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A Flexible shaft-driven Remote and Torsionally Compliant Actuator (RTCA)

for wearable robots

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DOI: 10.1016/j.mechatronics.2019.04.004

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 Mechatronics 59 (2019) 178–188

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Mechatronics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mechatronics

A Flexible shaft-driven Remote and Torsionally Compliant Actuator (RTCA)

for wearable robots
D. Rodriguez-Cianca∗, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero, T. Verstraten, R. Jimenez-Fabian,
B. Vanderborght, D. Lefeber
Robotics and Multibody Mechanics (R&MM) Research Group, Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Flanders Make, 1050 Brussels, Belgium

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Keywords: This paper presents the conceptual development and validation tests of a novel actuation paradigm for wearable
Remote actuation systems robots, the flexible shaft-driven Remote and Torsionally Compliant Actuator. The RTCA exploits both the torsional
Flexible shaft compliance and bending properties of a commercial flexible shaft to provide simultaneously the advantages of
Compliant actuators
remote actuation systems: improved weight distribution and reduced inertia on the distal joints, together with
Torque control
the advantages of compliant systems. The flexible shaft can be modelled following the proposed methodology
Wearable robots
Exoskeletons as a torsionally compliant element that can be bent, so that the RTCA’s output transmitted torque can be esti-
mated based on the flexible shaft’s torsional deflection angle and spatial configuration, allowing accurate torque
control at the distal joint following a remote actuation approach based only on position sensors. Torque control
and transparency tests were used to validate the proposed torque estimation and control approach. Finally, we
presented a realistic implementation approach of the RTCA concept into a test bench resembling a lower limb
exoskeleton as a case study for wearable robots. Results confirmed the capabilities of the proposed approach
and supported the envisioned advantages of this novel actuation paradigm, constituting a promising solution for
future developments in this field.

1. Introduction device and produce negative physiological and psychological effects on

Providing a safe physical human-robot interaction (pHRI) represents
one of the most crucial challenges of current wearable robots’ research.
Actuation systems design and performance, as well as their weight and
placement in the device are considered to play major roles in these is-
sues, and are among the main technological barriers that need to be
addressed by researchers in order to improve current systems.
Actuators for wearable robots are generally implemented in-line or
very close to the axis of rotation of the joint they drive [1–3]. This con-
figuration, although more simple and suitable for certain applications,
usually increases the inertia of the system as weight is placed in more
distal joints. This effect has particularly undesirable consequences in
the case of lower limb exoskeletons, as it is reported that mass at the
foot during walking results in an increased metabolic cost of 7.5% to
8.5% per kg of total added mass, as compared to 1% to 2% for mass at
the waist [4]. Generally this added inertia cannot be fully compensated
by the exoskeleton’s controller due to the complexity of movements
of humans and the lack of accurate acceleration estimations, causing
undesired interaction forces that compromise the transparency of the
humans [5]. Besides, a big amount of the injected energy is spent in ac-
celerating the self-weight of the exoskeleton, reducing the net available
force/torque at the joint level and resulting in low efficiency devices.
During the last few years, thus, reducing the robot’s inertia by de-
sign has become a central topic of current exoskeleton’s research. Most
researchers have focused on the development of lighter, more compact,
powerful and efficient actuation systems, addressing highly technical
challenges that result in very expensive devices both in terms of time and
resources [6,7]. A different and more recent approach consists in the re-
location of the heavy actuation units to more advantageous locations to
improve device’s mass distribution and inertia while using transmissions
systems to deliver power remotely to the distal joints [8–11]. These re-
mote actuation systems (RASs) [12], besides reducing the inertia of the
robotic limbs due to a better weight distribution, allow the power trans-
mission from a reference frame, generally a motor, to another reference
frame, usually a non-collocated driven joint, while both components
have an arbitrary relative spatial configuration that can change over
the time. RAS also facilitate the implementation of more powerful actu-
ators, usually heavier and bulkier, without affecting the device’s inertia.

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: david.rodriguez.cianca@vub.be (D. Rodriguez-Cianca), carlos.rodriguez.guerrero@vub.be (C. Rodriguez-Guerrero), rjimenez@vub.ac.be (R.
Jimenez-Fabian), Bram.Vanderborght@vub.be (B. Vanderborght), Dirk.Lefeber@vub.be (D. Lefeber).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechatronics.2019.04.004
Received 23 August 2018; Received in revised form 14 February 2019; Accepted 1 April 2019
0957-4158/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D. Rodriguez-Cianca, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero and T. Verstraten et al. Mechatronics 59 (2019) 178–188

