Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768

DOI 10.1007/s00034-010-9169-5

Miller Equivalents and Their Applications

Tejmal S. Rathore · Gautam A. Shah

Received: 23 January 2009 / Revised: 11 June 2009 / Published online: 5 March 2010
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010

Abstract Miller’s theorems are utilized for approximate as well as exact analysis
of both passive and active networks in conjunction with other theorems on a sin-
gle element or different elements in succession. In this paper, all the four possible
Miller equivalents are fully exploited for the exact analysis by applying on different
elements simultaneously. This has never been attempted before and may be viewed
as an alternate approach for analyzing the networks. The four Miller equivalents are
derived using the substitution theorem followed by typical illustrative examples.

Keywords Active networks · Miller equivalents · Miller’s theorem · Passive

networks · Substitution theorem

1 Introduction

Two networks are said to be equivalent at a pair of terminals if the voltage-current

relationships for the two networks are identical at these terminals. Replacing a part
of a complex network by its equivalent circuit helps simplifying the analysis. For
example the star-delta transformation can help analyzing certain circuits where the
series-parallel reduction technique alone does not yield the solution [15].

T.S. Rathore
Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, St. Francis Institute of Technology, Mount
Poinsur, S.V.P. Road, Borivali (West), Mumbai 400 103, India
e-mail: tsrathor@ee.iitb.ac.in

G.A. Shah ()

Department of Electronics and Telecommunications, MPSTME, NMIMS University, Vile Parle
(West), Mumbai 400 056, India
e-mail: gautamshah@ieee.org

G.A. Shah
St. Francis Institute of Technology, Borivali (West), Mumbai 400 103, India
758 Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768

Miller’s theorem [8] and its dual [9] have been known for a long time. Macnee [6]
suggests an alternative presentation to improve the understanding of the same and
puts in a word of caution on the prediction of the reverse transmission and output
immittance from the equivalent. Later two more versions [10] and [4] of Miller’s
theorem appeared. Rathore [14] has given a generalized Miller theorem and its appli-
cations in the analysis and synthesis of networks. Ki et al. [5] examine pole splitting
of a generic single-stage amplifier in detail. They emphasize the correct condition for
applying Miller’s theorem, identify the actual movement of the poles, derive the input
and output impedances, and conclude that the application of the Miller effect should
be used with precaution; otherwise, wrong results could be obtained. Filipkowski [3]
suggests a new approach to the problem of loss of information about the poles and ze-
ros in the transfer function introduced by the Miller effect approach. Mazhari [7] clar-
ifies that not only can a reasonable estimate for both the dominant and non-dominant
poles be obtained through Miller’s theorem but additional insight is also offered into
pole splitting, not afforded by conventional analysis. Moura [11] provides a detailed
and rigorous analysis of Miller’s theorem and its dual. He utilizes the iterative process
to estimate the closed loop gain from the open loop gain due to which the value con-
verges to the true closed loop gain as the number of iterations (n) tends to infinity. He
defines the errors in voltage gain and input admittance after n iterations, highlights
them as associated with Miller’s approximations. He concludes that the theorems can
be applied to solve with high accuracy, certain types of complex circuits and simulta-
neously provide insights regarding the effects introduced by a feedback loop. Nayaka
[12] utilizes Miller’s theorem for analysis of high-frequency
√ voltage amplifier where
the approximate value of gain is taken as A/ 2 instead the mid-band gain value A,
to obtain more appropriate results. Recently, Palumbo et al. [13] have extended the
use of Miller’s theorem and derived generalized Miller formulae for weakly nonlin-
ear networks and applied it to analyze the harmonic distortion of bipolar transistor in
CE configuration.
Miller’s theorems provide a simple, and yet a powerful tool in simplifying the
circuit analysis by decoupling the input and output circuits. The approaches adopted
can be classified into two groups based on the solution obtained: the approximate
solution in which an approximate value of the gain is assumed and the other where
gain is not assumed but calculated exactly. In the first group, exact solution can be
approached by the process of iteration [11]. Recently Rathore [14] and later Dutta
Roy [2] have shown that Miller’s theorem and its dual can be used for the exact
analysis. In [2] it has been demonstrated that, even though there are undetermined
gain parameters in the equivalent Miller impedances, they do not act as deterrents
and the exact analysis can be carried out. However, they were applied only once or
successively and then with the help of other theorems like Thevenin, the networks
were simplified to arrive at the final results. Thus Miller’s theorem and its dual were
not fully exploited to obtain the final results. This paper in particular deals with four
Miller equivalents and targets exact analysis by applying them to different elements
of the circuit simultaneously.
There are many ways to prove the equivalence of networks; proofs have already
been derived in terms of network parameters in [14], however, the substitution theo-
rem [1] is used here to prove them. These are the special cases of the general trans-
formations given in [14]. It is shown that the equivalents can be applied to different
Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768 759

