Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Towards successful environmental performance of sustainable cities:

Intervening sectors. A review
A. Martos a, R. Pacheco-Torres a,n, J. Ordóñez a, E. Jadraque-Gago a
a
Department of Engineering Construction and Project Management, University of Granada, Spain

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Cities contribute around 80% of global greenhouse gas emissions. There is currently a massive growth in
Received 29 April 2015 urban areas internationally, especially in developing countries. Urban centers and cities should offer an
Received in revised form effective answer to new problems arising from planning and expansion, according to criteria of sus-
15 December 2015
tainability. Decisions for sustainable cities planning and management should be taken on an evaluation
Accepted 17 December 2015
of their consequences. Correspondingly, each strategy should be designed and undertaken with the right
tools of study, analysis and prediction.
Keywords: This paper aims to offer an analysis of the aspects involved in designing sustainable cities. It involves
Sustainable cities an overview of published papers focusing on urban transport, building energy consumption, green areas
Urban planning
planning, waste management and water supply on a city-wide scale. In order to give a broader concept of
Sustainability
sustainability in cities, an analysis of other variables from a social point of view is also given. The dis-
cussion of this research reflects that the adoption of mechanisms to promote sustainable development is
a matter not only of decision makers and designers, but also of users and citizens.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Sustainable urban transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1. Sustainable urban transport planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2. Integration of electric vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Buildings energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1. Energy consumption modeling on district and city scales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2. Shading effect on building energy consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3. Integration of renewable energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.4. Energy behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.5. Building retrofit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4. Urban green areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1. Urban green areas and Urban heat Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2. Social benefits of urban green areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. Municipal solid waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.1. Landfills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2. Recycling programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6. Water supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
7. Social variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.1. Education as a tool for engaging in sustainable development of cities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.2. The role of public participation in the promotion of sustainable cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.3. Culture and citizen's perception of sustainable cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
7.4. Crime prevention through environmental design of cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 34 958 249438.
E-mail address: rosapt@ugr.es (R. Pacheco-Torres).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.095
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
480 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
8. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1. Introduction
At present, 80% of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions come
from cities [1]. By 2050, it is predicted that 70% of the world’s
population will live in urban areas [2]. There is a proposal which
offers up cities as part of the solution to combat the effects of
climate change and to promote sustainable development.
A sustainable, resource efficient city can be defined as a city
that is significantly decoupled from resource exploitation and
ecological impacts and is socio-economically and ecologically
sustainable in the long term. A sustainable city must not only
integrate methods to mitigate their effect on the environment, but
also become a space which promotes a better quality of life for its
citizens, promoting active participation in the development of the
means to satisfy their needs in a sustainable way [3].
Decision making on urban infrastructures and networks of
basic services requires a careful examination of the socio-cultural
and political factors involved, above all when dealing with
developing countries [4].
In this article, the strategies applied by the key sectors with the
aim of reducing the effect of cities on the environment have been
reviewed. The structure of the article is as follows: in section two,
it is conducted a revision of articles on sustainable urban trans-
port. Section three concentrates on matters which are essential to
energy consumption in buildings. Section four is dedicated to the
importance of green areas in sustainable cities, and section five
addresses the management of solid urban waste. Section six is
devoted to water supplies. In order to define a more general
concept of sustainability in cities, an analysis of other variables
from a social point of view is given in Section 7. Finally, the con-
clusions are given.
2. Sustainable urban transport
The International Energy Agency estimates that 20% of global
primary energy consumption and around 25% of CO2 emissions
can be attributed exclusively to the transport sector [5]. If the
current trends persist, by 2050 the global demand for energy for
transport will duplicate and, consequently, so will the associated
CO2 emissions.
Urban transport stands at a crossroads between human
development and the environment, being factors which must
evolve together. Presently there is a severe imbalance between
these factors, due to a high dependency on motorized transport
powered by fossil fuels.
The transport model of the present day is characterized by its
high inefficiency, elevated levels of associated contamination,
adverse effect on human health, expensive logistic costs, energy
dependency and large number of traffic accidents. The negative
impact transport has on society is more visible in the sectors of the
population which are most vulnerable, such as children, the
elderly and those with chronic diseases [6].
The impact on the environment and the elevated energy con-
sumption generated by the dominant use of private motor vehicles
in the cities is one of the most pressing demands on making urban
policies more sustainable.
Transport planning has become one of the tools necessary to
remodel cities [7]. The boom in the use of the car during the
twentieth century has led to a general sub-urbanization of cities
and an urban expansion which is reinforced by the development of
new, low-density residential areas where the use of private
transport is necessary to carry out day-to-day living needs [8]. A
change in the current model in favor of a more sustainable one
would require the application of concrete policies [9].
A wide range of strategies have been proposed by different
researchers and these are being implemented in cities all over the
world. These strategies include the integration of transport and
land use, management of motorization, the promotion of public
transport as an alternative to private, pricing and financing poli-
cies, and the adoption and promotion of environmentally friendly
technologies [10]. Among the environmentally friendly technolo-
gies in use it is worth noting transport powered by alternatives to
fossil fuels, such as electric vehicles, either private or public [11].
2.1. Sustainable urban transport planning
A sustainable planning of the transport network requires
coordination between different sectors, groups and jurisdictions,
which must then coordinate the objectives, impacts and options
considered during the design process. This planning contributes to
a short-term decision making process consistent with the long-
term strategic objectives. Decisions taken about transport systems
affect people in many different ways, thus for a successful sus-
tainable plan a large variety of objectives and impacts come into
play [12]. One of the objectives of sustainable urban transport is to
develop a multi-modal transport system where installations which
promote the use of the bicycle play an important role.
Many previous papers have addressed sustainable urban
transport planning with the aim of remodeling cities in order to
shorten journey distances and minimize dependence on private
motor vehicles [13,,14].
Predictive models become supporting tool for decision making
effective strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of the current
transport planning in cities and promote sustainable urban
transport development. Doi et al. analyzed public transport and
strategies in place for the use of urban land for the year 2030 in all
urban areas in Japan, a total of 269 [15]. The model also included
the financial balance between the working of the public transport
systems and the benefits for the users. The authors reported that
city dimensions impact on the effectiveness of carbon emission
strategies. In that context, they highlighted the potential of inte-
gration of urban transport strategies and land-use control in the
form of ‘corridors and multicentres’.
By assessing land use and transport patterns, Tirumalachetty
developed a microsimulation model to predict greenhouse gas
emissions in the city of Austin (Texas, USA) [16]. In the next 25
years, the number of personal vehicles was estimated to jump
143% and the transport-related energy was estimated to
increase 108%.
In that sense, Aljoufie et al. developed a dynamic model to
compare the ability of different approaches to depict the impact of
land use changes on transportation and vice versa. The model was
applied in the city of Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) over the course of 20
years [17].
Urban sprawl effect on energy consumption for transport was
assessed by Marique et al. [18]. By developing a method that
combined statistical data collected through empirical research and
through the use of GIS, the authors determined the most efficient
strategies to promote civic awareness on the adequate methods to
 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
reduce energy consumption for transport. After applying this
model to compare four suburban districts in Belgium, the authors
concluded that traveled distances as well as the performance of
vehicles are key factors on the energy performance of transport,
whereas means of transport used reported little impact.
Regarding the promotion of less energy consuming transports,
Rybarczyk et al. developed multi-criteria evaluation model for
bicycle facility planning, integrating both supply- and demand-
based criteria [19]. Based on GIS methodology, special patterns of
such installations were explored at neighborhood level in the city
of Milwakee (USA). Besides highlighting the effectiveness of
combining both methodologies to evaluate the quality of bicycle
facilities, the paper pointed out the mismatch between level of
service and demand depending on the entity of the road. Better
level of service are available in less busy streets whereas in
potential demand roads the level of supply is lower.
2.2. Integration of electric vehicles
Due to growing concern over the increase in greenhouse gas
emissions and the security of the oil supply, the development of
low carbon technology in transport has become a priority in
international politics [20,,21].
Alternative fuel vehicles are those vehicles which are designed
to operate using at least one alternative to petrol or diesel and
include electric vehicles (EVs), biofuel vehicles, fuel cell vehicles,
compressed natural gas vehicles etc.
Electric vehicles are vehicles which are wholly or partly driven
by electricity. The variants of electric vehicle include the hybrid
electric vehicle (HEV), the plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV)
and the battery electric vehicle (BEV). Within each of these cate-
gories there are different ranges of electrical conduction depend-
ing on the capacity of the vehicle’s battery [22].
Being the EV an emerging transportation system, numerous
studies examine the integration of EVs in the current context.
Galus et al. developed a model to efficiently analyze the integra-
tion of electric vehicles as an option for the future of individual
transport in terms of lower emissions and lesser dependency on
fossil fuels [23]. The evolution of the vehicle fleet and the simu-
lations of energy demand for the vehicles were combined with a
simulation of transport, determining the daily behavior of EVs and
providing the energy levels of the individual batteries in different
locations of the vehicles during the day. The integrated method
was able to evaluate the impact of electric mobility in the energy
transport system field, and on the environment.
Tseng et al. analyzed the environmental and economic benefits
of BEVs and HEVs compared with CVs [24]. The authors con-
centrated on analyzing whether tax initiatives would make these
vehicles more affordable for consumers during the next 5–10
years. They used a life-cycle costs analysis to determine the total
costs of owning a vehicle, the electric energy consumption and
emission reduction. This study highlights the importance of
energy policies which include tax credits which would address the
deficit of cost differentials and consumer affordability.