Remote and To
T rs
r ionally
ly ii. Second, its intrinsic torsional elastic behaviour can be modelled
C mp
Com liant Actuator (R
( TC
T C A) and exploited as the compliant element in a remote SEA configu-
ration, similar to a torsion spring that can be bent to adopt differ-
ent spatial configurations, to additionally provide the advantages
θm θs of these systems: intrinsically safe interaction with humans, pro-
Flexible tection against unexpected shocks and the possibility to estimate
Proximal Shaft
and control the output transmitted torque by the flexible shaft
Frame M Load
based on its torsional deflection and spatial configuration, with-
Encoder
Encoder Distal joint out the need of any torque sensor.
Frame
The paper focuses on the conceptual development and validation
of the novel flexible-shaft driven RTCA for wearable robots, with a es-
pecial focus on the output torque estimation and control method. The
paper is organised as follows: Section 2 describes the conceptual devel-
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the flexible shaft-driven Remote and Tor- opment and prototype of the RTCA. Section 3 presents the experimental
sionally Compliant Actuator (RTCA). procedure and methodology to model the flexible shaft’s output torque
as a function of its torsional deflection angle and spatial configuration.
Preliminary torque control and transparency tests using the developed
The current challenge, however, remains in the adequate selection and model as feedback to evaluate the RTCA’s performance are presented
implementation of a transmission system that allows to deliver torque in Section 4, including the effects of the flexible shaft’s spatial configu-
from the motor units to the distal joints without introducing a signifi- ration. Section 5 describes and validates with experimental tests a pro-
cant amount of losses or complexity into the system. Most of the current posed implementation and control approach of the RTCA for a lower
approaches are cable-based transmission systems [13], such as Bowden limb exoskeleton as a more realistic case study for this kind of devices.
cables [14–16], push-pull cables [17,18], open-ended cables [19], or The authors discuss the achieved results and the advantages of this sys-
rigid-linkage based ones [20]. Bowden cables are the most frequently tem, together with additional considerations and future work for the
used remote transmission system in wearable robots due to their sim- implementation of this new concept into fully functional exoskeleton
plicity, low weight and volume. However, as most cable-based trans- devices in Section 6. Summary and conclusions are given in Section 7.
missions, they suffer from inefficiency due to friction and non-linear
tension variation when submitted to bending of the cable and backlash
2. The Remote and Torsionally Compliant Actuator (RTCA)
[21], which makes control difficult and affects torque/force control per-
formance. Additionally, if output compliance is required, such as in Se-
2.1. Concept of the RTCA
ries Elastic Actuators (SEAs) [22], a general trend in current exoskeleton
systems due to its well-known intrinsic advantages, it generally becomes
The RTCA concept is represented in Fig. 1. It consists of a motor,
necessary to implement a compliant element, generally a spring, in se-
a commercial flexible shaft and two encoders placed at both extremes
ries with the transmission system. This element, generally placed at the
of the shaft to measure its total torsional deflection angle. Additionally,
joint level [14], can increase the mechanical complexity of the system as
more encoders are used to measure the shaft’s spatial configuration, i.e.
well as its weight and inertia. Therefore, despite the theoretical benefits
bend radius or bend angle.
on the use of RAS, so far no system has been able to show a significant
The actuator’s motor, or drive unit, is placed in a physiologically ad-
advantage with respect to traditional in-joint actuation approaches.
vantageous location, such as the waist in the case of portable exoskele-
In this paper the authors present a novel RAS driven by flexi-
tons, or a stationary frame in the case of stationary exoskeletons, so
ble shafts, named Remote and Torsional Compliant Actuator (RTCA)
that its contribution to the overall inertia of the system is reduced as
(Fig. 1), developed as an alternative to overcome the aforementioned
it is placed in a more proximal joint location. The flexible shaft is im-
issues of current actuators for exoskeletons. Flexible shafts can transmit
plemented between the motor and the driven joint, i.e. the distal joint,
torques like rigid shafts, but can also be bent such as cable-based trans-
allowing the power transmission between the load and the motor as
missions, and enable driving and driven components to move relative to
both systems have an arbitrary relative spatial configuration that may
each other during operational conditions. Although flexible shafts have
change over time thanks to the shaft’s bending flexibility. Additionally,
been used in the industry for decades, they have been barely imple-
the reported flexible shaft’s torsional compliance is exploited as the com-
mented in robotic applications and wearable robots up to date. A few
pliant element in a SEA configuration, where the flexible shaft behaves
examples consist of a thumb exoskeleton [23], a wearable knee pertur-
as a torsion spring that can be bent to adopt different spatial configura-
bator [24], a small search robot [25], a manipulator for surgical applica-
tions. Output torque delivered by the RTCA is estimated and controlled
tions [26] and, more recently, a soft actuator [27]. However, in all these
based on the flexible shaft’s torsional deflection angle, such as in linear
applications, no in-depth study on the behaviour of the flexible shaft it-
and rotary SEAs, and its spatial configuration, as will be presented in
self is made and few data can be found with respect to its properties
this paper.
and bending effect on friction and torque transmission. Interestingly, it
This configuration, together with the exploitation of the compliant
is reported that, due to their design and manufacturing process, flexi-
properties of the flexible shaft confers the RTCA a combination of the ad-
ble shafts present an intrinsic torsional elastic behaviour, as in torsion
vantages of RASs and SEAs, all highly desirable properties for actuation
springs. To date this intrinsic torsional compliance has been considered
systems as they improve human-robot interaction in wearable devices.
as a drawback of this technology, and, to the authors’ best knowledge,
In this paper, these promising advantages will be first tested, evaluated
has not been exploited in any application.
and finally discussed to stablish a foundation for the future implemen-
This paper introduces a novel actuation paradigm that exploits both
tation of this concept into this kind of devices.
the torsional compliance and bending properties of the flexible shaft to
provide simultaneously the characteristics of RASs and SEAs in order to
improve human-robot interaction in exoskeleton devices: 2.2. RTCA Prototype

i. First, the flexible shaft allows to relocate the motor and electronic The first prototype of the RTCA is presented in Fig. 2. It is composed
systems away from the joint they actuate to improve the system’s of a rotational EC motor (Maxon EC-4pole 30, 200 W) equipped with a
weight distribution and reduce the overall inertia of the system. 86:1 gearbox (GP 32HP) and an integrated 500 counts per turn (CPT)

