1: Silicon Controlled Rectifier

Purpose: To become familiar with the basic characteristics of a silicon controlled

rectifier.

Equipment: SCR module, oscilloscope, two multimeters, connecting leads

Background

A diode is two-terminal device with a single PN junction. A bipolar transistor is a

three-terminal device with two series-connected PN junctions, configured as PNP or
NPN. A silicon-controlled rectifier is also a three-terminal device but with three series-
connected PN junctions configured as PNPN. The anode terminal is connected to the
first P, the gate terminal (G) is connected to the second P, and the cathode terminal (K)
is connected to the second N.

The four-layer thee-junction SCR may be considered as a pair of PNP and NPN
transistors, with the base terminal of each connected to the collector terminal of the
other, as suggested in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 A SCR may be pictured as a pair of transistors

It may be helpful here to recall some basic properties of a PN junction and a

transistor. Taking the current I through a PN junction and the voltage V across the
junction as positive if from P to N these quantities are related by the expression:

I = I0 (eVk/T – 1) (1)

I0 is of the order of ½ A ( 5 x 10–7 A) ; T is the Kelvin junction temperature (T Kelvin =

273o + TCelsius ); the constant k  5,000. Recall that e0 = 1 so for V > +0.25 (eVk/T–1) 
eVk/T and for V < –.025 then (eVk/T–1)  –1. This relation between I and V works both

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ways; if we apply a voltage V across a PN junction,
there will be a current I through the circuit; if we force a
current I through the PN junction a voltage V will
appear. For a negative value of V (reverse bias) the
junction current is approximately ½ A , while for 0 < V
< ½ the current is less that one milliamp.

For a transistor (a back-to-back connection of

two PN junctions) the characteristics of the base
material (the N of a PNP transistor or the P of an NPN)
are somewhat different. The emitter-base junction Fig. 2 PN junction
follows Eq.1 while the base-collector is different
depending if the transistor is or is not fully conducting,
as shown in Fig. 3.

With this refresher we now look at the transistor

circuit in Fig. 1d that simulates a real SCR. Recall that
any bipolar transistor is cut off (non conducting, or
zero collector-emitter current) if there is no base-
emitter current. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1d the
anode terminal A (emitter of the PNP transistor Q 1) is
maintained at a positive voltage with respect to the
cathode terminal K (emitter of the NPN transistor Q2).
Now if Q2 is not conducting, its collector current is
zero, Therefore the base current of Q1 is also zero.
And in the absence of any current entering the base of Fig. 3: Typical transistor voltages
Q2 through the gate G, zero Q1 collector current
means zero Q2 base current. By not conducting, each transistor prevents the other
transistor from conducting. Therefore anode-cathode current is zero.

But if in this cut-off condition any brief or small current enters through the gate G
to the base of Q2 there results a small collector current to the base of Q 1. This permits
Q1 to conduct slightly, which in turn adds to the base current of Q1. In this way an
increase in conduction in either transistor causes an increase in conduction in the other.
The mutual conduction continues even after the input gate current is removed.
Conduction stops only if the anode current is interrupted by some external action (or a
strong negative pulse is applied to the gate terminal). So a SCR is basically a switch
which can be turned on or “fired” by a small and brief gate current, but remains
conducting until the current through it is interrupted by some external means,.

Fig. 4 shows the full simulation circuit. We consider separately the anode-
cathode circuit and the gate-cathode circuit;