Other authors have pointed out the important role played by
economic and financial incentives in the expansion of the use of
EVs [25,,26]. Charging infrastructure and local presence of pro-
duction facilities also seem to be significant and positively corre-
lated to the electric vehicle market development [25]. Because this
is a small market compared to traditional combustion vehicles,
other socio-demographic factors such as income, education level
and environmentalism are not still significant in predicting EV
adoption.
On the other hand, there are studies that evaluate the con-
sequences of the expansion of these new transportation systems.
For example, Huang presented a multi-paradigm model to
481
evaluate the impact of EVs usage on the electricity demand sector
[27]. It consisted of a four step transport model which was adapted
for the metropolitan area of the city of Indianapolis (USA). The
findings showed that the use of vehicles varied enormously from
one area to another, creating different load profiles unique to each
area. In the base case scenarios the BEVs were more attractive
economically than HEVs, yet just slightly less competitive than CVs
or ICEs.
Hajimiragha et al. faced the constraints of both the electricity
sector and transport sector regarding the integration of the plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) [28]. The planning transition to
these types of vehicles was modeled while the present value of the
net electricity and emission costs were minimize. The applicability
of the model was assessed for the case of the city of Ontario
(Canada) and a uniform penetration level of plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles about 10.59% was predicted for year 2025. The robustness
analysis revealed that the most uncertain parameters are the
electricity prices and annual growth rates of vehicles.
There are considerable limitations to the integration of EVs, the
main one being low battery efficiency. Batteries currently used in
PHEVs are limited due to their performance, reliability, durability,
safety and cost [29]. Furthermore some authors point out the
possible lack of lithium sufficient for the fabrication of batteries for
electric cars [30]. However, Gruber et al. reject this idea, stating
that even in the most optimistic forecast for the use of electric cars
with lithium batteries, the needs for this element would be cov-
ered until 2100 [31].
EVs must not only address the technological problems faced by
the necessity of improving the batteries, but also the social pro-
blems arising from the consumers such as lack of knowledge, high
initial costs, or low risk tolerance. Consumer acceptance is crucial
for continued success in the sustainable transport sector [32,,33].
The ability of the local electric grid should be also addressed
when estimating the expansion potential of electric vehicles. The
impact on local distribution capacity for zones that have high
penetration of EVs could be significant, potentially increasing the
summer peak electricity demand in those zones [27]. Hidrue et al.
used a model to estimate the potential consumer demand for EVs
and whether these would eventually become economic [34]. The
results seem to show that the cost of the batteries would have to
be significantly reduced before electric vehicles could reach the
mass market without the aid of subsidies. Gallagher et al. calcu-
lated how HEV sales responded to tax initiatives, increasing oil
prices, and access to high occupancy vehicle lanes in the USA [35].
The results suggest that immediacy, transparency and ease were
key in designing initiatives aimed at influencing consumer
behavior.
3. Buildings energy consumption
The residential sector is responsible for approximately a quar-
ter of the total electric energy consumption [36,,37], and 32% of the
total CO2 emissions in the European Union [38]. There are various
design and use parameters which come into play when dealing
with the energy demand of residential buildings, such as orien-
tation, ventilation, thermal properties of the envelope and system
efficiency [39]. In addition, there are other external aspects related
to the building and its surroundings which come also important,
such as shade offered by nearby elements, or the heat island effect
in cities. Therefore, to successfully evaluate improvements to the
energy demands of residential buildings, the urban community as
a whole must be considered, not just the buildings per se.
482 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
3.1. Energy consumption modeling on district and city scales
In the sense of building energy retrofit, modeling the energy
consumption related to buildings at city or district scale becomes
crucial for decision making. There are two approaches for mod-
eling energy consumption in the residential sector: top-down
models and bottom-up models. In the top-down approach, the
residential sector is considered as energy dissipater and fails to
distinguish energy consumption for individual means. These
models determine the effect on energy consumption caused by
long-term changes or transitions within the residential sector. The
bottom-up approach meanwhile covers all models that use input
data from a hierarchical level lower than those of the sector as a
whole and identifies the contribution of each end use to the total
energy consumption in a given residential area [40].
According to Bourdic, there are four model types to calculate,
predict, and anticipate energy consumption in buildings and thus
greenhouse gas emissions on a district or city scale [41]. These are:
 Agent based: based on individual behaviors. This approach
performs a global aggregation of individual consumption, taking
into account every activity that consumes energy in the city.
 Energy environment: large-scale. Accounts for the interactions
between energy production, energy consumption and its impact
on the environment.
 Morphological model: also on a large scale, assesses the impact
of urban form on building energy efficiency, taking into account
land-use, activities, localizations and intensities.
 Economic model: based on economic methods, describes the
relationships between economic variables.
Apart from the economic model, which is considered a top-
down methodology, the rest are bottom-up.
The development of macro scale models to predict energy
consumption over a whole city, for example, has proved to be one
of the greatest investigative challenges in this field and the
number of models created is consequently very large.
Modeling at city scale presents the challenge of how to
embrace under the same methodology, a building portfolio that
shows many different uses, and therefore different patterns of
consumption. In that sense, in the study of Howard et al. urban
buildings are grouped into eight categories, including four cate-
gories of residential buildings, offices, stores, education, health and
warehouse. These authors developed a model based on multiple
linear regression to estimate final energy consumption for build-
ings in the city of New York [42]. Disparities between occupancy
patterns, types of appliances and building configuration have
effect on model predictions, and less discrepancies were obtained
for the case of residential buildings and offices spaces, and for the
consumption of electric energy compared to gas.
Similarly, the model of Pereira et al. predicts energy con-
sumption in the residential sector in various urban areas through
the use of an energy planning methodology [43]. They mapped the
energy consumption by end use in the city of Belo Horizonte
(Brazil) for the years 1991, 2000 and 2007. User household profiles
were considered as very influential factor in residential energy
consumption. The results reported that economic income level is
correlated with the spatial distribution of energy consumption in
different urban areas.
Urban retrofit emerges as an effective action for energy con-
sumption reduction in cities. The model of Reiter and Marique
allows to simulate the effects of urban renewal strategies at large
scale [44]. A combination of GIS and an analysis of urbanistic and
transport criteria is employed to model energy use of residential
buildings and transport of the urban area of Liege (Belgium) and
their evolution under different energy reduction targets scenarios.
According to the authors, existing policies such as the European
Directive on the Energy Performance of Buildings are not sufficient
to decrease building energy consumption at the city scale whereas
renovating the existing building stock shows a challenge for this
purpose.
3.2. Shading effect on building energy consumption
Shadings affect the building energy use for lighting, heating
and cooling, and also the occupant´s visual and thermal comfort
[45]. The use of shading devices tries to assure both a right level of
natural lighting on the building and to manage the incoming solar
energy. Therefore, an efficient control design of shading devices
can achieve great energy savings in air conditioning, heating and
lighting devices [46].
Shading may decrease or increase the energy requirement of a
building depending on building characteristics and environmental
conditions. A potential benefit of shading for adjacent structures is
decreasing the cooling energy requirement. Negative con-
sequences of shading include the loss of natural light for passive or
active solar energy applications and the loss of warming influ-
ences, which increase the heating energy requirement during the
cold season [47].
There is vast extension of published studies on the effects of
shading devices on buildings. Bellia et al. assessed the energy savings
by the use of external solar shading devices on the energy require-
ments of a typical air-conditioned office building for three different
Italian climates [48]. Results shown an annual energy saving between
8% (in cold winter climates) up to 20% (for warm climates such as the
city of Palermo, Italy). The authors also demonstrated the influence of
building orientation in the effectiveness of shading devices for redu-
cing energy demand in buildings.
Taleb proposed different strategies related to passive cooling
design to improve thermal performance and reduce energy con-
sumption of residential buildings in United Arab Emirates. Energy
simulation software was used to assess the performance of the
building. The study showed that the total annual energy con-
sumption of a residential building in Dubai may be reduced by up
to 23.6% when a building uses passive cooling strategies [49]. A
similar study was conducted by Grynning et al. but in a cold cli-
mate [50]. They simulated the performance of a number of shad-
ing strategies for south- and north-facing office cubicles with
varying floor areas, window sizes and window parameters and
assessed the energy demands for heating, cooling, lighting and
ventilation fans. The results shown significant energy savings (up
to 20%) by selecting the right shading strategy, but also alert that
an inappropriate strategy could increase energy demand by 10%, in
the case of north-facing offices.
3.3. Integration of renewable energy
The growing use of renewable energy sources along with
improvements in energy efficiency in buildings should lead to changes
in the current energy model in favor of a more sustainable model. In
order to maintain the environmental impact of a building at sustain-
able levels (for example, due to greenhouse gas emissions), the energy
demand must be covered by renewable energy [51].
Cucchiella et al. analysed the economic viability of integrating
photovoltaic solar energy with different levels of funding, partial or
complete. The authors concluded that the most convenient solution
would be self-financing, but due to the high initial inversion, they
recognized that this option was not always feasible [52].