179
D. Rodriguez-Cianca, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero and T. Verstraten et al.
Motor Encoder
Holder
Plate
Flexible shaft
encoder, a comercial flexible shaft (MasterFlex08, S.S. White) with a di-
ameter of 8 mm, length of 0.80 m, nominal torque of 6 Nm and a total
weight of 0.9 kg, including the end connector parts and outer case, two
rotational optical encoders of 2000 CPT (US Digital E6), placed at both
sides of the flexible shaft, and a torque sensor (DRBK20, ETH Messtech-
nik) with a maximum range of 20 Nm and maximum error of 0.1 Nm lo-
cated at the flexible shaft’s output side. The motor combination can pro-
vide a continuous torque of up to 8 Nm at a continuous speed of 192 rpm,
with intermittent torques up to 12 Nm. It is connected by a custom-made
rod to the flexible shaft and mounted horizontally and fixed on a frame
aligned with the rest of the components and supported by bearings. The
flexible shaft is connected to the motor on one side and to a torque sensor
on the other side. The difference between the two rotational encoders
provides a measure of the total torsional deflection angle on the flexible
shaft. The torque sensor measures the torque that is being transmitted
through the flexible shaft. Data are sampled at a frequency of 1 kHz
by means of an EtherCAT-based data acquisition and communication
system [28]. The master of the network consists of a computer with 8
cores running TwinCAT (Beckhoff Automation Technologies) as com-
munication interface using Simulink (MATLAB, The MathWorks, Inc)
under Windows 7 environment with 2 dedicated cores for the real-time
communication. A Maxon EPOS 3 (Maxon Motors) controller is coupled
to the network to control the motor operating at velocity control mode.
Data acquisition is performed by means of a Beckhoff EK1100 module
acting as slave in the EtherCAT network coupled with a ± 10 V analog
reading module for the torque sensor (EL3102) and two incremental
encoders reading modules (EL5101).
3. Study, characterization and modelling of flexible shaft’s output
torque transmittance
3.1. Flexible shaft’s properties
Flexible shafts are built by wrapping several layers of spring-grade
wire around a mandrel at opposing pitch angles and directions (Fig. 3).
Properties such as the maximum transmissible torques and velocities
are, thus, determined by a combination of factors such as the grade and
size of the wires, the number of layers, the amount of wires in each
layer, the effective length of the shaft and its diameter. Their manufac-
turing process confers them two main side-effects: direction-dependent
series elasticity and bending-dependent friction. When a torsional load
is applied to the shaft, half of its internal spring-like layers of wires try
to expand as they unwind, while the alternate layers, above and below
them, try to contract as they are wound tighter. This action, in which lay-
ers squeeze against each other under load, provides the shaft’s torsional
stiffness properties. However, when torque is applied in a direction that
causes the shaft’s outer layer to expand, there is no other layer to resist
it. This direction of operation, named the loosen-outer-layer (LOL), will
provide the lowest shaft stiffness. In contrast, the opposite direction,
Mechatronics 59 (2019) 178–188
Fig. 2. Prototype of the flexible shaft-driven
Encoder
RTCA. A torque sensor is allocated at the flex-
ible shaft’s output side to investigate its out-
put torque transmittance as a function of its tor-
sional deflection angle and spatial configuration.
Torque
sensor
End Connector Casing
Shaft
Fig. 3. A flexible shaft assembly consists of a rotating inner shaft, a flexible
outer casing and two end connectors. The rotating shaft transmits the rotary
motion between the driving and the driven elements. The flexible outer casing
contains the rotating shaft and acts as a bearing surface and support for the inner
shaft. It also prevents excessive twisting, or helixing, of the flexible shaft when
submitted to high loads. End connectors are placed at both sides of the shaft to
facilitate the connection to the driving elements.
the tighten-outer-layer (TOL) direction, will provide the highest stiff-
ness value. Manufacturers generally provide this information together
with approximate stiffness values for both directions when the shaft is in
straight conditions. Unfortunately, these only constitute guideline val-
ues and don’t provide reliable and accurate data with respect to the tor-
sional behaviour of the shaft when submitted to dynamic loads in both
rotational directions or when the cable is submitted to different spatial
configurations at different angles or bend radius. In general, manufac-
turers only indicate a minimum operating bend radius that should not
be exceeded during operation, which is determined by the shaft’s diam-
eter and length. The main consideration they mention is the reduction
of the torque capacity and the service life of the shaft as the bend ra-
dius is reduced due to the friction increase between the internal layers.
However, since flexible shafts are mainly implemented in applications
that require curved paths, the effect that their spatial configuration has
on their torque transmittance and torsional stiffness are properties of ut-
most importance, especially in applications that involve accurate torque
control as in the case of exoskeletons and wearable robots in general. In
the following section we present the experimental characterization and
modelling of the output torque transmitted by the RTCA’s flexible shaft
based both on its torsional deflection angle and spatial configuration.
3.2. Flexible shaft’s output torque characterization
The experimental procedure to carry out the flexible shaft’s output
torque vs. torsional angle characterization is represented in Fig. 4A, and
carried out with the RTCA prototype presented in Fig. 2. The flexible
shaft’s output side is connected to a torque sensor which is kept fixed
with respect to a reference frame (𝜃𝑠 = 0). The motor is set to follow a de-
sired multisine angle reference (𝜃 m ) with a flat spectrum from 0.01 Hz
to 10 Hz and variable angular amplitude, for a period of 100 s. Maxi-
180
D. Rodriguez-Cianca, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero and T. Verstraten et al. Mechatronics 59 (2019) 178–188

Fig. 4. (A) Schematic representation of the experi-

mental setup used to characterize the output torque
of the flexible shaft. (B) Experimental setup to char-
acterize bend radius influence on the output torque.

mum deflection angles were previously checked in order not to overpass

the shaft’s output torque limit, limiting the maximum output torque to
± 5 Nm. During the experiment, an optical encoder measures the posi-
tion of the output side of the motor combination (𝜃 m ), providing infor-
mation of the flexible shaft’s total torsional deflection angle (Δ𝜃), where
Δ𝜃 = 𝜃𝑚 − 𝜃𝑠 and 𝜃𝑠 = 0, while the torque sensor measures the total out-
put torque (Ts ) transmitted through the shaft. Both data are recorded
and plotted against each other to determine the relationship between
the flexible shaft’s torque and its torsional deflection.
In order to study the influence of the bend radius R on the shaft’s
output torque transmittance, the same basic configuration is used as
when placed straight. However, in this case both motor combination
and torque sensor are placed into two different platforms that can move
relative to each other in a two-dimension cartesian plane (X,Y). Holder
Fig. 5. Comparison of unfiltered measured output torque (Ts) transmitted by
plates are evenly distributed along the shaft to hold it in place and main-
the flexible shaft as a function of its torsional deflection angle (∆𝜃) for different
tain a desired configuration during the experiments (Fig. 4B). According
bend radius (R) and straight.
to flexible shaft’s manufacturers, the bend radius can be computed as a
function of the relative position of both ends of the flexible shaft as fol-
lows: R = (X2 +Y2 )/4Y. To account for the effect of the bend radius in the shaft’s output
Experiments were performed first with the shaft placed straight and torque characteristic we opted for a simple approach in which the esti-
then at different bend configurations, i.e. bend radius R of 450, 350, mation is made by means of the previously developed model when the
250 and 150 mm. shaft is placed straight (2), multiplied by a coefficient that is depen-
The output torque vs torsional deflection angle curves show a non- dent on the bend radius R and the sign of the deflection angle Δ𝜃 (3).
symmetrical behaviour of the output transmitted torque as a function By means of a parameter identification procedure algorithm, the coef-
of the direction and value of the shaft’s torsional deflection angle (Δ𝜃). ficients μ were determined so that the least square errors between the
Besides, in comparison to straight conditions, when the cable is bent, estimations and the experimental collected data (Fig. 5) were reduced.
more torsional deflection is required in order to achieve the same out-
put torque, and this effect increased as the bending increased. These 𝑇̂𝑠 (Δ𝜃, 𝑅) = 𝜇 (𝑅, sign(Δ𝜃)) ∗ 𝑇̂𝑠 (Δ𝜃) (3)
results confirm that a flexible shaft cannot be considered and modelled
as a linear torsion spring, since the output transmitted torque depends The fitting accuracy assessment of the proposed model was made by
simultaneously on two parameters, Δ𝜃 and R. means of the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) and the Normalized Root
Mean Square Error (NRMSE) as follows:
3.3. Flexible shaft’s output torque modelling √
√ ( )2
√∑
√ 𝑇̂𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠
√ 𝑅𝑀 𝑆𝐸
We opted for an empirical approach to model the experimental out- 𝑅𝑀 𝑆𝐸 = 𝑁 𝑅𝑀 𝑆𝐸 (%) = × 100
put torque instead of a physical parametric model due to its simplic- 𝑁 𝑇𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑚𝑖𝑛
ity. In order to account for the different observed non-linearities, we Fig. 6A shows the capability of the proposed model to fit the ex-
first subdivided the output torque-angle curve of the shaft when placed perimental shaft’s output torque-angle characteristics for straight and
straight Fig. 5) into two different sections, for positive and negative val- maximum bend conditions using (3) and the coeficients from Fig. 7 and
ues of deflection angle. Then each section was modelled using a Fourier Table 1. Fig. 6B shows a comparison between the experimental output
series approximation ((1) by means of the curve fitting tool provided by stiffness, 𝐾𝑠 = 𝜕 T𝑠 ∕𝜕(Δ𝜃) and the estimated one, 𝐾̂ 𝑠 , using (4). For the
Matlab. To account for the effect of the input dynamics in the torque-
angle curve, a dissipative term c, which considers the rotational velocity
of the shaft Δ𝜃̇ = ⋅𝑚 − 𝜃̇ 𝑠 , was added. Table 1
[ ∑∞ ( )] Model coefficients.
𝑇̂𝑠 (Δ𝜃) = 𝑎0 + 𝑎𝑛 cos (𝑛Δ𝜃𝜔) + 𝑏𝑛 sin (𝑛Δ𝜃𝜔) + 𝑐Δ𝜃̇ (1)
𝑛=1 MasterFlex08 ∅8 mm, L = 865 mm
where the estimated output stiffness, 𝐾̂ 𝑠 , can be computed as: Coefficient Δ𝜃 ≥ 0 Δ𝜃 < 0