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 Fig. 4: Simulation of a SCR by a PNP and NPN transistor pair
Activity #1: Simulated anode-cathode circuit
In normal applications the load is placed between the power source and the
SCR. The load current enters at the SCR anode and exits at the cathode. The SCR acts
as an on-off switch activated by gate current. An ideal switch has two states, zero
resistance or infinite resistance. In this activity we examine the SCR resistance in its
conducting and non-conducting states, to see to what extent is acts as an ideal on-off
switch
Conducting characteristics: On the circuit board, as IAK VAK R
pictured in Fig. 4, place jumpers at J2. Connect a mille- 20.0 mA
ammeter at J1, and a voltmeter between TP1 and ground. 30.0 mA
Set the RCTRL pot fully CW. Adjust the supply voltage to 40.0 mA
approximately 5 volts; the LED load lamp should glow 50.0 mA
showing that the transistors are conducting. Next adjust the
supply voltage so that the current through the transistor pair, IAK, is just 20.0 mA. Record
the voltage across the transistor pair, VAK, and calculate the resistance, R. Repeat for
the other current values in the table.
Notice that IAK enters at the emitter of the PNP transistor, Q 1, and leaves through
the emitter of the NPN transistor, Q 2, Does IAK divide equally when going through the
parallel paths through R a and Rb from Q1 to Q2 ? To answer this, adjust the supply
voltage so IAK = 40.0 mA. Then successively measure and record the currents through
Ra and Rb (Use Ohms law with Ra = 1.0 = Rb )
Ia _______ Ib__________ Are they approximately equal? _________________
Although the currents through Ra and Rb are approximately, is there a difference
in potential between them? Measure voltage between the tops of R a and Rb:
________________ Is this result reasonable? ______
Why? _______________________________________________________________

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____________________________________________________________________
Transistor Q1 is fully conducting so its emitter-collector voltage, V EC, should be
quite low. Measure this VEC ( between TP1 and RA-top) ______________________
Conducting or not its emitter-base should be somewhere near ½ volt. Measure this V EB
(between TP1 and RB-top) ____________________________________________
Does this explain the voltage difference between the tops of R A and RB?
____________________
Notice that the emitter-collector current of Q1 passing through R A becomes the base-
emitter current through Q2. Likewise the emitter-base current of Q1 passing through RB
becomes an emitter-collector current through Q2. Although the currents divide in
flowing from Q1 to Q1, both currents enter the pair through the emitter-base junction of
Q1 and leave through the base-emitter junction of Q2. When flowing separately each
also pass through separate single base-collector junctions. Now, explain the values of
VAK, the voltage across the transistor pair, which you measured above: ___________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Non-conducting characteristics: Set the anode- VAK IAK R

cathode voltage VAK to 5.00 V by adjusting the power 5.00
source, insert the ammeter at J1, turn the R CTRL pot fully 7.50
CCW, and press briefly the N.O. switch. The LED load 10.0
lamp should not glow; the transistors are not conducting.
Measure IAK in micro-amperes and compute resistance. Repeat for VAK = 7.5 and 10V.
In this non-conducting state almost the entire supply voltage across the transistor pair
and no voltage drop across the load. It is difficult to measure the individual non-
conducting voltages across RA or RB since any small disturbance can cause a switch
from non-conducting to conducting. From your measurements answer the question: “Is
the SCR an effective on-off switch?” _______________________________

Activity #2: Simulated Gate-Cathode Circuit

A small and brief gate current is required to start conduction in a SCR, but once
conduction has started, the gate terminal loses control. In this activity we investigate the
gate-cathode behavior of the simulation circuit shown in Fig. 4.

Place links at J1 and J2. Set the R CTRL control pot fully CCW to apply minimum
VGK voltage between the gate G and cathode K terminals (the base-emitter voltage of
Q2). Connect a voltmeter between TP2 and ground to measure V GK. Adjust the supply
voltage to 5.00 V, and briefly depress the normally-closed N.C. switch. The LED load
lamp should not glow.
Next to increase VGK, turn very slowly the control knob clockwise. At a certain
value the LED load lamp should start to glow. This is the gate-cathode turn-on or firing
voltage, VGKC. However once conduction starts, there is a jump in the V GK value. Make
several trials, each time stopping conduction by pressing the N.C. switch.

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firing voltage, VGKC __________ during conduction, V GK ______________
Does the voltage across the simulated SCR have any effect of these values?
Increase the supply voltage to 10.0 volts and repeat measurements:
@VAK = 10.0 V record VGKC ____________ and VGK ___________ .
What is happening here? Recall that the PN junction current, I, depends
exponentially on the voltage V across the junction, as noted in Eq. 1: I = I0 (ekV/T – 1).
When either Q1 or Q2 is non-conducting, it prevents conduction in the other. When V GK is
about 0.4 volts there is enough V EB current in Q2 to trigger the Q1-Q2 mutual interaction.
This sets both into full conduction causing V EB of Q2 to approach 0.6 volts. Once this full
conduction occurs gate current is no longer needed.