Michopoulos et al. carried out a study on the exploitation of
biomass for building space heating in Greece [53]. The authors
analyzed the energy, environmental and financial benefits resulting
from the exploitation of forest and agricultural biomass residues,
 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
fully substituting the conventional fuel (diesel oil) for heating
buildings. The results showed that the use of biomass did indeed
offer economic benefits, even though the need for primary energy
went up between 3% and 4% and associated CO2 emissions went up
by around 40%. These authors warn that unsustainable exploitation
of biomass increases toxic gas emissions and thus contributes to the
deterioration of the urban environment.
Pinel et al. revised the principle methods available for seasonal
storing of thermal solar energy [54]. These authors highlight the
necessity for investigation in and development of new materials
able to store heat, whilst offering low-cost thermal stability.
Carcangiu et al. presented a new device which uses wind
energy and which is integrated into the roof of a building [55]. This
device is made up of a shaft whose axis is a centripetal turbine of
7 blades, connected to a continuous current generator. According
to the authors, this "wind roof" could be seen as a wind speed
amplifier which should allow the turbine to operate under both
higher and lower speeds than conventional turbines, thereby
increasing its power output. The small size of the device means
that it can be easily integrated into buildings which already exist
in a city.
3.4. Energy behaviors
Traditionally, actions designed specifically to improve energy
efficiency in buildings focused on improving thermal properties or
systems. However, the impact of building user behavior on energy
consumption has not gone unnoticed [56,,43]. According to the so-
called “take back” effect, energy savings brought about by physical
improvements can be seriously diminished by increasingly ineffi-
cient consumer behavior.
An evaluation of the impact of the users on final energy
demand can be approached in different ways. Lopes et al. carried
out a review of recent literature on energy behavior [57]. Despite
the fact that most research concentrates on energy behavior in
residential buildings, there are a few studies examining the case of
tertiary buildings. In this context, Masoso and Grobler studied
energy consumption in commercial buildings, concluding that
more than 50% of consumption takes place during non-working
hours, as users tend to leave equipment and lighting systems
turned on [58]. On the other hand, Chung and Rhee focused on
university buildings and conducted an on-site survey to determine
their current energy consumption patterns [59]. The authors
reported a potential for energy conservation in the range 6–29% in
campus buildings.
Yu Zhun Jerry et al. presented a methodology to identify and
improve energy use behavior of residents in existing buildings
[60]. The method was based on three basic techniques of data
mining: clustering, classification, and association rule learning.
The results showed that after applying this method, behaviors
needing improvement could be identified, whilst residents could
be offered viable recommendations. Jain et al. evaluated the use
and design of a prototype eco-feedback web interface to motivate
residents to change their behavior in order to improve energy
efficiency in buildings [61]. This study was carried out over
6 weeks on 43 users employing said prototype and a use data
analysis confirmed that there was a statistically significant inverse
correlation between user participation and energy consumption.
3.5. Building retrofit
More than 30% of existing residential buildings in the European
Union are over 50 years old, and the vast majority were constructed
without any energy efficiency criteria [62]. The restoration of these
buildings has been considered as one of the greatest opportunities
to reduce the environmental impact of the cities and the human
483
activity happening therein. Furthermore such restoration projects
would help the recovery of the construction industry, which finds
itself in crisis in countries such as Spain. Restoring existing build-
ings not only leads to reductions in energy consumption but also
avoids the need for constructing new urban developments on
new land.
For a successful energy rehabilitation in buildings, the most
profitable technologies for modernization must be determined,
implemented and applied in order to improve energy efficiency
whilst maintaining satisfactory service levels and acceptable
interior thermal comfort, following a determined series of opera-
tional restrictions [63].
Many methods have been developed to evaluate the conditions
in existing buildings and support the decisions relating to building
renovation [64]. It should be noted that superposition of
improvement measures for the rehabilitation of energy systems in
a building does not result in the sum of the effects of the measures
individually [65].
Heo et al. developed a method to evaluate uncertainties around
investments dedicated to energy rehabilitation [66]. By applying
Bayesian calibration to a normative model, these authors were
able to improve the representation of existing buildings and the
valuation of uncertainty associated with entry parameters. This
study evaluated the uncertainty associated with the physical
properties of materials, equipment behavior and investment cost.
The methodology provides knowledge on the level of risk to
investments and associated uncertainty without the need for high
levels of detail at the building modeling stage. Similarly based on a
normative model, Asadi et al. proposed a methodology which
enables evaluation of different combinations of improvement
methods according to certain logical, physical and technical
restrictions [67]. These authors proposed a model of optimization
of technological methods to affordably reduce energy consump-
tion in buildings.
Retrofitting existing energy systems in residential buildings
calls for normative and economic support from the authorities.
The use of models which allow for an evaluation of the efficiency
of such public actions is necessary. In this context, Cellura's model
evaluates the environmental and energy benefits of the Italian
policy which offers tax rate deductions in an effort to promote
energy rehabilitation in existing buildings over a four-year period
[68]. Through a combination of input–output analysis and life
cycle assessment, the researchers evaluated different user beha-
viors. The results showed that it is possible to reach a saving of
122,300 GJ of final energy and to avoid the emission of 11.6 kt CO2
during the useful life of the interventions.
Parrish et al. presented a design process, in the form of a series
of recommended practices, to achieve the modernization of
existing energy systems in commercial buildings, offering at least a
30% reduction in energy consumption. These practices included
training a team for integrated design, and developing a map of
processes to follow during the design phase of the modernization
project to enable collaboration, communication and routine eva-
luation of energy efficiency throughout the project [69].
4. Urban green areas
The implantation of urban parks and open green areas has a
strategic importance on the quality of life of an increasingly urba-
nized society [70]. Extensive green areas in cities act as urban lungs
(absorbing contaminants whilst freeing oxygen). The presence of
these natural assets such as greenbelts or urban parks, contributes
to the quality of life by providing environmental as well as psy-
chological benefits (the former; air and water purification, noise
reduction, and the latter; stress-level reduction, feelings of peace
484 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
and calm in citizens). Furthermore they promote social integration
and citizen interaction [70].
Green infrastructure planning must be the first step when
planning new urban areas [71]. There are different methods
developed to assist or aid the decision to implement urban green
areas and what their characteristics should be. The adequate level
of green areas in an urban area can be quantified using specific
ratios or indices: Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, Vege-
tation Cover Index, green space per capita, Green index, Effective
Green Equivalent [72,,73]
According to Gutpa, neighborhoods are the best work zones for
the application of sustainable strategies in the city. Working on
this local level allows critical areas to be identified and thus areas
in need of action can also be pinpointed [72]. In this study the
authors define the Urban Neighborhood Green Index (UNGI)
according to four parameters: Green Index, proximity to green,
built up density and height of structures. Combining remote sen-
sing images with GIS methodology, they were able to compare the
quality of green areas in four neighborhoods in a district of the city
of Delhi. Furthermore the authors faced the problem of evaluating
urban areas whose development was not authorized, and which
have grown up without an established urban planning. The results
showed that the combination of remote sensing images with GIS is
an efficient tool to evaluate urban green structures. This study
reported a correlation between building height and urban density
and the requirement of larger green areas. For example, area of
high-rise buildings requires more amounts of good quality dis-
tributed green as compared to low-rise buildings areas.
Chang et al. also applied a GIS methodology to develop a
method which would allow integration of green areas in urban
planning [71]. They used the Longgang District of Shenzhen City in
China as a case study The ecological connectivity pattern was
assessed by the Ecological Connectivity Index value. The study area
was divided into patches that correspond to four distinctive
groups: the core, the buffer, the transitional zone and the no or
low connectivity zone.Although the agents involved are becoming
increasingly aware of the importance of sustainable development,
the urban plans and decision making mechanisms have not yet
been completely adapted to these new requirements [74]. Kabisch
analysed the level of integration of the ecosystem service frame-
work into the planning system in Berlin [74]. Basing his findings
on a study of the urban plans together with the opinions of those
involved in planning, the author concluded that, notwithstanding
the knowledge of the interested parties, only the most recent
planning strategies made specific reference to the development of
an ecosystem service in cities.
4.1. Urban green areas and Urban heat Island
Heat received by solar radiation, along with that produced
through the activities carried out in a city, leads to an increase in
temperature in certain urban areas, known as urban heat islands
[75]. The island heat effect is currently considered to be one of the
greatest environmental problems stemming from urbanization
and industrialization [76]. Increasing populations in cities along-
side the phenomenon of heat islands call for immediate action
involving the promotion of sustainable planning [77].
The existence of green zones in urban areas can contribute to
the mitigation of this effect under certain conditions [77]. Fer-
nández et al. standardized the problem of the optimal location of
urban green areas [76]. By applying the finite element method, the
authors developed a mathematical framework to find location
values adequate for green areas in order to reduce the island heat
effect in urban areas.
The effects of evapotranspiration and shading produced in
parks and green areas contribute to the reduction of high
temperatures in urban areas [78]. In fact, the air temperature in
green areas is lower than in surrounding urban areas. The cooling
effect of green areas depends on several design parameters, such
as park size, land use/land cover and sort and density of vegetation
[79]. Many authors have analyzed these relationships [75].
Hamada studied the of green areas on surrounding urban areas
[79]. The authors developed a methodology to obtain the tem-
perature spatial distribution from green areas towards urban areas
and the interferences originated by different land uses. As a result,
obtained that in the case study (a park in the city of Nagoya in
central Japan) the temperature spatial distribution was strongly
affected by the location of commercial areas adjacent.