𝜕 𝑇̂𝑠 [∑∞ ( )] a0 4.20200 −3.10700

𝐾̂ 𝑠 (Δ𝜃) = = 𝑛𝑏𝑛 𝜔 cos (𝑛Δ𝜃𝜔) − 𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝜔 sin (𝑛Δ𝜃𝜔) + 𝑐Δ𝜃̇ (2) a1 −4.20100 2.33500
𝜕Δ𝜃 𝑛 =1
a2 - 0.74840
The different coefficients as well as the best model order (n) were a3 - 0.02559
empirically determined offline using a least square errors minimization b1 0.16220 −1.48700
criteria to fit the model to the experimental data (Table 1). In order b2 - 0.36180
to guarantee the continuity of the piecewise function, both functions, b3 - 0.19760
c 0.00003 0.00003
for positive and negative values of Δ𝜃, were forced to pass through the 𝝎 0.03322 0.04357
origin.

181
D. Rodriguez-Cianca, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero and T. Verstraten et al.
Fig. 6. (A) Experimental output torque in comparison to model based prediction
using (3) when the flexible shaft is straight (blue) and with R = 150 mm (red).
(B) Experimental output stiffness vs. model based approximation using (4) for
straight and R = 150 mm. For the ease of clearness, data for other bend radius
are not shown.
Fig. 7. Accuracy of the output torque estimation and μ coefficient values for
different spatial conditions.
ease of clearness, data for other bend radius are not shown.
𝐾̂ 𝑠 (Δ𝜃, 𝑅) = 𝜇 (𝑅, sign(Δ𝜃)) ∗ 𝐾̂ 𝑠 (Δ𝜃) (4)
When the shaft is placed straight, the model prediction shows a
NRMSE of 0.32%, representing a mean accuracy to estimate the out-
put torque of 99.7%. As the bend radius is reduced, the accuracy of the
model estimation progressively decreases up to a maximum NRMSE of
2.3% (97.7% accuracy) for R = 150 mm. Fig. 7 also shows the different
μ coefficients as a function of R and the sign of Δ𝜃.
4. Experimental validation of the RTCA
4.1. Torque control of the RTCA
The ability to precisely control the output delivered torque is of spe-
cial interest in wearable robots due to the existing close interaction be-
182
Mechatronics 59 (2019) 178–188
tween the human and the robot. The high accuracy the proposed model
for the flexible shaft torque transmittance showed suggest that it can be
used to estimate and control the output torque transmitted by the RTCA
based only on position sensors providing information of the shaft’s tor-
sional deflection, as in SEAs, and spatial configuration, without the need
for expensive, heavy and bulky torque sensors.
4.1.1. Torque control diagram
Different approaches to SEA torque control have been proposed in
the literature [29–31]. When the presence of non-linearities such as fric-
tion and backlash is important, as the ones introduced by the flexible
shaft, a single-loop PID force controller controlling motor current may
become unstable. To remedy this issue, an inner position or velocity
control loop with an outer force control loop was proposed by [32], and
further adopted by many others [33–35], translating force control into
a position or velocity tracking problem.
The control scheme implemented in the RTCA follows a cascade ap-
proach similar to [33] with an inner velocity control loop performed by
the motor controller (EPOS3) at 1 kHz and an outer PID torque control
loop running at the same frequency Fig. 8). Output torque is estimated
using ((3) implemented online in the controller using the total deflec-
tion angle of the flexible shaft, Δ𝜃, and its operating bend radius R, and
used as a feedback in a PID torque controller.
In order to test the behaviour of the proposed torque controller, both
in terms of performance and torque estimation accuracy, we first placed
the shaft straight with the output blocked (see Fig. 4A) and set the con-
troller to follow a sinusoidal torque signal of 1 Hz and maximum ampli-
tude of 6 Nm using the model estimation as feedback. PID gains were
manually tuned using the Ziegler–Nichols method.
Fig. 9 shows the ability of the controller to follow the desired set-
point command as well as the accuracy of the model estimation. The
tracking error shows a mean value (RMSE) of 0.7334 ± 0.0223 Nm for
a set of 15 iterations, corresponding to a normalized error (NRMSE) of
6.11%, and a mean offset of 25 ms. The torque estimation presents mean
estimation errors of 0.0456 ± 0.005 Nm (0.37%) in comparison to the
values provided by the torque sensor during the experiment. Besides, the
experiment shows that the non-symmetrical torque-angle characteristic
Fig. 8. Proposed torque controller for the RTCA using the output torque esti-
mation 𝑇̂𝑠 (Δ𝜃, 𝑅) as feedback.
Fig. 9. Torque control and estimation accuracy using the proposed model and
controller for a sinewave of 6 Nm and 1 Hz.
D. Rodriguez-Cianca, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero and T. Verstraten et al.
of the shaft has no appreciable influence on torque controller’s perfor-
mance, as it presents a symmetric response for positive and negative
torque values. However, the presence of the deadzone could not be to-
tally compensated, decreasing the accuracy of the controller for torques
close to 0 Nm.
4.1.2. Influence of spatial configuration on torque controller’s bandwidth
Since the flexible shaft’s spatial configuration has an important in-
fluence on the flexible shaft’s output torque transmittance, we studied
the effect of the bend radius on the torque controller’s bandwidth in the
absence of any external disturbance. A multisine signal with a flat spec-
trum from 0.1 Hz to 10 Hz and variable amplitude with a peak value of
5 Nm was used as setpoint of the torque controller for three different
bend radius: 450, 300 and 120 mm, as well as for straight conditions.
Second order transfer functions G(s) = Test (s)/Tdes (s) were estimated us-
ing MATLAB’s system identification toolbox, fitting the measured data
with an accuracy close to 80% for all the tested conditions.
Fig. 10. Bode plot of the estimated torque control transfer function for differ-
ent spatial configurations. Data for R = 450 mm are not shown for the ease of
clearness.
The controller shows a bandwidth of 6.22 Hz when the cable is
straight. As the cable is set in configurations with lower bend radius
(higher bending), the bandwidth decreases due to the shaft’s internal
friction increase to 5.87 Hz, 4.32 Hz and 4.30 Hz for bend radius of 450,
300 and 150 mm, respectively. These experiments, nonetheless, did not
aim at maximizing the performance of the actuator, but at studying the
influence of the bend radius on the same, and were performed using the
same PID gains for all spatial conditions.
4.2. Output transparency of the RTCA
To perform a good torque control in robots interacting with humans,
an accurate actuation system with low impedance is desired. In other
words, the active orthosis must follow the joint motion, so that the
subject does not feel any resistance, when the desired torque is set to
zero. In order to check the accuracy of the torque estimation and con-
trol method, as well as the transparency of the RTCA in the presence
of external disturbances, an additional motor (Maxon DCX35L GBKL,
18 V, 80 W with integrated 113:1 gearbox) was placed coaxially with
the RTCA and assembled at its output side to act as an active and con-
trollable load (Fig. 11). This way, an output disturbance can be imposed