To show this, set the supply voltage to 10.0 V, insert a mille-ammeter at J1 to

measure IAK. When conduction has started vary the control pot from full CCW to full CW
and record VGK and IAK. Also remove J2 and record the values
@ full CCW: VGK ____________ IAK ______________
@ full CW: VGK ____________ IAK _______________
J2 removed: VGK ____________ IAK ________________
Does this suggest that the gate has lost control once conduction has started? ________
But if the gate has lost control once conduction has started, how do we stop
conduction? That is the function of the normally closed (N.C.) push button. Once the
current through the SCR is interrupted, however briefly, conduction stops, and is only
started again through the proper gate voltage. But if you were to short-circuit the SCR
by briefly connecting TP1 to ground, would conduction stop? ______ (Set supply to 5.0V)
When does SCR conduction stop: at start or end of the short circuit? _____________
When does load conduction stop: at start or end of the short circuit? _____________
During the short-circuit, how large is the load current? ________________________

If we apply Eq. 1 to the emitter-base junction of Q 2 once IAK VGK.

conduction has started, should a larger junction current, Iak , 10.0 mA
produce a larger junction voltage, V BE ? To investigate this, 20.0 mA
remove jumper at J2, but leave the voltmeter between TP2 and 30.0 mA
ground. While there is conduction vary the supply voltage to 40.0 mA
obtain the values of IAK shown in the table and record the
corresponding VGK. Does this agree with Eq. 1 ? ____________

Notes on the Simulation Circuit of Fig. 4

The load in the simulation circuit shown in Fig. 4 is an 180resistor in series with an LED which
provides a visual indication of conduction. Without the parallel 10kresistor a voltage drop would appear across
the LED even with almost no current. The two fixed resistors in series the R CTRL potentiometer provide a more
sensitive voltage control over the range of interest. The 1f capacitor between gate and ground eliminates
random interference that might prematurely trigger or fire the SCR circuit. The parallel 6.8k resistor provides a
short time constant for the capacitor, of the order of a few milliseconds. The normally-closed NC push button is a
A Real SCR with a DC Source:
convenient means of interrupting IAK and ending conduction. The PNP and NPN transistor pair are low power, for
during conduction VCE across either seldom exceeds ½ volt.

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 With a DC power source a SCR acts as an on-off switch. However with an AC
source it can also act as a current limiter. With the module shown in Fig. 5 we may
consider either of these configurations. A first step in analyzing a real SCR is to
determine its basic parameters using a variable DC source. We then move on to
consider practical circuits in which the source is AC.

Fig.5 A SCR test circuit for DC or AC operation

Activity #3: DC Anode-cathode SCR Characteristics

In this activity we examine the SCR anode-cathode characteristics when
conducting and non-conducting.

Conducting characteristics: To measure the SCR IAK VAK R

resistance when conducting use the circuit shown in 0.050 A
Fig. 5 Set S1 switched to the 16V DC supply and S2 to 0.100 A
the 820 resistor. Place jumper at J2 and remove 0.150 A
jumper at J1. Insert a DC mille-ammeter at J1 to 0.200 A
measure the load current IAK and place a DC voltmeter
between TP1 and TP5 to measure VAK. Set RCTRL to
minimum and adjust the supply voltage to obtain the IAK values in the table. Compute
the SCR resistance, R, when conducting.
Non-conducting characteristics: To determine the
SCR resistance when not conducting, set RCTRL to VAK IAK A R
maximum and press the N.C. button. This time adjust 4.00
the DC supply voltage to the V AK values shown in the 8.00
table. Record IAK in micro-amperes, A and calculate 12.00
the corresponding SCR resistance when non- 16.00
conducting. Do these results show that a real SCR is a
good on-off switch ? _______________________

Activity #4: DC Gate-cathode SCR Characteristics

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 Just as with our simulated SCR circuit, to initiate conduction in a SCR a small
turn-on voltage, VGKC, must be applied to the gate terminal. This value is somewhat
affected by VAK, the voltage across the SCR. In this activity we determine the value of
the gate turn-on voltage, and note how this may be affected by SCR voltage, V AK.