Chang also studied the cooling effect of urban parks on the
surrounding area [80]. Specifically, the authors focused on the
design parameters of the parks that have more impact in their
cooling effect. After applying in situ interventions, the authors
pointed out that the cooling effect is conditioned more by the level
of solar radiation absorbed by the asphalt during the day, whilst at
night time, cooling is influenced by the number of trees present in
the park. It was concluded that, in the districts which are most
heavily populated during the day, green areas ought to be
designed with less than 50% of the total surface area asphalted,
and with sufficient shaded areas. In contrast, those areas which are
more heavily populated at night should have green areas with
higher numbers of trees.
Maimaitiyiming et al. investigated the dependency relationship
between land surface temperature and the spatial composition
and configuration of green space [77]. The spatial distribution
pattern of green areas was characterized into three landscape
metrics: percentage of landscape, edge density and patch density.
They used the mutual information methodology to assess the
dependency between the pattern variables. The authors concluded
that the combination of two of these metrics has higher effect on
land surface temperature than the effect of a single metric.
4.2. Social benefits of urban green areas
The presence of green spaces in a city contributes not only to
their environmental sustainability but is also an indicator of the
level of the quality of life of the inhabitants, as they contribute to
their physical, cognitive and social well-being [81]. Furthermore
these spaces offer an opportunity to promote interaction between
inhabitants who come from different socio-economic backgrounds
[82].
In this context, Yao quantified the surface area of green spaces
which should correspond to each citizen, using the city of Beijing
(China) as a case study [73]. The authors defined the “effective
green equivalent” index as the area of green space multiplied by
corrected coefficients of quality and accessibility. According to
these authors, for a successful evaluation of the space needed for
each inhabitant, the utility saturation threshold of urban green
areas must be taken into account. The results showed that this
index for individual residents follows a normal distribution (p-
Value ¼0.7274).
As seen above, the inclusion of extensive green zones in urban
areas has a positive effect in the health of the inhabitants, through
air purification. Numerous studies have evaluated the well-being
associated with urban green areas. Mansor used the qualitative
techniques of questionnaire and interview to assess the residents’
feelings towards urban green infrastructure [81]. The results
highlighted the social benefits of these areas which promote social
interaction between inhabitants and contribute to their well-
being.
Not all the green spaces exert the same effects on citizens.
Carrus et al. analysed the importance of biodiversity in green
urban and peri-urban areas [83]. Through surveys carried out on
 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
users of these spaces, they assessed the psychological and physical
benefits on people who visit green areas. The results showed that
the biodiversity of green areas has a positive effect on users,
especially in urban areas, given that it increases the benefits
reported by users; benefits which are assimilated by those prac-
tised in peri-urban green areas.
5. Municipal solid waste management
It is estimated that every year around the world 11.2 billion
tonnes of solid waste is collected and decomposition of the organic
matter contributes to around 5% of GHGs internationally [84]. In
cities, the increase in population, the economic boom, the rapid
rates of urbanization, and better standards of living have meant
that the generation of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in developing
countries has vastly increased [85], [86]. Sustainable management
of MSW will become a necessity over the 21st century in all of its
impact phases: planning, design, operation and collection [87,,88].
This calls for an evaluation of local needs and conditions to enable
a selection of the most appropriate waste management activities
to be applied [89].
5.1. Landfills
Improving urban solid waste landfill sites is the best way to
eliminate waste in many parts of the world. In general, high
treatment costs and lack of alternatives are the main reason that
countries, especially developing countries, rely so heavily on MSW
landfills. In the EU, countries such as Greece, Great Britain, and
Finland rely mainly on direct landfilling. Meanwhile, in Germany,
the Netherlands, Sweden Denmark and Austria, dumping waste in
landfills accounts for less than 5% of MSW management [90].
In planning sustainable solid waste management, various
interconnecting components must be tackled, such as landfill
capacity, associated environmental impact, and economic cost
[91]. Important studies have already been published which deal
with MSW landfill management with the aim of reducing their
environmental impact in cities [92–94].
Voronova et al. developed a model for environmental evalua-
tion of landfills in Estonia based on their life cycle [95]. The
objective was to compare different options for technologies to
apply in sustainable treatment of leachates and in the collection
and use of landfill gases. The results showed that treating lea-
chates with reverse osmosis was more beneficial for the envir-
onment than active aerobic treatments applied to residual waters.
Furthermore, it was noted that the impacts avoided when the
energy was recuperated could become higher than the direct
impact of GHG emissions generated by landfills. The authors
concluded that methods combining landfill gas collection with
energy generation ought to take preference over the treatment
in flare.
Morris et al. developed a methodology to evaluate post-closure
care in municipal landfills [96]. The methodology depends on the
compression of the biological, chemical and physical issues of a
landfill and access to sufficient data to verify the expected trends
in landfill behavior. One hypothetical case showed that applying
this methodology in evaluation of the specific needs of the place to
offer necessary pot-closure care of the landfill could offer better
protection for the environment than that offered by traditional
methods.
Selecting an appropriate landfill site reduces the risk of con-
taminating the surroundings. However, it is becoming increasingly
difficult to find an adequate location due to cost increases, com-
munity opposition and more restrictive regulations [97,,98].
Through a multi-criteria spatial system, Effat et al. optimized the
485
location of potential sites for landfills in cities in the north of Sinai
[99]. The methodology which these authors followed combined
three criteria: environmental (land characteristics), economic
(gradients, road networks, electricity lines), civil and patrimonial
protection (distance from airports, archeological sites). They
developed a suitability index for each case, resulting in a number
of possible sites for each city in the region studied.
Ersoy et al. applied a spatial multi-criteria decision analysis to
select the most appropriate site for a landfill in Trebisonda (Tur-
key) [100]. In this case, the selection criteria was to minimize
environmental impact, improve waste elimination levels and offer
guidelines for an environmentally acceptable waste elimination
strategy. The requirements for waste disposal through landfill
dumping were investigated on three levels: site selection, geolo-
gical investigation and site evaluation. Through the use of GIS and
a multi-criteria evaluation model, Ahmad et al. developed a
comparative study of criteria for the placement of MSW landfills
followed in eight cities around the world [101]. The hierarchical
analytical process technique was also included to determine the
criterion weight of the decision-maker's preferences as part of the
weighted linear combination process.
5.2. Recycling programs
Programs for recycling glass, plastic, biomass and dangerous
waste allow cities to respond to the challenge posed by the
treatment of urban MSW and reduce its impact on the environ-
ment [4]. Various investigations carried out around the world will
be examined below, all of which have the common theme of
studying MSW recycling.
Acceptance by citizens of specific programs put in place to
encourage recycling is a key factor in their success. Influence fac-
tors such as family income levels, and house size and habits [102]
should be taken into account when designing recycling policies or
incentive actions. In fact, economic aspects determine the will-
ingness and behavior of citizens towards recycling specific wastes
[103]. Schwebel analyzed the causes for the success or failure of
recycling programs in urban areas [104]. Among the main
recommendations given, it is worth noting the need for commu-
nication channels with residents, flexibility in the more con-
strained areas of these projects, specific needs attention for high-
rise buildings, audits to maintain a transparent system, local
authority implication in making sure recycling obligations are met
and diffusion of the results among the residents.
Although the general perception of recycling is positive, it is
still necessary to remove some old negative prejudices. In this
sense, Do Carmo carried out a study of the characteristics of the
people involved in recycling activities in Rio de Janeiro, (Brazil)
[105]. Through a series of surveys, the author analyzed the work-
er’s perceptions of their trade, and the negative semantic load
associated with concepts of waste treatment and recycling. In this
study, it was also underlined the importance of a dialog between
government and those involved in recycling, in order to reinforce
the public policies of waste management and improve the socio-
economic situation of the workers in this sector.
6. Water supply
The increase in the urban population, over-exploitation, con-
tamination, degradation of ecosystems and the adverse effects of cli-
mate change are all factors influencing the global problem of water
shortages in cities. It is predicted that by the year 2050, 70% of the
world’s population will live in urban areas, which would lead to an
international crisis of water supply and treatment [106–108].
486 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
Cities must be able to actively intervene in the catchment scale
management in order to improve long-term access to water [4]. As
cities grow, the urban water managers are facing increasingly
complex, multifaceted challenges such as growing social expec-
tations or the fact that sustainable exploitation of natural resour-
ces has reached its limit. According to Brown, there is a critical
need for strategic investment in solutions which offer long-term
sustainable results [109].
Urban water management needs to adapt to a less hierarchical
distribution and the updating of the definition of the stakeholders
that should be involved. This updating of water management
approach should be based not only on network maintenance but
also supported on more traditional systems, hitherto neglected in
many cases.
Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) involved the
application of knowledge from various disciplines and the invol-
vement of stakeholders to implement efficient, equitable and
sustainable solutions as a challenge for developing practical
solutions to water supply problems over the world [110]. Never-
theless, it is undeniable the potential of new water technologies
and water sources, although they may involve difficulties in
acceptance by stakeholders. In this regard, Dobbie et al. analyzed
risk perceptions of water practitioners towards water sources,
systems and different uses of water [111]. The authors reported
that trust to manage the risk associated to these alternatives is
related to professional profile and the location of the stakeholders
interviewed. That study also revealed difficulties to trust risk
management among water systems stakeholders.
In this context, the level of decentralization of urban water
governance has been matter of discussion. According to Yu et al.,
the smaller scale of water supply systems goes in favor of end-
users attitude to collaborate and maintain the net [112].
