The book of the dead

BOOK OF THE DEAD: – Egyptian book which would help the Egyptians get into
the Otherworld. – It contained magic spells, prayers and hymns to the gods
which were to be spoken on the journey into the afterlife.

History/background

Karl Richard Lepsius, first translator of a complete Book of the Dead manuscript

The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the middle Ages, well
before its contents could be understood. Since it was found in tombs, it was evidently
a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread but mistaken
belief that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur'an.

In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the

Ptolemaic era and coined the name "Book of The Dead" (das Todtenbuch).

The Egyptian Book of the Dead is a collection of spells which enable the soul of the
deceased to navigate the afterlife. The famous title was given the work by western
scholars; the actual title would translate as The Book of Coming Forth by Day or Spells
for Going Forth by Day and a more apt translation to English would
be The Egyptian Book of Life. 

Although the work is often referred to as "the Ancient Egyptian Bible" it is no such

thing although the two works share the similarity of being ancient compilations of texts
written at different times eventually gathered together in book form. The Book of the
Dead was never codified and no two copies of the work are exactly the same.
They were created specifically for each individual who could afford to purchase
one as a kind of manual to help them after death.
The Egyptian Book of the Dead is a term coined in the nineteenth century CE for a
body of texts known to the Ancient Egyptians as the Spells for Going Forth by Day. After
the Book of the Dead was first translated by Egyptologists, it gained a place in the
popular imagination as the Bible of the Ancient Egyptians. The comparison is very
inappropriate. The Book of the Dead was not the central holy book of Egyptian religion.
It was just one of a series of manuals composed to assist the spirits of the elite
dead to achieve and maintain a full afterlife

The afterlife was considered to be a continuation of life on earth and, after one
had passed through various difficulties and judgment in the Hall of Truth, a
paradise which was a perfect reflection of one's life on earth. After the soul had
been justified in the Hall of Truth it passed on to cross over Lily Lake to rest in the  Field
of Reeds where one would find all that one had lost in life and could enjoy it eternally. In
order to reach that paradise, however, one needed to know where to go, how to address
certain gods, what to say at certain times, and how to comport one's self in the land of
the dead; which is why one would find an afterlife manual extremely useful.

The History

The Book of the Dead originated from concepts depicted in tomb paintings and
inscriptions from as early as the Third Dynasty of Egypt (c. 2670 - 2613 BCE).

By the 12th Dynasty (1991 - 1802 BCE) these spells, with accompanying illustrations,
were written on papyrus and placed in tombs and graves with the dead. Their purpose,
as historian Margaret Bunson explains, "was to instruct the deceased on how to
overcome the dangers of the afterlife by enabling them to assume the form of
serveral mythical creatures and to give them the passwords necessary for
admittance to certain stages of the underworld"
At some point prior to 1600 BCE the different spells had been divided in chapters
and, by the time of the New Kingdom (1570 - 1069 BCE), the book was extremely
popular

 New Kingdom, The Book of the Dead was only available to the royalty and the
elite. The popularity of the Osiris Myth in the period of the New Kingdom made
people believe the spells were indispensable (necessary) because Osiris
featured so prominently in the soul's judgment in the afterlife. As more
and more people desired their own Book of the Dead, scribes obliged
them and the book became just another commodity produced for sale.
 From the New Kingdom through the Ptolemaic Dynasty (323 - 30 BCE) The Book
of the Dead was produced this way. It continued to vary in form and size until c.
650 BCE when it was fixed at 190 uniform spells but, still, people could add or
subtract what they wanted to from the text.

Spell 125

Spell 125 is the best known of all the texts of the Book of the Dead. Spell 125
describes the judging of the heart of the deceased by the god Osiris in the Hall
of Truth, one of the best known images from ancient Egypt, even though the god
with his scales is never actually described in the text. As it was vital that the soul pass
the test of the weighing of the heart in order to gain paradise, knowing what to say and
how to act before Osiris, Thoth, Anubis, and the Forty-Two Judges was considered the
most important information the deceased could arrive with.

 Egyptian Afterlife

• Egyptians looked forward to their afterlife and planned well for life after death.