Remove the mille-ammeter from J1 and put a

jumper in its place. Connect a voltmeter between TP1 VAK VGKC
and TP5 to measure VAK. Place a jumper at J2 and 4.00
connect a second voltmeter between TP2 and TP5 to 8.00
measure VGk and VGKC. Set RCTRL to maximum (full CW); 12.00
briefly press the N.C. button to stop conduction. Adjust 16.00
the DC power supply to give VAK = 4.00 V Next gradually
reduce RCTRL which increases V GK. Once conduction begins (this is at V GKC) a sudden
jump occurs (even if the load lamp is not lit). Repeat this process for each V AK shown in
the table. How do these values compare with the corresponding values for our
simulated SCR circuit found in Activity #2? __________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Bipolar transistors are known as current-controlled devices (field effect

transistors are voltage-controlled) . Since the gate-cathode path is in effect a PN
junction, the gate current IGK should be a function of V GK. Here we explore the gate-
current gate voltage relationship of a non-conducting SCR .
Remove the jumper at J2 and replace it by a mille-ammeter to VGK IGK
measure IGK. Connect a voltmeter between TP2 and ground to measure 0.20
VGK. Set RCTRL to maximum to give an initial minimum value to V GK. Set
0.25
the DC supply voltage to approximately 8 volts. Briefly press the N.C.
0.30
button to make the SCR non-conducting. Next by adjusting R CTRL set
0.35
VGK to each value in the table shown and record the corresponding IGK
0.40
in microamperes
Do these result seem to agree with PN junction Eq. 1 ? _________________
Based on these results, is the SCR current controller or voltage controller?_________
__________________________________________________________

For the simulated SCR circuit of Fig. 4, once conduction started the gate lost
control. Is this also the case for a real SCR? To answer this question place a jumper at
J2 and a mille-ammeter at J1. Set supply voltage to 16.0 V. Adjust R CTRL to start
conduction. When conducting, does R CTRL have any effect on IAK, the SCR current?
_____________________________________________

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An SCR with an AC Source:
When used with an AC power source the SCR
becomes more that just an on-off switch; it becomes
an average-current controller. Recall that twice each
cycle the AC source voltage is briefly zero, and in
alternate half-cycles the polarity reverses. If the SCR
starts conducting at any point during a positive half-
cycle (0o to 180o) it remains conducting only till the
end of this positive half-cycle at 180 o. The earlier
conduction starts during the positive half cycle, the
greater the current, averaged over many cycles; the
later conduction starts, the less the average current.
Based on the diagram in Fig. 6, SCR conduction can
never exceed 180o or half a period, and if conducting,
the duration cannot be less that one-quarter cycle (a
gate voltage which might start conduction in the 90 0 –
180o interval would already have started conduction
in the 0o – 90o interval). Fig.6 SCR conduction cycles

So how do we determine at what point in the positive half-cycle the SCR is

turned on? In the module circuit shown in Fig. 5, the voltage applied to the gate is
determined by the setting of a voltage divider between the supply voltage and ground.
This part of the circuit is shown in Fig. 7. Of course in the AC mode the supply voltage
Vsupply is continuously changing.

The value of VGK may be varied either by

changing Z1, through RCTRL, or by changing Vsupply
. Therefore an adjustment of Z 1 (RCTRL) controls
the point in each cycle at which conduction
begins. Switch S2 allows Z 2 to be either a
resistor of a capacitor. If Z2 is a resistor
conduction can begin only in the 0 o to 90o
interval. However, as we will find later, If Z 2 is a
capacitor of proper value conduction can begin
anywhere in the 0o to 180o interval. Conduction Fig. 7 Voltage divider of Fig. 5
for each cycle ends at 180 o. When analyzing AC
circuits an oscilloscope is more helpful that a multimeter.