by the load motor while the RTCA’s controller is set in zero impedance
mode, or also called transparent mode i.e. fixed setpoint of 0 Nm, so that
it follows the motion of the load. A torque sensor is placed between the
load motor and the flexible shaft in order to compare the measured in-
teraction torques between the actuator and the load with the estimated
ones based on the proposed model.
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Fig. 11. Schematic representation of the experimental setup for output trans-
parency tests using a motor acting as an active and controllable load.
4.2.1. Influence of flexible shaft’s spatial configuration on output
transparency
For this experiment the load motor was controlled in position mode,
and set to follow a chirp signal with a frequency swept from 0.1 to 10 Hz
and an amplitude of 20°. The torque controller was set to a fixed setpoint
of 0 Nm, or zero impedance mode, so that the RTCA reacts to the out-
put disturbance in a way that this load does not feel any restriction.
Experiments were repeated for three different conditions: R = 450 mm,
R = 200 mm and straight. The torque estimation 𝑇̂𝑠 (Δ𝜃, 𝑅) was used as
feedback for the torque controller, providing a measure of the interac-
tion torque between the load and the RTCA. The estimated interaction
torque 𝑇̂𝑠 (Δ𝜃, 𝑅) and the output velocity (𝜃̇ 𝑠 ) where used to estimate the
transfer function of the output transparency, or impedance, of the sys-
tem Z(s) = 𝑇̂𝑠 (𝑠)/ 𝜃̇ 𝑠 (𝑠) for the three bend conditions. Bode plots of the
transfer functions were used to assess the influence of the frequency and
bend radius on the transparency of the system (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12. Impedance of the proposed controller when set to behave transparently
(setpoint of 0Nm) under the presence of an external disturbance.
The controller is able to behave highly transparent in the presence
of an external load for low frequencies regardless of the bend radius.
However, as the frequency increases, the controller displays higher
impedance values, and therefore lower transparency, until the reso-
nance point is achieved where the output impedance becomes the flexi-
ble shaft’s mechanical impedance. Transparency of the system therefore
decreased as the bend radius was reduced, which can be explained by
the friction augmentation in the flexible shaft and the absence of adap-
tive PID gains. Besides, the maximum impedance values were achieved
at lower frequencies.
4.2.2. Case study. Transparent performance of the RTCA for a lower limb
exoskeleton case
In this experiment we tested the transparency of the RTCA and its
controller considering its implementation into a lower limb exoskeleton.
We selected the case of a lower limb exoskeleton for assistance in which
the actuator must behave completely transparent in some periods of the
gait cycle, i.e. to follow the user’s motion without any restriction. The
aim was to test the ability of the RTCA to behave transparent when used
D. Rodriguez-Cianca, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero and T. Verstraten et al.
Fig. 13. Reference trajectories imposed by the load motor for each condition.
in lower limb exoskeletons, in which human-like kinematic profiles are
imposed as a load.
We used the same configuration as represented in Fig. 11. The load
motor was mounted coaxially with the RTCA and set to follow three
different human-like position profiles: hip, knee and ankle, taken from
human data [36] at a speed of 1.2 s/stride, considered as normal walking
speed.
The RTCA controller was set in transparent mode, i.e. with a fixed
setpoint of 0 Nm, so that it follows the motion imposed by the load mo-
tor, 𝜃 s . This way, interaction torque between the load and the actuator
is minimized. Experiments were repeated for three different bend condi-
tions: bend radius of 450, 200 mm and straight, each for three different
load kinematics: human hip, knee and ankle joints, consisting in a total
of 9 experiments (Fig. 14). We measured both the interaction torques
provided by the torque sensor and the estimation provided by Eq. (3) to
compare the accuracy of the model estimation, as well as the effect of
the bend angle on the transparency of the system.
The controller behaved almost completely transparent for the three
tested spatial configurations with maximum interaction torques in the
range ±0.05 Nm for most conditions. As the bend radius was reduced,
however, the interaction torques increased in comparison to straight
conditions for both hip, knee and ankle joints as suggested from results
from previous experiments. Besides, the model is able to accurately es-
timate the existing interaction torque for all conditions, although its
accuracy decreases as the bend radius is reduced.
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Mechatronics 59 (2019) 178–188
Fig. 15. Conceptual implementation of the RTCA into a lower limb exoskeleton
to actuate the ankle joint. The motor is placed at the thigh. The flexible shaft
spans the knee joint and transmits a torque to the ankle joint while the knee
angle changes, generating a bending moment on the flexible shaft. A last stage
90° transmission system is placed at the ankle joint.
5. Conceptual implementation of the RTCA for a lower limb
exoskeleton case
So far, all experiments considering the flexible shaft’s spatial configu-
ration were performed with fixed bend radius for each experiment. How-
ever, this configuration does not represent a realistic situation within a
wearable robot scheme for two main reasons. First, the bend radius is
hard to measure and requires a specific setup which is generally not
available in a wearable robot. Second, one of the main advantages of
the RTCA is its ability to transmit a torque in conditions were bend-
ing is required, especially when the end-effector moves during oper-
ational conditions, thanks to the flexible shaft’s bending capabilities.
To illustrate this concept, one could think of a lower limb exoskeleton
where a distal joint such as the ankle joint needs to be actuated. The
RTCA allows the allocation of the motor and electronic systems at the
thigh or the waist, more proximal locations, and transmit torque to the
ankle joint while the flexible shaft spans the knee joint, which means
the shaft would be submitted to continuous bending as it follows the
knee movement. In this case, the bend angle 𝜑 constitutes a more ad-
equate parameter to define the shaft’s bending as it can be inferred by
means of the intermediate’s joint angle, i.e. the knee, as in Fig. 15. Both
Fig. 14. Interaction torque (Nm) seen by an external
load as a function of time (s) when the controller is
set in transparent mode (setpoint of 0 Nm) for imposed
output trajectories of human hip, knee and ankle joints
at a walking frequency of 1.2 s/stride. Comparison is
made between straight conditions and two different
bend angles and between the torque estimation and the
actual measured torque.
D. Rodriguez-Cianca, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero and T. Verstraten et al. Mechatronics 59 (2019) 178–188