• PYRAMIDS: burial tombs for the kings.

 Egyptian Burial Process MUMMIFICATION: process that preserved the body of the dead
for entry into the afterlife.
 Burial Process
• Remove brain through nostrils with a hook and throw away.
• Remove internal organs except for heart.
• Remove eyes and replace with artificial ones; organs, such as the liver, lungs,
intestines and stomach would be put in CANOPIC JARS (jars that held the organs.)
• Fill body with NATRON (a salt used to dry out body.)
• Fill body with spices and embalming fluid.
• Body would sit for 70 days.
• Paint face.
• Wrap body in bandages with AMULETS (objects worn to bring good luck or avert
bad luck.) – ANKH: symbol of eternal life
• Place body in a SARCOPHAGUS (an ornamental coffin.)
• CARTOUCHE (oval nameplate) - deceased king or queen’s name would be written
on it to protect pharaoh from evil spirits.
• Place body in pyramid with possessions.

THE 7 STEPS OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN MUMMIFICATION

STEP 1: ANNOUNCEMENT OF DEATH

 A messenger was told to inform the public of the death.

 Family made arrangements to mourn, for body preparation, and ceremony.
 This was important because Egyptians believed the soul left the body at death.
 For eternal life, the body and soul had to be united after burial.

STEP 2: EMBALMING THE BODY

 Embalming began in a special tent called 'ibu'.
 The body was first cleansed with palm wine.
 Water from the Nile River was used to rinse the body.
 This step was done to purify the body.

STEP 3: REMOVAL OF THE BRAIN

 Egyptian embalmers removed the brain first.

 Because the function of the brain was not understood, it was considered garbage.
 A long hook was thrust into the nose and the brains were pulled out.
 The brain was placed in water to dissolve.

STEP 4: INTERNAL ORGANS REMOVED

 Embalmers took out the internal organs through a left-side cut in the stomach.
 The liver, stomach, intestines, and lungs were taken out and mummified.
 Each organ was stored in a small coffin called a Canopic Jar.
 Lotions, palm oil, and preserving fluids were used to wash the body's insides.
 The body was packed with straw and linen to keep the person's form.

THE CANOPIC JARS

 The tops of the jars represented the Four Sons of Horus.

 Hapi watched over the lungs and had the head of a baboon.
 Duamutef looked after the stomach and was depicted with a jackal head.
 Qebehsenuef protected the intestines and had the head of a falcon.
 Imset guarded the liver and was shown with a human head.

STEP 5: DRYING THE BODY OUT

 The body was placed on a tilted slab and covered with natron salt.
 Natron absorbed water from the body which was collected in a bowl.
 Rotting of the body was prevented by removing moisture.
 For forty days the body was laid outside to dry.

STEP 6: WRAPPING THE BODY

 The Eye of Horus was positioned over the abdomen slit and the body blessed.
 Hundreds of yards of linen were used; fingers and toes wrapped individually.
 Charms and papyrus were arranged inside the layers to protect the body.
 Priests wrote on the linen layers and recited ritual prayers.
 All wrappings were held together by a binding shroud.

STEP 6: WRAPPING THE BODY CONTINUED

 Mummia, or a type of glue, was finally applied to hold it all together.

 Cosmetics and artificial eyes were used on the mummy's face.
 A portrait mask covered the mummy's head.
 This allowed the dead person's soul to recognize its body.
 The body was finally placed in a decorated coffin.

STEP 7: FINAL PROCESSION

 Friends and family walked through town crying on their way to the tomb.
 The more mourners the greater the dead's chance at entering the after world.
 Before being placed in the tomb, the "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony occurred.
 The family recited spells and the priest touched different parts of the mummy'
face.
 This ceremony allowed the mummy to eat, see, hear, and move in the afterlife
 STEP 7: FINAL PROCESSION CONTINUED

 The Book of the Dead, Canopic jars, and belongings were placed in the burial
chamber.
 The book of the dead contained 200 spells and instructions for reaching eternal
life.
 "Weighing of the Heart" occurred after the tomb was sealed and witnessed by no
one.
 The heart was the most powerful part of the person and center of the
person's being.
 The heart was never removed from the body because it was used to
judge one's life.