Water resources systems analysis emerges as a chance to aid
water planning decision making and evaluate alternative options
[113]. This analysis considers water as a resource for domestic,
agricultural and industrial use, as well as a hazard in the form of
floods and drought.
Brown et al. identified current barriers and the keys to move
towards sustainable urban water management and, finally,
anticipate and project the future institutionalization of sustainable
water management for the whole of Australia [109], Wang
examined the security of water management in the city of Yulin
(China) [114]. Based on a system dynamics modeling approach, the
author carried out a quantitative evaluation of the efficiency of
different management options on supply and demand, and con-
cluded that a combination of conservation methods and demand
management instruments was the most efficient strategy in bal-
ancing supply and demand. Zeng applied neural networks to
model water resource consumption in the city of Daegu (South
Korea) and to predict the demand [110]. This decision support tool
allowed efficient assignation of water resources in different areas
of the city. The results showed that the decision support system
developed were very useful in facing the complex management
problems of water resources and that this system could be applied
to more, similar cities in South Korea.
In the context of water supply shortages, options must be found
to reduce the demand. The most viable option lies on the for-
mulation and implementation of comprehensive water plans
which concentrate on alternative strategies to manage the supply
and control the demand [115]. Wang et al. established a series of
water consumption indicators to analyze the structural relation-
ship between economic activity and their physical relationship
with water resources in areas of China which were experiencing
water shortages [116]. Their study also offered a retrospective on
how water shortages have come about in this area over time.
According to these authors, the history of water shortages in this
area should not be considered as an isolated case, rather as part of
a larger problem of shortages of resources in general and an
inadequate coordination and management of the same.
Zeng designed a shortage “index” to quantify the lack of water
applied to the case of Beijing in China [117]. The authors classified
the water available as: blue water (from lakes, rivers and reser-
voirs); green water (rainwater but not from runoff); gray water
(rain water). Based on this classification they proposed the fol-
lowing shortage index (I):
I ¼ I blue þ I gray ð1Þ
3
Iblue represents the proportion of clean water collected (m /yr)
with respect to total water sources (m3/yr). Igray quantifies the
contamination of the water shortage and acts as the ratio between
the water footprint of contaminated water (m3/yr) in relation to
the total water sources in a given area (m3/yr). The authors were
able to show that the authorities have made progress in the
mitigation of water shortages and between 1999 and 2009 the
shortage index was considerably reduced, due to the huge effort
made in implementing methods to save water and to treat residual
water [117]. According to these authors, to slow the trend of
diminishing water sources, future water policies must further
reduce the extraction of water from local sources, above all from
underground water supplies.
Low-quality potable water is closely linked to many health
problems such as diarrhea, hepatitis, cholera and dysentery,
among others. These illnesses occur most frequently in the weaker
members of the society such as old people or children, and mainly
in developing countries. Gondhalekar studied the relationship
between urban planning in terms of water shortages and health
problems in the city of Leh Town (India) [118]. Fieldwork studies
were developed using GIS on sources of water contamination.
Furthermore, questionnaires and interviews were carried out on
200 households and 70 hotels or guesthouses. Medical data was
also reviewed. The authors confirmed that the rapid increase in
water consumption alongside the lack of adequate water and the
current sanitation infrastructure were causing serious problems of
water contamination. The use of GIS was justified as a valid tool to
tackle the challenges posed by the water problem and the con-
sequences on the health of the residents. The authors advocated
the development of a decentralized or hybrid sanitation system to
support conservation of the water resources in the area.
Nyemba evaluated the degree of water shortage in homes and
the resulting impact on health and on the environment in the city
of Bulawayo (Zimbabwe) [119]. Two independent surveys were
carried out in both the low- and high-income suburbs of the city,
concentrating on the reach and impact of water shortages in
households. Microbial levels in the main water supplies were
analyzed, and the results complemented with an examination of
the profiles of water-related illnesses. The findings showed that
water shortages were more serious in low-income suburban areas
than in high-income suburban areas. Per capita water consump-
tion in both areas was shown to be below internationally recom-
mended levels and the incidence of water-related illnesses was
higher. According to the authors, this situation has arisen as a
result of distorted water distribution policies in the city and a lack
of investment in safer alternatives.
Public awareness of the current water crisis is increasing all
over the world, and new sources of fresh water are being devel-
oped (such as desalination of sea water or recycling residual
water). For a sustainable growth of cities, the new systems of
water production, purification, distribution and reutilization must
be capable of solving the problems arising from quality and
quantity of water, environmental protection, reduction in energy
consumption and cost of water [120].
 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
7. Social variables
Traditionally, the approach when sharing knowledge on sus-
tainability has focused on environmental and economic aspects
[121], dismissing the social issue. In the next paragraphs, social
variables are analyzed, to offer a more general point of view on
sustainability in cities.
7.1. Education as a tool for engaging in sustainable development of
cities
According to UNESCO, “Education for Sustainable Development
means including key sustainable development issues into teaching
and learning”, comprising also “participatory teaching and learn-
ing methods that motivate and empower learners to change their
behavior and take action for sustainable development” [122].
Education and participation are seen as crucial in preparing pre-
sent and future generations for addressing environmental issues
and sustainable development [123].
Education on sustainability at school level is key for promoting
more involved and prepared future generations. In this sense,
Andreasen et al. explored the significance of environmental edu-
cation at school age and the significance for teachers [123],
showing a literature review on research literature on education for
sustainable development. Olsson et al assessed the concept of
sustainability consciousness at school level, estimating the envir-
onmental, economic, and social dimensions of sustainable devel-
opment in terms of sustainability knowingness, attitudes, and
behavior [124]. This concepts indicates the pupils’ ability to con-
sider all dimensions of sustainable development in cities. The
conclusions highlight that low successful of the certification sys-
tems in Swedish schools with respect to the effect on pupils’
knowingness.
Results reported difficulties in identifying the economic issues
from a pupil’s perspective, highlighting the complexity of distin-
guish the economical dimension of sustainable development
based on the UNESCO definition. The authors concluded that
education for sustainable development should be treated as an
approach that permeates the whole school and its teaching.
Meanwhile, Amador et al. developed a set of assessment cri-
teria for education for sustainable development in higher educa-
tion [125]. Analyzing the impressions of a group of students of a
master’s course on Environmental Citizenship and Participation,
the authors explored the relationship between theory and praxis
concerning education for sustainable development. The results
highlight the existence of discrepancy between student’s percep-
tion of the fundamental principles learned and its identification
within the curricula of the course. It was also reported the exis-
tence of different perceptions of the teachers as far as the acqui-
sition of knowledge and planning an action.
7.2. The role of public participation in the promotion of sustainable
cities
The challenges of representation and communities have been
highlighted in the new global framework for sustainable devel-
opment, recently framed in the Sustainable Development Goals
[126]. In fact, the ambition of this new framework is to put people
“at the center of sustainable development” [127]. However, three
are the main reasons why citizen’s participation would be still
problematic in this new structure: the problem of the scale (in
terms of global policy framework); the problem of representation
and participation (regarding the variety of perspectives to be
represented); the problems with community (in the sense of social
orderings discriminations). Howard et al. [127] table the need of
understanding the role of other social categories (such as gender,
487
age, ethnicity, ability) in the promotion of representation, parti-
cipation and access to development.
Public participation on the sustainable development of cities
needs engaging stakeholders beyond policy makers, planners or
academics. As a starting point, public participation should be
included in official city development projects. However, not
always the local context is aligned with public participations
opportunities designed beforehand [128]. Connecting with the
previous section on “education”, the existing gap between citizens
knowledge on sustainable development matters and experts or
academics involved in participation plans, threatens the success of
those plans that were precisely designed to improve the welfare of
citizens with their urban environment [128].
In this context, attempts have been made in designing public
participation process. Cohen et al. proposed a visual tool to facil-
itate deliberation on sustainability options in the city of Phoenix
(USA) [128]. The results of the project confirms the applicability of
the visual tool to experts to translate hard to understand sus-
tainability concepts into more reasonably easy to understand by
citizens. From online discussion forums, Martin et al. tested people
concerns on future sustainable development for a city over a 20
year period [129]. The results shown a high level of consensus
between stakeholders in issues like integrated transport networks,
improved energy efficiency and water conservation measures.
However, urban density development and population growth is
matter of higher disagreement.
The use of indicators has been applied for reducing complexity
of sustainable development means and how to communicate with
the public. Doody et al. used a scientific approach (based on the
Q-method) to combine both public opinion and technical exper-
tize to create a list of indicators that were both technically sound
and incorporated the views of the public [130]. Besides obtaining
typical indicators (water management or air quality), they
obtained additional indicators related to government action and
social inclusion, providing a more holistic and integrated measure
of sustainable development.
7.3. Culture and citizen's perception of sustainable cities
Alongside with ecological, social, and economic considerations,
culture to play important roles in sustainable development in
cities. After developing a four year project on Cultural Sustain-
ability [131], Dessein et al. cluster the relationships between cul-
ture and sustainable development into three levels: i) culture in
sustainable development: assuming culture as a fourth dimension
of sustainable development; ii) culture for sustainable develop-
ment: considering culture as an operate force itself; iii) culture as
sustainable development: focusing on culture as a key factor for
achieving sustainable development ambitions.
Cultural perceptions of house's wellbeing have effect on con-
sumption patterns and even on urban development models [132].