elements of the circuits not only once or successively as in [2] but also simultane-
ously. Some of the networks analyzed in [2] are analyzed exclusively by applying
one or more equivalents to different elements simultaneously.

2 Miller Equivalents and Their Proofs

2.1 Miller Voltage Equivalent

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1(a). Here

IA = −IB . (1)

Let
VB
= AV . (2)
VA
The circuit can be represented as shown in Fig. 1(b) by using the substitution theorem.
AV
The voltage sources VA and VB are replaced by the impedances Z1 = ( 1−A V
)Z and
Z2 = ( AV1−1 )Z keeping the same potentials at points P and Q as shown in Fig. 1(b).
Finally the two series impedances (Z and Z1 ) and (Z and Z2 ) in Fig. 1(c) are re-
placed, respectively, by
   
1 AV
ZA = Z, ZB = Z. (3)
1 − AV AV − 1

Thus, Z in Fig. 1(a) can be replaced by two impedances ZA and ZB as shown in

Fig. 1(d). By using the substitution theorem the impedance ZB can be replaced by
a current source IA = VA /ZA as shown in Fig. 1(e). This Miller voltage equivalent
(MVE) will be shown in the paper to be more convenient to use than Fig. 1(d) when
applied simultaneously. In general, there are N −1 C2 possible ways of choosing a
resistor on which the MVE can be applied, where N is the number of nodes.

2.2 Miller Impedance Equivalent

In Fig. 1(a), let

VB
= ZE , (4)
IA
then the Miller impedance equivalents (MIEs) are shown in Fig. 2(a) and (b). The
values of the MIEs are

ZA = Z + ZE , ZB = −ZE . (5)
760 Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768

Fig. 1 (a) Given circuit. (b)–(e) Equivalent circuits

Fig. 2 (a)–(b) Equivalent circuits

2.3 Miller Current Equivalent

Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 3(a). Here

VA = VB . (6)

Let
IB
= AI . (7)
IA
Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768 761

Fig. 3 (a) Given circuit. (b)–(d) Equivalent circuits

Figure 3(b)–(d) give the Miller current equivalents (MCEs). The voltage sources in
Fig. 3(c) are replaced by the impedances Z1 = ZAI and Z2 = Z/AI keeping the
same potentials at points P and Q. Finally in Fig. 3(d), the two series impedances
are replaced by
 
1 + AI
ZA = [1 + AI ]Z, ZB = Z. (8)
AI
Thus, Z in Fig. 3(a) can be replaced by two impedances ZA and ZB as shown in
Fig. 3(d). While applying MCE there is an increase in the number of nodes by one.
Note that in this equivalent IB = 0 will be a trivial case.

2.4 Miller Admittance Equivalent

In Fig. 3(a), let

IB
= YE , (9)
VA
then the Miller admittance equivalents (MAEs) are shown in Fig. 4(a) and (b).
Thus, Z in Fig. 3(a) can be replaced by two impedances ZA and ZB as shown in
Fig. 4(b) with the following values:
 
1 1
ZA = Z, ZB = . (10)
1 − YE Z YE

Here also the number of nodes will increase by one.

762 Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768

Fig. 4 (a)–(b) Equivalent circuits

3 Applications of the Miller Equivalents

3.1 Miller Equivalent Applied Once

Applications of MVE, MIE and MAE are illustrated in analyzing a passive bridged-
T network shown in Fig. 5(a) by using the equivalents once. The circuit cannot be
solved by series-parallel reduction technique alone.

Example 1 For the circuit shown in Fig. 5(a) determine the voltage ratio V2 /V1 .

