage students to experiment and innovate with the language, and create a
supportive atmosphere that allows them to make mistakes without fear of embarrassment.
This will contribute to their self-confidence as speakers and to their motivation to learn more.
Planning a Lesson
Set Lesson Goals
Lesson goals are most usefully stated in terms of what students will have done or
accomplished at the end of the lesson. Stating goals in this way allows both teacher and
learners to know when the goals have been reached.
To set lesson goals:
1. Identify a topic for the lesson. The topic is not a goal, but it will help you develop your
goals. The topic may be determined largely by your curriculum and textbook, and may be
part of a larger thematic unit such as Travel or Leisure Activities. If you have some flexibility
in choice of topic, consider your students’ interests and the availability of authentic materials
at the appropriate level.
2. Identify specific linguistic content, such as vocabulary and points of grammar or language
use, to be introduced or reviewed. These are usually prescribed by the course textbook or
course curriculum. If they are not, select points that are connected in some significant way
with the topic of the lesson.
3. Identify specific communication tasks to be completed by students. To be authentic, the
tasks should allow, but not require, students to use the vocabulary, grammar, and strategies
presented in the lesson. The focus of the tasks should be topical, not grammatical. This means
that it may be possible for some students to complete the task without using either the
grammar point or the strategy presented in the first part of the lesson.
4. Identify specific learning strategies to be introduced or reviewed in connection with the
lesson.
5. Create goal statements for the linguistic content, communication tasks, and learning
strategies that state what you will do and what students will do during the lesson.
Structure the Lesson
A language lesson should include a variety of activities that combine different types of
language input and output. Learners at all proficiency levels benefit from such variety;
research has shown that it is more motivating and is more likely to result in effective
language learning.
An effective lesson has five parts:
• Preparation
• Presentation
• Practice
• Evaluation
• Expansion
The five parts of a lesson may all take place in one class session or may extend over multiple
sessions, depending on the nature of the topic and the activities.
The lesson plan should outline who will do what in each part of the lesson. The time allotted
for preparation, presentation, and evaluation activities should be no more than 8-10 minutes
each. Communication practice activities may run a little longer.
1. Preparation
As the class begins, give students a broad outline of the day’s goals and activities so they
know what to expect. Help them focus by eliciting their existing knowledge of the day’s
topics.
• Use discussion or homework review to elicit knowledge related to the grammar and
language use points to be covered
• Use comparison with the native language to elicit strategies that students may already
be using
• Use discussion of what students do and/or like to do to elicit their knowledge of the
topic they will address in communication activities
2. Presentation/Modeling
Move from preparation into presentation of the linguistic and topical content of the lesson
and relevant learning strategies. Present the strategy first if it will help students absorb the
lesson content.
Presentation provides the language input that gives students the foundation for their
knowledge of the language. Input comes from the instructor and from course textbooks.
Language textbooks designed for students in U.S. universities usually provide input only in
the form of examples; explanations and instructions are written in English. To increase the
amount of input that students receive in the target language, instructors should use it as much
as possible for all classroom communication purposes. (See Teaching Goals and Methods for
more on input.)
An important part of the presentation is structured output, in which students practice the form
that the instructor has presented. In structured output, accuracy of performance is important.
Structured output is designed to make learners comfortable producing specific language items
recently introduced.
Structured output is a type of communication that is found only in language classrooms.
Because production is limited to preselected items, structured output is not truly
communicative.
3. Practice
In this part of the lesson, the focus shifts from the instructor as presenter to the students as
completers of a designated task. Students work in pairs or small groups on a topic-based task
with a specific outcome. Completion of the task may require the bridging of an information
gap (see Teaching Goals & Methods for more on information gap). The instructor observes
the groups an acts as a resource when students have questions that they cannot resolve
themselves.
In their work together, students move from structured output to communicative output, in
which the main purpose is to complete the communication task. Language becomes a tool,
rather than an end in itself. Learners have to use any or all of the language that they know
along with varied communication strategies. The criterion of success is whether the learner
gets the message across. Accuracy is not a consideration unless the lack of it interferes with
the message.
Activities for the practice segment of the lesson may come from a textbook or be designed by
the instructor. See Identify Materials and Activities for guidelines on developing tasks that
use authentic materials and activities.
4. Evaluation
When all students have completed the communication practice task, reconvene the class as a
group to recap the lesson. Ask students to give examples of how they used the linguistic
content and learning or communication strategies to carry out the communication task.
Evaluation is useful for four reasons:
• It reinforces the material that was presented earlier in the lesson
• It provides an opportunity for students to raise questions of usage and style
• It enables the instructor to monitor individual student comprehension and learning
• It provides closure to the lesson
See Assessing Learning for more information on evaluation and assessment.
5. Expansion
Expansion activities allow students to apply the knowledge they have gained in the classroom
to situations outside it. Expansion activities include out-of-class observation assignments, in
which the instructor asks students to find examples of something or to use a strategy and then
report back.
Identify Materials and Activities
The materials for a specific lesson will fall into two categories: those that are required, such
as course textbooks and lab materials, and authentic materials that the teacher incorporates
into classroom activities.
For required materials, determine what information must be presented in class and decide
which exercise(s) to use in class and which for out-of-class work. For teacher-provided
materials, use materials that are genuinely related to realistic communication activities. Don’t
be tempted to try to create a communication task around something just because it’s a really
cool video or a beautiful brochure.
Truly authentic communication tasks have several features:
• They involve solving a true problem or discussing a topic of interest
• They require using language to accomplish a goal, not using language merely to use
language
• They allow students to use all of the language skills they have, rather than specific
forms or vocabulary, and to self-correct when they realize they need to
• The criterion of success is clear: completion of a defined task