parameters, bend radius R and bend angle 𝜑 are related by means of the
following equation: 𝐿 = 𝜑 ⋅ 𝑅, where L constitutes the bend length.
In this case, when the bend angle is available instead of the bend
radius, the proposed torque estimation model can be adapted as follows:

𝑇̂𝑠 (Δ𝜃, 𝜑) = 𝜇 (𝜑, sign(Δ𝜃)) ∗ 𝑇̂𝑠 (Δ𝜃) (5)

5.1. Bend angle estimation and compensation

We designed an experiment in order to replicate this condition and

checked whether the proposed model and controller could be imple-
mented in wearable robots following the proposed approach. The ex-
perimental setup is depicted in Fig. 16. Two different aluminium pro-
files corresponding to the thigh and shank of a lower limb exoskeleton
are connected by means of a passive hinge joint that mimics the human
knee joint. The RTCA is implemented so that the driving unit, the motor,
is placed at the thigh. A torque sensor is placed and fixed to the shank
to measure the torque transmitted to the ankle joint. The flexible shaft
connects the motor with the torque sensor, transmitting the torque from
the thigh, where the motor is placed, to the ankle, spanning through the
knee joint as this one is able to rotate manually. An optical encoder
measures the rotation angle (𝜑) of the knee, providing information of
the flexible shaft’s bend angle. The shaft is rigidly and evenly fixed to
the two profiles by means of two custom made holding plates, leaving a
bend length L = 255 mm in a symmetrical configuration with respect to
the joint’s location.
The experimental procedure was as follows: First, the RTCA’s out-
put torque controller was set to follow a 1 Hz sinusoidal signal with a
4 Nm amplitude while the knee joint’s angle was manually changed to
fixed angles of 0°, 20°, 40°, 60°, 70°, 80° and 90°, using the values pro-
vided by the torque sensor as input for the controller. Both total shaft’s
torsional deflection angle Δ𝜃, output torque Ts and bend angle 𝜑 data
were collected during the experiment and used in an offline identifica-
tion procedure to derive a model of the system using Eq. (5) to estimate
each 𝜇 (𝜑) coefficient that better fits the proposed model with the exper-
imental data at each bend angle, in total for 7 fixed conditions.
A model was built offline for discrete values of 𝜑 and implemented
online afterwards introducing the identified 𝜇 (𝜑) values into a dynamic
lookup table with linear interpolation for 𝜇 as a function of 𝜑 [0°,90°]
to generalize it for continuous values of 𝜑. The output torque estima-
tion 𝑇̂𝑠 (Δ𝜃, 𝜑) was, therefore, automatically updated as a function of the
bend angle, measured by the knee encoder, as well as the flexible shaft’s
torsional deflection angle Δ𝜃 by means of the optical encoders placed at
both ends of the flexible shaft.
Finally, and in order to check the accuracy of the proposed online
dynamic torque estimation method and controller, we repeated the ex-
periment. We set a desired output torque sinewave of 4 Nm and 1 Hz
while the knee joint angle was this time continuously and manually
changed from 0° to 90° first, and from 90° to 0° back again, and com-
pared the output torque estimations 𝑇̂𝑠 (Δ𝜃, 𝜑) with respect to the mea-
sured torque Ts . Fig. 17 shows the effect of the continuous bend angle
Fig. 16. Experimental setup to resemble a lower limb exoskeleton able to trans-
mit torque to the ankle joint from a motor placed at the thigh with a flexible
shaft that spans the knee joint while this angle changes dynamically, bending
the flexible shaft.
Fig. 17. Measured output torque as a function of the deflection angle when the
flexible shaft is dynamically bent with 𝜑 in the range [0°, 90°].
Fig. 18. Output torque estimation error as a function of the bend angle 𝜑. In
blue, the estimation error of the proposed adaptive model estimation (Eq. (5)).
In orange, the estimation error when the effect of the bend angle is neglected.
change on the shaft’s output torque-angle characteristic, while Fig. 18
shows the capability of the proposed model to compensate for the effect
of the bend angle and reduce the torque estimation error in comparison
to neglecting it.
Maximum estimation errors using the proposed dynamic model are
kept in the interval ±0.35 Nm, whereas the maximum estimation er-
rors in case of neglecting the effect of the bend angle increase up until
maximum values of 2.8 Nm. The proposed adaptive model, therefore,
improves the torque estimation accuracy by 87.5% by considering the
bend angle in comparison to neglecting its effect.
5.2. Implications of remote actuation for torque requirements in lower limb
exoskeletons
The RTCA prototype presented in this paper has a total weight of
1.8 kg, where 0.7 kg corresponds to the input motor plus gearbox com-
bination, and can deliver a maximum torque of 4 to 6 Nm with a torque
bandwidth that ranges from 4.3 to 6.22 Hz depending on the flexible
shaft’s spatial configuration. Although its total weight is comparable to
other compliant actuators with similar torque ranges [37,38], the RTCA
improves the mass distribution on the exoskeleton as its weight is uni-
formly distributed over the limb, instead of being concentrated at the
joint level. Besides, using the presented output torque estimation model,
the flexible shaft is turned into a virtual torque sensor for the RTCA that
only uses position encoders to estimate and control the output torque de-
livered at the joint level without the need for a real torque sensor, which
are generally expensive, bulky and heavy and are normally placed at the
joint location, having also a negative impact on the inertia of the system.
In order to study the effect of the remote actuation approach on
the torque requirements, we simulated a lower limb exoskeleton using
SimMechanics (MATLAB, The MathWorks, Inc), in which only the an-
kle joint is actuated. We imposed human-like position trajectories at