Special characteristics of the buildings themselves, enables them
to be considered as a medium to promote cultural sustainability.
Recently, Wu et al. analyzed culture within the green building
community. The authors proposed a set of cultural sustainability
index framework based on criteria such as cultural diversity, cul-
tural identity, cultural vitality, cultural continuity and esthetic
experience [132]. These index are targeted to stakeholders
involved in different green building stages, such us initialization,
development, construction and management.
7.4. Crime prevention through environmental design of cities
In the approach of social aspects, there are few studies that
relate citizen's security (more specifically criminality) with the
488 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495

Table 1
Literature review.

Reference Sector Objective and methodology Conclusions

[15] Sustainable urban trans- A cross-assessment model that supports vision-led and con- CO2 emissions reduction targets can contribute to the
port planning sensus-led approaches is proposed as an analytical tool for improvement of financial balance and user benefits at the
developing sustainable urban transport and land use strate- national level. A combination of urban transport strategies with
gies for a low-carbon society. land use control in the form of corridors and multi-centers
provides greater emissions reduction and increased user
benefits.
[16] Sustainable urban trans- A microsimulation model as an effective way to anticipate -Detailed forecasts are feasible using largely existing data sets
port planning and manage greenhouse gas emissions is developed to model viability on desktop computers while providing valuable
demonstrate how can forecast Austin’s demographic and fir- insight to help inform critical land-use and transportation
mographic attributes over time, using a variety of national policy decisions that impact communities at the local, regional
and local, aggregate and disaggregate data sets. and planetary levels.
[17] Sustainable urban trans- The impact of both isolated and integrated policy interven- This study uses a cellular automata-based Land-Use Transport
port planning tions on land use and transportation are simulate to assess Interaction model.
different land use and transport policy interventions in Jed- It is provided a useful tool for simulating the various planning
dah over a 20 year period. visions in the city. This approach allows to address land use and
transportation challenges in the early planning stages and
facilitates shared visions of planners.
[18] Sustainable urban trans- The paper presents a method to estimate transport energy -Improving the performance of the vehicles and favoring home-
port planning consumption in residential suburban areas. The method uses work give significant energy savings.
data collected by using empirical surveys and GIS. -The method can be used when planning new areas or retro-
fitting existing ones, as well as promoting more sustainable
lifestyles regarding transport habits.
[19] Sustainable urban trans- An analysis was performed at two geographic levels: network -A combination of GIS and MCE analysis can serve as a better
port planning level and neighborhood level, was applied to explore the alternative to plan for optimal bicycle facilities, highlighting
spatial patterns of bicycle facilities at the neighborhood level. inadequacies of typical supply-side measures, and meet multi-
ple planning objectives of government agencies, planners and
bicyclists.
[23] Integration of electric An agent based model is proposed in order to analyze the -The integrated method is able to assess the impacts of electric
vehicles impacts of electric mobility. mobility on the domains of power and transportation systems
as well as on the environment.
-The method derives energy consumptions for the vehicle fleet
from real world drive cycles and advanced vehicle models.
[24] Integration of electric To compare representative vehicle types (conventional, -Results of sensitivity analysis reveal that a greater lifetime
vehicles hybrid with and without plug-in, and electric) using the driven mileage would promote further overall cost savings.
market price information, and the latest published cost data -The study demonstrates the importance of an energy policy
for energy consumption and emission mitigation. that includes tax credits to address the inadequacy of cost dif-
ferentials and consumer affordability.
[25] Integration of electric To determine the relationship between economic incentive -Financial incentives, charging net dimension and the presence
vehicles and socio-economic factors in the adoption of the electric of a local EV manufacturing facility were significant in pre-
vehicle. dicting EV adoption rates.
[27] Integration of electric To examine the effects of the introduction of EVs on the -The usage of vehicles varied greatly from zone to zone, which
vehicles electricity demand sector. Research is based on a multi- would create different charging profiles unique to each of the
paradigm modeling approach is used to zones.
-The decreasing tier price structure coupled with the avail-
ability of a TOU price schedule makes the EV a viable economic
mode of transportation in Indianapolis.
[28] Integration of electric To determine the optimal electric grid potential that would -The usefulness of the proposed robust analysis methodology
vehicles support these vehicles within a planning horizon. Monte was demonstrated by applying it to the real case of Ontario,
Carlo simulation was proposed for identifying the parameters Canada.
that most influence the optimal solution.
[34] Integration of electric A nationwide survey of potential car buyers is carried out -Results suggest that battery cost must drop significantly before
vehicles using a web-based instrument. Using a latent class random electric vehicles will find a mass market without subsidy.
utility model the demand for EVs is estimated.
[35] Integration of electric A dataset of state incentives is constructed. To measure con- -The results suggest that immediacy, transparency, and ease
vehicles sumer response to rising fuel prices, it is calculated the may be important attributes when designing incentives meant
average tax-inclusive retail gasoline price, based on monthly to affect consumer behavior.
retail gasoline prices. -Hybrid vehicle adoption is positively correlated with gasoline
prices.
[42] Energy consumption at Multiple linear regression is applied to predict energy con- -The results provide the ability to estimate the end-use energy
the district and city scales sumption using many different predictors. The predictors consumption of each tax lot in New York City.
used range from buildings.
[43] Energy consumption at To characterize the average energy consumption by typical -Based on the mapping of energy consumption, the future
the district and city scales residential equipment and to compute the energy consump- benefits associated with local alternative energy and energy
tion according to equipment and region. The modeled efficiency measures could be quantified.
municipal energy consumption was compared with that -Maps of energy consumed by end use are presented for the
recorded by the energy utility company. years 1991, 2000, and 2007. By integrating these maps, the
impacts of energy consumption on urban spatial dynamics
could be evaluated.
[44] Energy consumption at A methodology is proposed for assessing residential energy -The methodology allows to model building and transport
the district and city scales uses for buildings and transport at the city scale. The method energy use at the city scale, as well as to consider the possible
is based on the use of geographic information system (GIS) evolution of city energy consumption and to simulate the
tools combined with a statistical treatment of urban and effects of some strategies of urban renewal.
transport criteria.
[48] Shading effect on building The investigation is carried out by using EnergyPlus, an -Solar shading devices have the highest energy efficiency for
energy consumption accurate building energy simulation program. warm summer climates.
 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495 489

Table 1 (continued )

Reference Sector Objective and methodology Conclusions

[49] Shading effect on building Energy simulation software – namely IES – is used to assess -Energy reduction is achieved due to both the harnessing of
energy consumption the performance of the building. Solar shading performance natural ventilation and the minimizing of heat gain in line with
is also assessed applying good shading devices alongside the use of double
using Sun Cast Analysis, as a part of the IES software. glazing.
-Total annual energy consumption of a residential building in
Dubai may be reduced by up to 23.6% when a building uses
passive cooling strategies.
[50] Shading effect on building Simulations are carried out using the numerical simulation -The choice of shading strategy can have an impact on the
energy consumption tool COMFEN 4.1, 2012. energy demand of the offices.
-The shading systems can contribute toward a lowered thermal
transmittance value (U-value) of the window by functioning as
an additional layer in the glazing unit when closed.
[52] Integration of renewable A model is presented to evaluate the optimal PV capacity that -The use of a grid-connected PV module in urban contexts does
energy customers adopt with their electricity requirements. Using not produce any pollution during its life cycle.
this model, an investigation is performed on economically -Self-financing is the most desirable solution, but it is not
optimal PV investments under several conditions for a typical simple to implement due to the high initial investment.
residential building.
[53] Integration of renewable The energy needs of a representative building are determined -Financial benefits for the end-user are associated with the
energy across the various climate zones of Greece. Based on the substitution examined, even though increased emissions and
resulting thermal energy needs, the primary energy con- primary energy consumption have been derived.
sumption and the corresponding emissions are determined,
while an elementary fiscal analysis is also performed.
[55] Integration of renewable A Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model is used to -The CFD models and the initial experiments on a prototype
energy simulate the flow into the eolic system. have shown the potentialities of this new system offering many
possibilities to increase its efficiency and the quantity of pro-
duced energy.
[58] Energy behaviors Five detailed energy audits are carried out in the hot and dry -More energy is used during non-working hours (56%) than
climates of Botswana and South Africa. during working hours (44%). This arises largely from occupant´s
behavior of leaving lights and equipment on at the end of the
day, and partly due to poor zoning and controls.
-There is a crying need for building occupants to learn to switch
off what they do not use.
[59] Energy behaviors Study on campus buildings energy consumption and the The energy analyses of the surveyed buildings determined the
potential for energy conservation by implementing strategies potential for energy conservation in the range 6%–29%.
for improving their energy efficiencies
[60] Energy behaviors This paper reports the development of a methodology for -The results show that, for the case building, the method was
identifying and improving occupant behavior in existing able to identify the behavior which needs to be modified, and
residential buildings. The proposed method is based on three provide occupants with feasible recommendations so that they
basic data mining techniques: cluster analysis, classification can make required decisions
analysis, and association rules mining.
[61] Energy behaviors They conduct a six week empirical study with 43 participants -The results confirm the link between interface engagement
using a prototype eco-feedback interface. Analysis of usage and reductions in energy consumption and to add user logins as
data affirmed a statistically significant inverse correlation a metric for assessing the performance of eco-feedback inter-
between user engagement (measured as logins) and energy faces and associated interface components.
consumption.