FINAL PROCESSION CONTINUED

•When a person died, they were guided by Anubis to the Hall of Truth
(also known as The Hall of Two Truths) where they would make the Negative
Confession (also known as The Declaration of Innocence).

•This was a list of 42 sins the person could honestly say they had never
indulged in. Once the Negative Confession was made, Osiris, Thoth, Anubis,
and the Forty-Two Judges would confer and, if the confession was accepted,

• the heart of the deceased was then weighed in the balance against the
white feather of Ma'at, the feather of truth. If the heart was found to be
lighter than the feather, the soul passed on toward paradise; if the heart was
heavier, it was thrown onto the floor where it was devoured by the monster
goddess Ammut and the soul would cease (end) to exist.

 Gods of the underworld judged the heart on how well one behaved in life.
 Goddess of truth, Matt, weighed the heart against the "Feather of Truth".
 Anubis, god of the underworld, made all final judgements.
 If the heart balanced the feather, eternal life was granted.
 If not, the soul was doomed and the heart was fed to the monster Ammit.
 THE TALE OF SINUHE

 The Story of Sinuhe (also known as Sanehat) is considered one of the

finest works of ancient Egyptian literature. It is a narrative set in the
aftermath of the death of Pharaoh Amenemhat I, founder of the 12th
dynasty of Egypt, in the early 20th century BC.
 It was composed around 1875 BC, although the earliest extant manuscript is
from the reign of Amenemhat III, c. 1800 BC. There is an ongoing debate
among Egyptologists as to whether or not the tale is based on actual events
involving an individual named Sinuhe (Egyptian: z3-nht "son of the
sycamore"),with the consensus being that it is most likely a work of fiction. 
 Due to the universal nature of the themes explored in Sinuhe, including
divine providence and mercy, its anonymous author has been described
as the "Egyptian Shakespeare" whose ideas have parallels
in biblical texts. Sinuhe is considered to be a work written in verse and
it may also have been performed. The great popularity of the work is
witnessed by the numerous surviving fragments.

 There are a number of sources telling the Story of Sinuhe. A

limestone ostracon (a pottery or stone fragment) in the Egyptian Museum is
over a yard long, and is possibly the largest ostracon in existence. It tells the
beginning of the Story of Sinuhe, and is inscribed in Hieratic. The story dates
from the XII dynasty, and the fragment was found in the tomb of Sennutem.

The Literature

 Is a classic Egyptian literature whose author (still unknown) is compared to

Shakespeare because of the symbolic meaning of this tale and what it tells
us about Egypt at this point in time? This tale might have been the stepping
stone for Biblical stories as there are parallels between them.

Reasons of creation

o Propaganda
o Reassurance of stability
o Biography/history

Setting

The land of Egypt and Syria

CHARACTERS

 Sinuhe - A loyal servant of royal harem

 King Amenhemhet I - king of Egypt (12th dynasty who has been assassinated
  SENUSRET I – The son of King Amenemhet I who replace his father as a king

PLOT

Sinuhe is an official who accompanies prince Senwosret I to Libya. He overhears a

conversation connected with the death of King Amenemhet I and as a result flees to
Upper Retjenu (Canaan), leaving Egypt behind. He becomes the son-in-law of Chief
Ammunenshi and in time his sons grow to become chiefs in their own right. Sinuhe fights
rebellious tribes on behalf of Ammunenshi. As an old man, in the aftermath of defeating
a powerful opponent in single combat, he prays for a return to his homeland: "May god
pity me...may he hearken to the prayer of one far away!...may the King have mercy on
me...may I be conducted to the city of eternity!" [7] He then receives an invitation from
King Senwosret I of Egypt to return, which he accepts in highly moving terms. Living out
the rest of his life in royal favour, he is finally laid to rest in the necropolis in a beautiful
tomb.