Activity #5: A Resistive Voltage Divider

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 In this activity we use an oscilloscope to observe how the value of RCTRL changes
the point in the 0o – 90o interval of each cycle at which conduction begins. To provide a
stable oscilloscope display we connect the oscilloscope external sync input to the
module AC signal source (TP3 and ground) and set the trigger selector to EXT, and
also adjust the trigger level control.

The next step is to adjust the timing of the horizontal sweep. Place jumpers at
J1 and J2.. Set switch S2 to the 680 resistor, and S1 to the AC source. Connect the
oscilloscope Channel A between TP3 and ground. This means that the Channel A
display the source voltage, V supply. Adjust the horizontal sweep timing (both fixed step
and variable adjust) to display exactly one half cycle on the screen. Adjust vertical gain
and position for a convenient display. In what follows, do not change the horizontal
sweep timing..
Next we wish to display the current through the SCR and the load, I AK. Of course
oscilloscopes directly measure voltage, not current. Therefore move the Channel A
oscilloscope connection to TP5. The built-in resistor between TP5 and ground is 10.0,
so a 1.00V voltage across it indicates a current of 100 mille-amperes. Set R CTRL to
minimum resistance (full CCW) so conduction begins as early as possible. Now slowly
increase RCTRL until a sharp rise in the trace occurs at about two squares from the left
edge of the screen. This indicates the start of conduction. From the size of the jump and
the vertical gain setting of Channel A, calculate the anode-cathode current, IAK. This
current rises to a maximum, following closely V supply. If RCTRL is too large the SCR never
fires. From this oscilloscope trace calculate:
SCR current, IAK, at moment of firing: ________________________
Maximum SCR, IAK current: ________________________________

Notice that this maximum SCR current is not at all equal to the average current
through the load. During the negative half cycles of V supply there is no conduction. The
later SCR firing, the smaller the average SCR current. But the circuit shown does not
permit a firing angle between 90o and 180o. This prevents control of smaller currents,
which would happen if firing could occur between 90 o and 180o. However there is a way
to delay firing and control a small average current, which we consider in Activity #6.

Activity #6: An RC Voltage Divider:

In this activity we explore a method of starting SCR conduction during the 90 o –

o
180 interval of each cycle. Depending on the position of S1, the voltage divider shown
in detail in Fig. 7 may be purely resistive or an RC series circuit. Prior to conduction:
VGK = VSupply Z2 / (Z1 + Z2)
= VSupply (1/jC) / (RCTRL + 1/jC
= VSupply (1 – jRCTRL C) / (1 + (RCTRL C)2) which may be expressed as…
= |VGK|  

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where |VGK| = |VSupply| ((1 + (RCTRL C)2)–1/2 and  = arctan (–120 RCTRL C).
As before, increasing RCTRL decreases |VGK| so firing starts
 RCTRL
later in the cycle. However increasing R CTRL makes more negative
5o 830
the phase angle  which also delays the firing.
45o 9.5k
To examine how the firing angle controls the average SCR 85o 108k
current, IAK, set switch S1 to AC, switch S2 to R. Set R CTRL to
minimum. Connect an AC mille-ammeter at J1 to measure the RMS value of the load
current. Connect the oscilloscope Sync to TP3 and Channel A to TP5 to display I AK.
Adjust the sweep speed to that one-half wavelength just fills the screen. Next set S2 to
C so Z2 of Fig. 7 is 1/jC. Vary RCTRL and observe how the turn-on position changes on
the screen. This time the SCR can fire even in the interval between 90 o and 180o.
The oscilloscope screen has 10 1-cm horizontal divisions. With one-half
wavelength just filling the screen, each division corresponds to 1/10 of 180 o or 18o.
Adjust RCTRL so that conduction begins at successive 18 o divisions and record the load
current. (It may not be possible to fire an very small angles)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Is there a linear relation between the rms current and the firing angle? To answer this,
plot the above pairs of values. Let the horizontal axis represent the firing angle and the
vertical axis represent current values. Do the points lie along a reasonably straight line?
_______________________
Is there an interval during which the line is approximately straight (linear response)?
____________________________________________________________

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