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D. Rodriguez-Cianca, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero and T. Verstraten et al.
Fig. 19. Comparison between the required torques at the hip and knee joints
to accelerate and deaccelerate an ankle joint actuator, both using the proposed
RTCA and a traditional in-line approach.
the hip and knee joints (Fig. 13), and compared the required torque to
drive the joints using inverse dynamics, both when implementing the
RTCA to drive the ankle joint (Fig. 15), and when using a traditional
approach where the actuator is directly placed in-line with the ankle.
The exoskeleton size was adapted for a 1,70 m height human using an-
thropometric data [36], giving a length of 0.416 m for the thigh and
0.418 m for the shank. Weight was distributed within the exoskeleton
as follows: For the RTCA, the motor weight (0.7 kg) was modelled as
a punctual mass located at 0.1 m from the hip joint and connected to
the thigh. The weight of the flexible shaft together with the rest of the
components were modelled as a mass of 1.1 kg located at 0.1 m from
the knee joint (See Fig. 15). As for the in-line approach, we estimated a
total weight of 1 kg for an actuator implementing the same input motor-
gearbox combination as the RTCA, with a weight of 0.7 kg, and 0.3 kg
extra that includes a compliant element (typically a torsion spring) and
the required auxiliary components. Fig. 19 shows the results from the
simulations.
For the hip joint, the peak torques required to accelerate and deaccel-
erate the ankle actuator when imposing human-like kinematic profiles
at the hip and knee joint are reduced from 2.67 Nm in extension and
3.45 Nm in flexion, when using a traditional actuator placed at the an-
kle, to 2.07 Nm in extension and 1.56 Nm in flexion when using the
proposed RTCA approach. This means a peak decrease of 22.5% of the
required extension torque and of 54.8% for the flexion torque at the
hip joint. For the knee joint, the required peak extension torques are re-
duced from 3.39 Nm to 0.89 Nm (73.75% decrease) and from 1.32 Nm
to 0.35 Nm for flexion torques (73.5%).
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Mechatronics 59 (2019) 178–188
6. Discussion
6.1. RTCA’s torque estimation and effect of bending
This paper presented the conceptual development and proof of con-
cept tests of the RTCA. The authors first introduced an output torque
estimation and control method based on the flexible shaft’s torsional
deflection and spatial configuration. The model is able to capture both
the effects of the non-linear behaviour of the torsional deflection and
the internal friction increase of the flexible shaft when submitted to
bending Fig. 6), showing output torque estimation accuracies that reach
mean values of 99.7% when the shaft is straight, and over 97.7% in case
of maximum bending conditions (Fig. 7). The model coefficient μ from
((3) had a value of 1 when the shaft is placed straight, and decreased
as the shaft was bent. Therefore, although the proposed model does not
provide a physical interpretation of the energy reduction’s causes due
to bending, it provides a qualitative estimation of the amount of losses
that are introduced in the system due to shaft’s bending in comparison
to straight conditions, which can be suitable for design and implemen-
tation purposes. Based on these parameters, maximum losses of energy
corresponded to a bend radius of 250 mm, with μ values of 0.705 for
the TOL and 0.82 for the LOL. This bending, therefore, induced a max-
imum torque loss of 29.5% and 18%, respectively, in comparison to
straight conditions. This suggests that the bending in the cable induces
a friction increase within the internal layers of the flexible shaft that
is translated into higher energy losses and an apparent reduction of the
RTCA’s stiffness seen from the motor side (see Fig. 6B). This is perceived
as an increase of the RTCA’s stiffness when seen from the output. The
proposed model prediction is able to capture these effects and maintain
a high accuracy for the RTCA’s torque estimation. However, in the case
R = 150 mm (maximum bending), the μ coefficients suggest lower en-
ergy losses due to friction than in the case R = 250 mm, which seems
counterintuitive. However, it is important to note that in this case the
model estimation presented the least accuracy (mean decrease of 50%
accuracy), which suggests the presence of other effects that are not cap-
tured by our model.
6.2. RTCA’s torque control
A PID controller with an inner velocity control loop was proposed
to assess the performance of the RTCA’s torque estimation and control
method, as well as the influence of the shaft’s bend configuration on
the same. Experiments considered the possible future implementation
of the RTCA into exoskeleton devices in terms of torque control capa-
bilities and transparency, both important properties for this kind of de-
vices. The torque controller presented bandwidths between 6.22 Hz and
4.3 Hz for a maximum amplitude of 5 Nm (Fig. 10), which could we
considered adequate for lower limb exoskeletons, since the bandwidth
of the human joints is about 4–8 Hz [36], and was able to behave almost
completely transparent regardless of the flexible shaft’s spatial configu-
ration and output disturbance (Figs. 12 and 13). However, as the flexible
shaft is bent, the performance of the controller decreased both in terms
of torque control accuracy and transparency probably due to the losses
of energy caused by the friction increase within the internal layers of
the flexible shaft. The authors, however, did not aim at maximizing the
torque control performance of the RTCA, and other control methods that
consider these effects should be implemented in the future to compen-
sate them, such as a PID gain scheduling for multiple operating points
based on the bend configuration. The output torque estimation, besides,
somehow behaves as a lowpass filter of the torque measured by a torque
sensor, as the digital position encoders used to estimate it have lower
noise than the torque sensor itself, which could allow to increase the
gains of the PID controller in comparison to using the signal from the
torque sensor as feedback [39]. Finally, the accuracy of the torque con-
troller decreased for torques close to 0 Nm due to the presence of a dead-
zone in the flexible shaft (Fig. 9). A possible reason for this undesired
D. Rodriguez-Cianca, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero and T. Verstraten et al.
effect could be the existence of play between the flexible shaft’s inner
core and its end connectors. This connection is generally performed by
means of a square profile that is mechanically shaped on the flexible
shaft’s extreme sides. The authors were able to report the existence of
this play in the implemented flexible shaft, which suggests that other
connection methods could improve the flexible shaft’s torsional perfor-
mance and therefore the bandwidth of the torque controller.
6.3. Implementation of the RTCA in lower limb exoskeletons
The paper finally presented a conceptual implementation of the
RTCA into a lower limb exoskeleton following a remote and compliant
approach by exploiting the bending and torsional compliant properties
of the flexible shaft (Figs. 15 and 16) . The RTCA is able to remotely
estimate and control the transmitted torque at a distal joint, such as the
ankle, while the motor and electronic systems are placed in a physio-
logically more advantageous place, such as the thigh. The flexible shaft
connects the motor with the distal joint as it spans an intermediate joint
that rotates, such as the knee joint, which means the flexible shaft is
subjected to continuous bending as it follows the joint’s movement. The
shaft’s bending angle was estimated by means of the intermediate’s joint