3.1.1 Using Miller Voltage Equivalent

The equivalent can be applied to the resistors 2, 3 and 5. Applying MVE to the resistor
3, the circuit reduces to that shown in Fig. 5(b) where ZA = 1−A 3
V
, ZB = A3A V
V −1
and
AV = V2 /V1 .
Solving the circuit by series-parallel reduction technique gives
V2 12AV 2
AV = = ⇒ AV = . (11)
V1 75AV − 38 3

3.1.2 Using Miller Impedance Equivalent

The equivalent can be applied to the resistors 2, 3 and 5. Applying MIE to the resis-
tor 3, the circuit reduces to that shown in Fig. 5(b) where ZA = 3 + ZE , ZB = −ZE
and ZE = V2 /IA . Analysis of the circuit by series-parallel reduction technique gives
 
V2 12ZE + 36
ZE = = ZE ⇒ ZE = 6 or
IA 37ZE − 114
  (12)
V2
= 6 ⇒ V2 /V1 = 2/3.
V1 /(3 + ZE )

From the above example, the following observations are made. Choosing the resistor
whose one end has voltage V2 and the other end has voltage V1 leads to the quicker
solution if the ratio V2 /V1 is to be determined. The choice of applying MVE to the
Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768 763

Fig. 5 (a) Bridged-T network (b) Equivalent circuit

Fig. 6 (a) Bridged-T network. (b) Equivalent circuit

resistor 3 is the ideal choice, as it gives directly the desired voltage ratio as the end
result and not the intermediate one.

Example 2 For the same circuit shown in Fig. 6(a) determine the current through the
resistor 5.

3.1.3 Using Miller Admittance Equivalent

The equivalent can be applied to the resistors 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Applying MAE to the
resistor 4, the resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 6(b) where YE = IB /V3 .
Analysis of the circuit gives
 
IB −8YE + 6
YE = = YE ⇒ YE = 0 ⇒ IB = 0. (13)
V3 42YE + 6
The current through resistor 5 is zero. This is obvious as the given circuit is a balanced
Wheatstone bridge.
The authors have solved the above examples using all the four equivalents ap-
plied only once, successively and also simultaneously, but to conserve space limited
examples have been included.

3.2 Simultaneous Applications of the Miller Equivalents

Example 3 Determine the voltage ratio V2 /V1 for the network shown in Fig. 7(a).
764 Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768

Fig. 7 (a) Bridged ladder network. (b) Equivalent circuit

This has been analyzed in [2] applying Miller’s theorem once and then applying
Thevenin’s theorem twice to simplify the circuit. Applying MVE simultaneously on
the three resistors having value R and capacitor C1 the resulting circuit is shown in
Fig. 7(b).
Let A1 = V2 /V1 , A2 = V3 /V1 , A3 = V4 /V3 and A4 = V2 /V4 . Obviously

A1 = A2 A3 A4 , (14)
V1 V1 V3 V4
I1 = 1/C1 s
, I2 = R
, I3 = R
and I4 = R
, (15)
1−A1 1−A2 1−A3 1−A4

1 1
V2 = (I1 + I4 ) · RL , V3 = (I2 − I3 ) · and V4 = (I3 − I4 ) · . (16)
Cs Cs

Simplifying we obtain the following equations.

(p + αRGL )A1 + αA2 A3 A4 − αA2 A3 = p ⇒ (p + αRGL + α)A1 − αβ = p,

(17)
(p + 2)A2 − A2 A3 = 1 ⇒ (p + 2)A2 − β = 1, (18)
A2 A3 A4 + A2 − (p + 2)A2 A3 = 0 ⇒ A1 + A2 − (p + 2)β = 0, (19)
Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768 765

where p = sCR, α = C/C1 , RL = 1/GL and β = A2 A3 . Solving these equations

gives
 
p 0 −α 

1 p+2 −1 

V2  0 1 −(p + 2) 
A1 = = 
V1  p + αRGL + α 0 −α 
 0 p+2 −1 

 1 1 −(p + 2) 
p(p 2 + 3) + 4[p 2 + (α/4)]
= , (20)
p(p 2 + 3) + 4[p 2 + (α/4)] + α(p + 3)[p + RGL (p + 1)]
which is the same as (23) obtained in [2].
In the above examples, it is observed that the most laborious part is to deter-
mine the transfer function AV , AI , ZE or YE (equations (11), (12), (13), (17), (18)
and (19)). Depending on the ratio or parameter to be found out, appropriate Miller
equivalents applied to particular elements judiciously will give the result with less
number of steps and thus faster as shown in Example 1. When Miller’s equivalents
are applied simultaneously to different elements as in Example 3, there is a little relief
in determining the transfer function as compared to the application of the equivalent
only once or in succession. However, it is felt that in passive circuits this method may
not prove better than classical nodal analysis.