[66] Building retrofit This paper presents a scalable, probabilistic methodology that -A case study demonstrates that the proposed methodology
can support large scale investments in energy retrofit of with the use of normative models can correctly evaluate energy
buildings while accounting for uncertainty. The methodology retrofit options and support risk conscious decision making by
is based on Bayesian calibration of normative energy models. explicitly inspecting risks associated with each retrofit option.
[67] Building retrofit This paper presents a multi-objective optimization model to -The multi-objective optimization model presented is useful to
assist stakeholders in the definition of intervention measures assist stakeholders in retrofitting decisions
aimed at minimizing the energy use in the building in a cost -The model allows simultaneous consideration of all available
effective manner, while satisfying the occupant needs and combinations of alternative retrofit actions, as well as con-
requirements. straints (logical, physical and technical).
[68] Building retrofit The paper presents an energy and environmental extended -A reliable evaluation of the benefits arising from sustainable
input–output model combined with the life cycle assessment, policies strongly depends on the indirect rate of the energy
applied to assess the energy and environmental benefits consumption and energy saving, that in the examined case
arising from the Italian policy of tax deduction for energy study has the same order of magnitude of the direct one, and on
retrofit actions of buildings. the rebound effect, that can partially avoid the obtained
benefits.
[69] Building retrofit This paper presents a design process, in the form of a set of -The process maps presented offer a starting point for mapping
recommended practices, for achieving successful, deep other complex projects and goals. These maps could serve as
energy retrofitsin commercial buildings. These practices learning tools on future projects, illustrating how collaboration
include forming an integrated design team, developing a facilitates energy savings or other project goals.
process map for the design phase of the retrofit project that -Presenting maps such as these at the outset of a project help to
facilitates collaboration and communication, and routinely create a shared understanding of the project delivery process
evaluating the energy performance of the project. and the goals of the project.
[73] Social benefits of urban This paper proposes a metric of effective green equivalent, -The results show that the effective green equivalent values for
green areas which is defined as the area of green space multiplied by individual residents in Beijing follow a normal distribution.
corrected coefficients of quality and accessibility. Three indi-
cators are used to measure the real green spaces of the urban
residents of Beijing, China.
[75] Urban green areas and Review of recent research on the urban heat island as well as -This research clearly reflects the impact of urban morphology
urban heat island of the strategies that can be applied to mitigate its adverse on local temperatures and how urban design can be modified to
effects. reduce energy consumption and CO2 emissions into the
atmosphere.
490 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
Table 1 (continued )
Reference Sector Objective and methodology
[76] Urban green areas and They consider a microscale climate model and analyse the
urban heat island problem within the framework of optimal control theory of
partial differential equations. A numerical solution is com-
puted by using the finite element method, with the help of
the interior point algorithm IPOPT.
[77] Urban green areas and The metrics are calculated by moving window method based
urban heat island on a green space map derived from Landsat Thematic Mapper
imagery, and land surface temperatures data are retrieved
from Landsat Thematic Mapper thermal band. A normalized
mutual information measure is employed to investigate the
relationship between land surface temperatures and the
spatial pattern of green space.
[79] Urban green areas and It is investigated the spatial distribution of the cooling effect
urban heat island of green areas on surrounding urban areas in Heiwa Park,
Nagoya, central Japan, by applying surface temperature
information obtained from Advanced Spaceborne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer image data.
[80] Urban green areas and Several methods are used in the study: satellite thermal
urban heat island images, high-resolution spatial mapping of near-surface air-
temperatures at the scale of 10–100 m, surveys, remotely
sensed data.
[81] Social benefits of urban The study explores residents’ experiential contacts with
green areas green infrastructure in Taiping, a small town in Peninsular
Malaysia. Questionnaires and semi-structured interviews
explores the diversity of green infrastructure in Taiping and
its relationship with well-being.
[83] Social benefits of urban This study addresses the issue of whether urban residents’
green areas evaluations of urban and peri-urban natural settings and the
positive outcomes deriving from contact with such settings
vary as a function of their biodiversity. A field study assessed
benefits and subjective well-being reported by urban resi-
dents visiting four different typologies of green spaces,
selected on the basis of urban forestry expert criteria.
[95] Landfills A life-cycle-based environmental assessment was carried out
to compare different technological options for sustainable
leachate treatment and LFG collection and utilization.
[96] Landfills This paper describes a performance-based methodology for
evaluation of post-closure care at a landfill.
[99] Landfills A spatial multi-criteria decision support system is used to
locate potential landfill sites for North Sinai cities.
[100] Landfills The requirements for waste disposal by landfill are investi-
gated in three important stages: site selection, engineering
geological investigation and finally site evaluation
[101] Landfills A geographic information system (GIS) multicriteria evalua-
tion model is applied to determine new suitable landfill sites
using different criterion parameters using a constraint map-
ping technique and weighted linear combination.
[102] Recycling programs A 1-month survey of 130 households is carried out in Can Tho
City, in southern Vietnam. Household solid waste is collected
from each household and classified into ten physical cate-
gories to identify opportunities for waste recycling.
[103] Recycling programs A logistic regression model is developed to estimate and
explain resident´s willingness in e-waste recycling.
[104] Recycling programs The study’s methodology follows a case study approach by
examining three cities in the United States that currently
Conclusions
-This study is useful for professionals who are responsible for
decision-making during the design phase of urban planning.
-Mitigation of the urban heat island effect is accomplished
through the use of green roofs or of lighter-colored surfaces in
urban areas and also through the setting of large green zones of
shade trees inside the city.
-The results show that while the percentage of landscape is the
most important variable that elicits land surface temperatures
dynamics, spatial configuration of green space also has sig-
nificant effect on land surface temperatures.
-The results can expand the understanding of the relationship
between land surface temperatures and street trees and vege-
tation, and provide insights for sustainable urban planning and
management under changing climate.
-The cooling effect is found to extend in many directions into
the urban areas. The spatial distribution of surface temperature
shows that commercial areas interrupted the flow of park
cooling, whereas other types of urban areas expanded park
cooling more effectively.
-The spatial distribution of temperature surface also reflects the
effects of topography on park cooling.
-Results suggest that the factors governing the temperature of
park surroundings are not identical to those of park interiors.
Air-temperature gradients surrounding urban parks are influ-
enced by both the horizontal transport of cool or warm air mass
above parks and the evapotranspirative air-parcels from trees,
creating a cool island larger than the boundaries of cool-island
parks, a heat-island larger than the boundaries of strong heat-
island parks, and a cooling outside weak heat-island parks.
-Various green infrastructure afford the residents participation
in physical, leisure and social activities. The participations
trigger relaxation, comfort and satisfaction. Thus, provision and
planning of green infrastructure with care by urban planners
and designers are essential for urban fabrics.
-Results show the positive role of biodiversity upon perceived
restorative properties and self-reported benefits for urban and
peri-urban green spaces.
-Consistently with the hypotheses reported herein, a mediation
role of perceived restorativeness in the relation between
experience of natural settings and self-reported benefits is
found.
-Results support the fact that leachate treatment with reverse
osmosis has the best environmental performance compared to
aerobic-activated sludge treatment.
-The avoided impacts of energy recovery can be even greater
than direct impacts of greenhouse gas emissions from landfills.
-A hypothetical case study shows that using the methodology
to evaluate site-specific PCC requirements can result in
increased environmental protection at comparable cost by
spending available funds where they are most needed.
-A suitability index map is produced for three scenarios studied.
Comparing the three suitability indexes; zones with the highest
values are selected resulting in a set of candidate sites for each
city in the investigated region.
-The results of these investigations indicate that the metho-
dology defined in the study proves to be an appropriate way for
selection, planning, design and construction of a modern long-
term landfill facility for the biggest city of the eastern Black Sea
region (NE Turkey).
-The differences in spatial results of suitable sites obtained
signify that dissimilarity in guideline specifications and
requirements will have an effect on the decision-making
process.
-Plastic shopping bags were especially identified as the major
component, accounting for 45.72% of total plastic waste.
-Relevant factors such as household income and household size
are found to have an existing correlation to plastic waste gen-
eration in detailed composition.
-The model shows that convenience of recycling facilities and
service, residential conditions, recycling habit and economic
benefits are four determinants of Beijing resident´s willingness
and behavior in e-waste recycling.
-Post-analysis suggests that while some cities’ MFR programs
perform poorly, each city’s strengths aid in creating specific
 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495 491

Table 1 (continued )

Reference Sector Objective and methodology Conclusions

mandate multi-family residential (MFR) recycling: Chicago, proposals that can produce a successful MFR recycling program
Illinois; Boston, Massachusetts; and Arlington, Virginia. in Baltimore City.
-The MFR recycling program form the basis of a successful MFR
recycling program that will allow all city residents to participate
via initiatives in the categories of both program, accessibility,
and informing and self-review.
[105] Recycling programs The methodology used is qualitative in nature – physical -A more positive semantics of garbage may be necessary, but
observations (ethnographies) and interviews. Based on the not a sufficient condition to improve the well-being of recyclers,
collected data, they make an analysis about how symbolic as positive semantics can also bring negative effects, particu-
process could affect the choices and strategies of social actors. larly in their incomes.
[109] Water supply This study evaluates Australian urban water practitioners risk The authors reported that trust to manage the risk associated to
perceptions towards water sources these alternatives is related to professional profile and the
location of the stakeholders interviewed. That study also
revealed difficulties to trust risk management among water
systems stakeholders.