angle, and used to update the output torque estimation online based on
this parameter and the shaft’s torsional deflection angle. Results showed
the proposed approach is able to dynamically track and predict the effect
of the continuous shaft’s bend angle change while keeping a high accu-
racy in the output torque estimation and tracking performance (Fig. 18),
validating the suitability of the proposed implementation and control
approach of the RTCA for lower limb exoskeletons. Finally, simulation
results showed the use of a RTCA can highly reduce the amount of torque
required to accelerate the self-weight of an exoskeleton due to the bet-
ter weight distribution. For the case of the ankle joint, results showed a
decrease of 55% of the peak required torque at the hip and of 74% at
the knee when compared to an in-line traditional actuation approach.
Results suggest, therefore, that the presented approach could also be
extrapolated and implemented into other systems with similar configu-
rations, such as upper limb exoskeletons, robotic arms, prosthetics and
haptic devices, were the reduction of the inertia together with an accu-
rate torque control are also decisive for the application functionality.
6.4. Limitations and opportunities of the RTCA
The RTCA has also some limitations and disadvantages. The maxi-
mum torque a flexible shaft can transmit is limited by its diameter and
bending configuration. If more output torque is required there are two
possible options: (i) Increase shaft’s diameter, or (ii) Implement a last
stage transmission system with a transmission ratio higher than one.
An increase on the shaft’s diameter is directly linked to an increase on
the torsional stiffness, which reduces the compliant properties of RTCA.
Besides, the shaft’s diameter and bending stiffness are inversely propor-
tional: if a thicker flexible shaft is used, the bending flexibility is reduced
and with it the minimum operating bend radius and torque efficiency.
In this case, in order to achieve higher bend angle ranges of motion,
the shaft’s length must be increased. Although length does not affect
the torque transmittance, it has an effect on the torsional stiffness: the
higher the length, the lower the torsional stiffness for a certain shaft’s di-
ameter, and the easier for the appearance of helixing, or twisting of the
shaft under high loads. To avoid this problem, the flexible shaft could
be combined with rigid shafts in sections were no bending is required.
This way, the flexible shaft could be implemented only to transmit the
torque through a joint in motion to the more distal joints, while the
torque could be transmitted parallel to the human limbs by means of
rigid shafts for the rest of the limb segments. This combination, besides,
could be integrated inside the main structure of the robot, preventing the
existence of mobile parts that could endanger the safety of the human.
This implementation would additionally require to change the torque di-
rection, from parallel to perpendicular to the limb, to drive each joint. It
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Mechatronics 59 (2019) 178–188
could be made by means of a last-stage 90° transmission system such as
a bevel gear, worm gear or cable-pulley system placed at the joint level,
and in series with the flexible shaft. In case these transmission systems
not only change the torque direction but also the magnitude, the output
stiffness would also be affected. Transmission ratios higher than one,
besides increasing the output torque and reducing the amount of torque
transmitted by the shaft, would exponentially increase the output stiff-
ness.
6.5. Comparison between the RTCA and Bowden-cable actuators
Bowden cables typically suffer from non-linear tension variation
when submitted to bending due to friction and backlash, which is diffi-
cult to model and affects torque/force control performance. In this paper
we show the friction increase in the flexible shaft due to bending is easy
to model and can be easily taken into account for torque estimation and
control. Second, in Bowden-cables, when compliance is required, gen-
erally a spring must be placed in series with it. This element, generally
placed at the joint level, can increase the mechanical complexity of the
system as well as its weight and inertia. Instead, in the RTCA, the flex-
ible shaft serves both as the transmission element from the relocated
motor to the joint and as the compliant element of the actuator, reduc-
ing the amount of components of the actuator. Finally, Bowden-cables
transmit forces instead of torques, which requires an additional system
to convert the force into a torque. In the case of soft exoskeletons, for
example, due to the routing of the cable, the exerted linear forces gen-
erate shear forces between the exoskeleton and the human skin, which
should be avoided as they can be uncomfortable and even painful for
humans. Instead, the flexible shaft transmits pure moments that are di-
rectly transmitted to the human in the form of a pair of normal forces,
which is more efficient and comfortable for humans.
7. Conclusion
The RTCA constitutes a promising alternative to address some of the
current problems of actuators for wearable robots and exoskeleton de-
vices in particular. In comparison to other commonly used transmission
systems in RAS, such as Bowden cables, the implementation of the flex-
ible shaft in the RTCA following the proposed approach provides simul-
taneously the advantages of RAS: improved mass distribution, and the
advantages of SEAs and compliant systems, as the flexible shaft can be
modelled and exploited as a torsionally compliant element whose output
transmitted torque can be easily estimated based on the shaft’s torsional
deflection angle and spatial configuration, allowing torque control at a
distal joint based on position sensors and providing an intrinsically safe
interaction with humans. The RTCA highly reduces the development
time in comparison to other actuation systems as it uses mainly off-the-
shelf components and does not require the design and manufacturing of
additional complex elements such as custom-made springs or transmis-
sion elements.
This paper presented the first validation and proof of concept test
of the RTCA to serve as a foundation for the future implementation of
this concept into wearable robots. Results were promising and showed
the proposed concept and implementation approach are suitable for this
kind of applications, confirming its viability for future developments in
this field and opening new implementation possibilities of this technol-
ogy into other related fields such as robotic prosthesis, haptic devices
and, more broadly, the robotic field in general.
Acknowledgement
David Rodriguez-Cianca is a FWO-SB fellow of the Research Founda-
tion - Flanders (FWO). Tom Verstraten is a postdoctoral fellow of the the
same organization. This work was partially supported by the ERC-grant
SPEAR (No. 337596) and the FWO-SBO Exo4work (No. S000118N).
D. Rodriguez-Cianca, C. Rodriguez-Guerrero and T. Verstraten et al. Mechatronics 59 (2019) 178–188

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2015; 2015. p. 25–30. doi:10.1109/ICORR.2015.7281170. He combined his last years of college with his work as re-
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LOPES II - Design and evaluation of an admittance controlled gait training robot Flanders (FWO). His work focuses on the design, control and
with shadow-leg approach. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2016;24:352–63. implementation of novel actuation technologies for lower limb
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2014. p. 5927–33. doi:10.1109/ICRA.2014.6907732.

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