Example 4 Consider the active circuit shown in Fig. 8(a).

This has been analyzed in [2] by applying Miller’s theorems successively to sim-
plify the circuit. Applying the MVE to Cμ and MCE at node C to RE simultaneously,
the resulting circuit is shown in Fig. 8(b) where AI = IB /IA and AV = V2 /V .
From Fig. 8(b),
 
V  Zμ
I1 = Z , V = −IA Zπ  , IL = gm V − I1 and
μ 1 − AV
1−AV
   (21)
1 + AI
V2 = IB RL + RE .
AI
From these equations, we obtain
a1 AV + b1 AI + c1 A = d1 , (22)
a2 AV + b2 AI + c2 A = d2 , (23)
where
A = AV AI , a1 = Zπ (RE − Zμ ), b1 = −(Zπ + Zμ )(RL + RE ),
c1 = Zπ (RL + RE ), d1 = (Zπ + Zμ )RE , a 2 = RE ,
(24)
b2 = −(1 − gm Zμ )(RL + RE ), c2 = Zμ + RL + RE , and
d2 = (1 − gm Zμ )RE .
766 Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768

Fig. 8 (a) Active circuit. (b) Equivalent circuit

Note that b2 d1 − b1 d2 = 0.
From (22)–(24), we obtain

(a1 b2 − a2 b1 ) gm (RE − sC1μ ) + Yπ RE + 1

AI = =− , (25)
(b1 c2 − b2 c1 ) 1 + Yπ + (gm + Yπ )(RL + RE )
sCμ

and
 +R )
(1 − gm Zμ )(RE
d2 − b2 AI L
AV = =  , (26)
a2 + c2 AI Zμ + RE + RL
 = R ( 1+AI ). Equations (25) and (26) are the same as (57)
where Yπ = 1/Zπ and RE E AI
and (60) of [2].1

1 There are typographical errors in equations (53), (57) and (59) of [2]. The respective corrected equations
are

gm {RE − [1/(sCμ )]} + Yπ RE + 1

IL − gm V = −(IS − V Yπ ), T =− and
1 + [Yπ /(sCμ )] + (gm + Yπ )(RL + RE )
 +R )
−gm Zμ (RE
V L
H= 2 =  + R )(1 − H −1 ) .
V Zμ + (RE L
Circuits Syst Signal Process (2010) 29: 757–768 767

Applying potential divider rule at the input and output sides, respectively, gives
Z
V Zπ  1−Aμ V 1
= =  + 1, (27)
VS Zμ 
(Zπ  1−AV ) + RX [Yπ + Yμ (1 − AV )]RX

VL RL
=  , (28)
V2 RE + R L
 = [R + R (1 + A )] and Y = 1/Z .
where RX X E I μ μ
Overall voltage gain is easily obtained as
  
VL VL V RL 1
= AV =  +R  + 1 AV , (29)
VS V2 VS RE L [Yπ + Yμ (1 − AV )]RX

which is the same as (63) in [2].

4 Conclusion

Four Miller equivalents have been proved using substitution theorem. It has been
shown that the equivalents can be applied to both the passive and active networks
to obtain exact solution. Depending on the ratio or parameter to be found out, ap-
propriate Miller equivalents applied to particular elements judiciously give the result
with lesser number of steps and thus faster. Further, it has been shown that Miller’s
equivalents stand alone can lead to the exact results; but, other simplifying techniques
could also be utilized. However, there is no advantage in applying the Miller’s equiv-
alents in analyzing the passive (bilateral) networks which otherwise could be solved
easily using well-established analytical methods, such as nodal analysis. To some
extent there is a little relief when Miller’s equivalents are applied simultaneously to
different elements, but with a slight increased effort in Algebra. This may therefore
be considered as an alternative approach.
In active networks, nodal analysis may be equally laborious and hence Miller’s
theorems have been utilized by many to simplify the analysis. We have applied
Miller’s equivalents simultaneously to different elements, which has never been at-
tempted earlier for the exact analysis of the networks.

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