Epic Tale
The Story of Sinuhe, an epic poem that was popular for more than eight hundred years
(Dynasties 12 to 20, circa 1909-1074 b.c.e.), was composed between circa 1909 and
1875 b.c.e. It narrates the adventures of a nobleman who served Queen Neferu,
daughter of Amenemhet I (1938-1909 b.c.e.) and wife of Senwosret I (1919-1875 b.c.e.).
When the story opens, Sinuhe is on a military campaign in Libya with Senwosret I. News
of Amenemhet I’s assassination reaches the army and Sinuhe panicks. He fears that
Egypt will fall into turmoil and that his own life will be threatened. Thus, he leaves the
army camp and travels across Egypt to the eastern border. After crossing into Syria-
Palestine, Sinuhe travels to different countries and then settles with a bedouin named
Amunenshi, who gives Sinuhe his daughter in marriage and land in a place called Yaa.
Sinuhe prospers and has children, as well as more adventures, and reaches the end of
life. He determines then that he wants to return to Egypt for burial. Sinuhe sends a letter
to the king, and the benevolent Senwosret I welcomes him back to Egypt with full
honors. On Sinuhe’s return, Senwosret I arranges for Sinuhe’s burial in Egypt. The final
verses describe Sinuhe’s tomb and his last contented days in Egypt as he waits for
death.

Parallel in biblical text

Parallels have been made between the biblical narrative of Joseph and the Story of
Sinuhe. In what is seen as divine providence, Sinuhe the Egyptian flees to Syro-Canaan
and becomes a member of the ruling elite, acquires a wife and family, before being
reunited with his Egyptian family. In what is seen as divine providence, the Syro-
Canaanite Joseph is taken to Egypt where he becomes part of the ruling elite,
acquires a wife and family, before being reunited with his Syro-Canaanite
family.[6] Parallels have also been drawn from other biblical texts: the Hebrew
prophet Jonah's frustrated flight from the orbit of God's power is likened to
Sinuhe's similar flight from the King. [10] The battle between David and Goliath is
compared to his fight with a mighty challenger, whom he slays with a single blow, and
the parable of the Prodigal Son is likened to his return home.

Reasons and Topics

This story shows Patriotism, loyalty and Mercy. Sinuhe even after fleeing from
Egypt wishes to return home to be buried, showing pride and loyalty to his nation. The
king shows loyalty, mercy and even rejoice when He recieved Sinuhes message of
returning home by re-establishing his official title, sparing his life from fleeing and giving
him a burial he wanted and deserved.
 THE TALE OF TWO BROTHERS

Background

 The Tale of Two Brothers is written on what was originally a papyrus scroll
measuring 8 inches high and 18 feet, 8 inches in length.
 The manuscript has been fairly confidently dated to 1225 B.C.E. during
the 19th Dynasty. The papyrus was purchased in 1857 from Madame
d’Orbiney and is thus referred to as the “Papyrus d’Orbiney.”
Madame d”Orbiney had purchased it 5 years before. For purposes of study,
preservation and display the original papyrus was cut between the columns
into 19 pages.
 The Tale of Two Brothers is an ancient Egyptian story that dates from the
reign of Seti II, who ruled from 1200 to 1194 BC during the 19th Dynasty of
the New Kingdom.[1] The story is preserved on the Papyrus D'Orbiney,[2]
which is currently held in the British Museum.
 Notes published in 1895 offered the possibility that Moses had studied the
story at the University of Heliopolis and was influenced by it in his
composition of the story of Joseph

PLOT

The story centers around two brothers: Anpu (Anubis), who is married, and the
younger Bata. The brothers work together, farming land and raising cattle. One day,
Anpu's wife attempts to seduce Bata. When he strongly rejects her advances, the wife
tells her husband that his brother attempted to seduce her and beat her when she
refused. In response to this, Anpu attempts to kill Bata, who flees and prays to Re-
Harakhti to save him. The god creates a crocodile-infested lake between the two
brothers, across which Bata is finally able to appeal to his brother and share his side of
the events. To emphasize his sincerity, Bata severs his genitalia and throws them into
the water, where a catfish eats them.
 Bata states that he is going to the Valley of Cedars, where he will place his heart
on the top of the blossom of a cedar tree, so that if it is cut down Anpu will be able to
find it and allow Bata to become alive again. Bata tells Anpu that if he is ever given a jar
of beer that froths, he should know to seek out his brother. After hearing of his brother's
plan, Anpu returns home and kills his wife. Meanwhile, Bata is establishing a life in the
Valley of the Cedar, building a new home for himself. Bata comes upon the Ennead, or
the principal Egyptian deities, who take pity on him. Khnum, the god frequently depicted
in Egyptian mythology as having fashioned humans on a potters' wheel, creates a wife
for Bata. Because of her divine creation, Bata's wife is sought after by the pharaoh.
When the pharaoh succeeds in bringing her to live with him, she tells him to cut down
the tree in which Bata has put his heart. They do so, and Bata dies.