[110] Water supply A decision support system is developed for supporting inte- -The result indicates that the developed decision support sys-
grated water resources management in Daegu city, Republic tem is very useful to deal with complex water resources man-
of Korea. agement problems and could be further applied to similar cities
in South Korea.
[113] Water supply An embedded multiple-case analysis, identifying the current -The research reveals that, as cities develop, urban water
barriers and drivers to advancing sustainable urban water managers are being confronted with increasingly complex and
management (SUWM) across Australian cities. multi-faceted challenges as societal expectations grow and
natural resources reach the limits of sustainable exploitation.
-There is a critical need for strategic investment in solutions
that will deliver long-term sustainable outcomes.
[114] Water supply A System Dynamics modeling approach is used to examine -A combination of conservation measures and demand-man-
the future of water security in Yulin City. agement instruments is regarded the most effective strategy for
balancing supply and demand.
[116] Water supply This paper establishes a number of indicators of water con- -There is evidence that suggest that the problem of water
sumption to analyze the structural relationships between scarcity in Zhangye is not necessarily a given, but instead the
economic activities and their physical relationships with the results of poor resource use, coordination and inadequate
water resources. resource management.
[117] Water supply A new water scarcity index is used to describe the severity of -The results show that Beijing made a huge progress in miti-
water scarcity in the form of a water scarcity meter, which gating water scarcity, and that from 1999 to 2009 the blue and
may help to communicate water scarcity to a wider audience. gray water scarcity index decreased by 59% and 62%,
The historical trend of water scarcity for Beijing city in China respectively.
during 1995-2009 is analyzed. -Despite this progress, Beijing is still characterized by serious
water scarcity due to both water quantity and quality.
[119] Water supply A survey approach is applied to assess the extent of water -Water scarcity was found to be more severe in low income
scarcity at household level in a region in Zimbabwe. The than in high income suburbs. This was a consequence of the
impact on health of residents is also considered in the study. city’s skewed water distribution policy which favored the for-
mer and failure by residents of the latter to invest in safer water
alternatives.
-Water scarcity results in an increase in the incidence of water-
related diseases and environmental contamination.
[121] Social variables on Sus- Study the effectiveness of Crime Prevention Through Envir- -The reviews reported in this article provide empirical evidence
tainable Development onmental Design. supporting the significant relationship between safety and
sustainability
[123] Social variables on Sus- Literature review on the significance of the concept of parti- -Engagement in educational sustainable development remain a
tainable Development cipation for teacher meaning-making processes in education powerful educational tool.
for sustainable development education. -The concept of participation has a dual nature: it serves both as
an educational ideal and as a teaching strategy.
[124] Social variables on Sus- Nationwide study within the Swedish compulsory school -The results question the usefulness of the current system of
tainable Development system. Likert-scale questionnaire. external organizations certifying schools as “education for
sustainable development”. The certification system seems not
to have been particularly successful.
[125] Social variables on Sus- The authors explored the relationship between theory and -The results highlight the existence of discrepancy between
tainable Development praxis concerning education for sustainable development. student’s perception of the fundamental principles learned and
Methodology: a questionnaire survey to graduates and con- its identification within the curricula of the course.
tent analysis applied to the teaching documentation.
[128] Social variables on Sus- Development of a visual tool to facilitate deliberation on -The results of the project confirms the applicability of the
tainable Development sustainability options. visual tool to experts to translate hard to understand sustain-
ability concepts into more reasonably easy to understand by
citizens.
[129] Social variables on Sus- Study of what stakeholders consider to be important in -Future integrated transport networks, higher density residen-
tainable Development relation to the city’s future sustainable development. The tial and commercial land use, and sustainable population
authors conducted an analysis of electronic discussion papers growth are still the subject of concern and intense debate
and questions to enable online forum discussions. among stakeholders.
[130] Social variables on Sus- To create a list of indicators that combine both public opinion -Besides obtaining typical indicators (water management or air
tainable Development and technical expertize. quality), they obtained additional indicators related to govern-
ment action and social inclusion.
[132] Social variables on Sus- To propose an index framework including a set of cultural -The authors proposed a set of cultural sustainability criteria
tainable Development sustainability indicators for future integration with green and corresponding indicators.
building programs. Literature review.
492 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
Table 1 (continued )
Reference Sector Objective and methodology
[135] Social variables on Sus- Study the effectiveness of Crime Prevention Through Envir-
tainable Development onmental Design.
Fig. 1. Overview of the aspects discussed throughout the article.
promotion of sustainable development. Most significant articles in
this field are summarized below.
High levels of unemployment may cause poverty situations,
leading to unfavorable social development, social exclusion and so
on difficulties in people’s access to education and culture, espe-
cially in developing countries. In that sense, there is controversy in
the acceptance of the existence of a relationship between unem-
ployment, poverty and crime, although a reduction in crime has
been reported when unemployment rate is reduced [133].
Recent research suggest that reducing crime and fear in cities
improves quality of life and this could lead to produce more sus-
tainable developments. Sustainable development comprises
human well-being and reducing crime and the crime opportu-
nities in urban areas improves quality of life. Also, crime threats
social development and destroy communal relationships, having a
greater effect on developing countries [133]. As said in previous
sections, those are key factors on social acceptance of sustainable
development rules. In fact, crime has been considered as a sus-
tainability indicator [121].
Regarding urban development, the design of buildings and
streets and outdoor spaces layout could interfere the conditions to
produce a crime. In addition, the quality of the space layout con-
ditions the chance of people's interactions and plays a positive role
in the development of safe neighborhoods. Also, sustainable
development promotes buildings retrofit and the recovery of
degraded urban environments, thus avoiding social and spatial
zoning and the existence of dangerous zones in urban areas.
Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a
powerful tool to promote guides for sustainable design in the frame-
work of avoiding criminality risks. According to the definition of
Cozens: “the proper design and effective use of the built environment
Conclusions
-Crime prevention through environmental design rules must
continually adapt to changes such as increasing urbanization,
population densities and population diversity, new technolo-
gies and products, new ways of life, and emerging crime
problems.
[which] can lead to a reduction in the fear of crime and the incidence
of crime, and to an improvement in the quality of life” [134].
In this context, recent studies conducted a deep review on the
effectiveness of CPTED [121,,135]. Although individual studies report
the evidence on how CPTED reduced crime, generalize the findings is
limited because of the particularities of each project [135]. Although
the existence of actions for preventing crime based on environmental
design are reported from the mid-twentieth century, nowadays it
arises as an effective strategy for a more social urban designing,
especially in big cities in developing countries.
8. Conclusions
The present study, based on a literature review of the most
recent scientific studies, undertakes a revision of the main aspects
involved in designing sustainable cities. Table 1 provides a sum-
mary of the studies analysed. The next issues were analysed:
urban transport, building energy consumption, waste manage-
ment and water supplies. Finally, attention is paid to social factors
that also interfere in sustainable development in cities, especially
in developing countries.
Fig. 1 gives an overview of the aspects discussed throughout
the article. In that figure, it can be seen the interaction between
aspects involved in sustainable cities. On the left, main benefits
(both to the environment and citizens) are cited. On the center of
the figure, it is summarized the sectors involved in sustainable
cities and the main issues discussed in each section of the article.
On the right it is exposed the social variables related to sustainable
cities that have been also addressed. The dotted line indicates how
 A. Martos et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 57 (2016) 479–495
improvements in the social aspects in turn impact on the profits
obtained by citizens.
Based on the overview of recent research provided in this
article, the following conclusions can be derived:
1) Generally speaking, public acceptance of sustainable develop-
ment actions has a great impact on their successful. This issue
concerns the wide range of actions explored in this study, and
has been particularly highlighted in the case of the use of
unconventional fuel vehicles, the integration of renewable
energy sources at building level and the implementation of
waste recycling programs.
2) A set of methodologies for assessing the effectiveness of sus-
tainable development actions has been described throughout
the study. Mapping methodologies based on GIS, and predictive
models based on multi-criteria spatial system and fuzzy logic
are presented as useful tools for energy consumption modeling
and prediction at city scale.
3) The improvement of batteries performance, tax initiatives and
uncertainty on the capability of electric grid are still matters to be
improved for supporting the transition from traditional transport
methods for more sustainable ones, such as BEVs and HEVs.
4) The research studies analyzed conclude that green infra-
structure planning arises as an effective approach to take
advantage of the cooling effect of green zones, as well as miti-
gate urban heat effect. In that perspective, substantial social
benefits of urban green areas were described through the study.
5) Landfill planning and landfill management techniques should
be integrated in decision making to minimize their environ-
mental impact.
6) Water resources systems analysis emerges as a chance to aid water
planning decision making. Modernization of water management
systems should be based on a less hierarchical distribution, the
confidence on traditional systems and the decentralization of urban
water governance.
When designing sustainable development strategies, researchers
are highly relaying on engineering solutions. However, the social
dimension of the strategies proposed should be also taking into
account and feedback mechanisms from citizens should be integrated
in assessment methodologies. The analysis conducted in the last sec-
tion of this study, reveals an existing gap between both academic and
making decision stakeholders, and population. The results of this study
suggest that a multidisciplinary approach would provide mechanism
for assessing the perception of the population, really carrying out the
design of integrated sustainable development measures. Ultimately,
public participation becomes essential for encouraging sustainable
development in developing countries, especially after the las updating
of sustainable development goals made by the United Nations.
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