Anpu then receives a frothy jar of beer and sets off to the Valley of the Cedar. He
searches for his brother's heart for more than three years, finding it at the beginning of
the fourth year. He follows Bata's instructions and puts the heart in a bowl of cold water.
As predicted, Bata is resurrected.

Bata then takes the form of a bull and goes to see his wife and the pharaoh. His
wife, aware of his presence as a bull, asks the pharaoh if she may eat its liver. The bull is
then sacrificed, and two drops of Bata's blood fall, from which grow two Persea trees.
Bata, now in the form of a tree, again addresses his wife, and she appeals to the pharaoh
to cut down the Persea trees and use them to make furniture. As this is happening, a
splinter ends up in the wife's mouth, impregnating her. She eventually gives birth to a
son, whom the pharaoh ultimately makes crown prince. When the pharaoh dies, the
crown prince (a resurrected Bata) becomes king, and he appoints his elder brother Anpu
as crown prince. The story ends happily, with the brothers at peace with one another and
in control of their country.

Context and themes

There are several themes present in the Tale of Two Brothers that are significant to
ancient Egyptian culture.

 Kingship - The second half of the tale deals largely with Egyptian ideas of
kingship and the connection between divinity and the pharaoh. That Bata's
wife ultimately ends up pregnant with him is a reference the duality of the
role of women in pharaonic succession; the roles of wife and mother were
often simultaneous. Also, the divine aspect of his wife's creation could be
seen to serve as legitimacy for the kingship of Bata, especially since he was
not actually the child of the pharaoh. Beyond this, Bata's closeness with the
Ennead in the middle of the story also serves to legitimize his rule; the gods
bestowed divine favor upon Bata in his time of need.
 The theme of the story is life process where it tells the experience of the
two brothers.

Biblical parallels

 Because of its Egyptian location, it is not impossible to detect in the biblical

account of Joseph and Potiphar's wife a later echo of the fable of Bata and
Anpu.
 An earlier scholar, Georg Ebers in his Aegypten und die Bücher Mose’s
(1868) even suggested that the author of the “Tale of Two Brothers” might
have been influenced by the Biblical story of Joseph. Certainly the similarity
of this portion of the two stories is striking and they may have both been
influenced by common oral traditions. For the purposes of this study the
Egyptian story will be treated as a story written before the Biblical story of
Joseph was known to the first readers of the story. The rest of the Egyptian
story, although it follows a very different direction than the Biblical Joseph
story, does represent the same theme of a humble younger brother who
eventually becomes a Pharaoh of Egypt. The story has the character of
mythology both in the names of its characters and several important
 parallels to episodes in Egyptian mythology. In one episode in the story, the
hero, Bata, is transformed into a bull, a detail which I have used in the title of
this Chapter on “Lions and Bulls.”

Characters ·

 Anpu- the elder brother

 Bata the younger brother
 God Ra- the gracious god who helped Bata
 Wife- the jealous wife of Anpu who wanted to destroy Bata to his husband.
Setting Location: - on the house, field, near the river and Valley of the Acacia.
Point of View: The point of view in the story is third person because the story talks
about the experiences of Bata.
Conflict: The conflict in the story is man vs. man in the place of the two bothers vs. the
wife.
Symbol: The symbol for this story is the knife which is used by Anpu when he attempted
to kill his brother because for me a knife symbolizes the things that are very useful to
you yet can also kill you. That can be pass through written and orally to the next
generation.