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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN
Modern aircrafts are a complex combination of aerodynamic
performance, lightweight durable structures and advanced systems
engineering. Air passengers demand more comfort and more
environmentally friendly aircraft. Hence many technical challenges need to
be balanced for an aircraft to economically achieve its design specification.
Aircraft design is a complex and laborious undertaking with a number of
factors and details that are required to be checked to obtain the optimum
final envisioned product. The design process begins from scratch and
involves a number of calculations, logistic planning, design and real world
considerations, and a level head to meet any hurdle head on.
Every airplane goes through many changes in design before it is finally
built in a factory. These steps between the first ideas for an airplane and
the time when it is actually flown make up the design process. Along the
way, engineers think about four main areas of aeronautics: Aerodynamics,
Propulsion, Structures and Materials, and Stability and Control.
Aerodynamics is the study of air flows around an airplane. In order
for an airplane to fly at all, air must flow over and under its wings. The
more aerodynamic or streamlined the airplane is the less resistance it has
against the air. If air can move around the airplane easier, the airplane's
engines have less work to do. This means the engines do not have to be as
big or eat up as much fuel which makes the airplane more lightweight and
easier to fly. Engineers have to think about what type of airplane they are
designing because certain airplanes need to be aerodynamic in certain
ways. For example, fighter jets maneuver and turn quickly and fly faster
than sound (supersonic flight) over short distances. Most passenger
airplanes, on the other hand, fly below the speed of sound (subsonic flight)
for long periods of time.

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Propulsion is the study of what kind of engine and power an airplane

needs. An airplane needs to have the right kind of engine for the kind of
job that it has. A passenger jet carries many passengers and a lot of heavy
cargo over long distances so its engines need to use fuel very efficiently.
Engineers are also trying to make airplane engines quieter so they do not
bother the passengers onboard or the neighborhoods they are flying over.
Structures and Materials is the study of how strong the airplane is
and what materials will be used to build it. It is really important for an
airplane to be as lightweight as possible. The less weight an airplane has,
the less work the engines have to do and the farther it can fly. It is tough
designing an airplane that is lightweight and strong at the same time. In
the past, airplanes were usually made out of lightweight metals like
aluminum, but today a lot of engineers are thinking about using
composites in their designs. Composites look and feel like plastic, but are
stronger than most metals. Engineers also need to make sure that
airplanes not only fly well, but are also easy to build and maintain.
Stability and Control is the study of how an airplane handles and
interacts to pilot input and feed. Pilots in the cockpit have a lot of data to
read from the airplane's computers or displays. Some of this information
could include the airplane's speed, altitude, direction, and fuel levels as
well as upcoming weather conditions and other instructions from ground
control. The pilot needs to be able to process the correct data quickly, to
think about what kind of action needs to be taken, and to react in an
appropriate way. Meanwhile, the airplane should display information to
the pilot in an easy-to-read and easy-to-understand way. The controls in
the cockpit should be within easy reach and just where the pilot expects
them to be. It is also important that the airplane responds quickly and
accurately to the pilot's instructions and maneuvers.

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OBJECTIVES:
To meet the FUNCTIONAL, OPERATIONAL and SAFETY requirements set
out or acceptable to the user.

ACTUAL PROCESS OF DESIGN:

 Selection of aircraft type and shape.

 Determination of geometric parameters.
 Selection of power plant.
 Structural design and analysis of various components.
 Determination of aircraft flight and operational characteristics .

The three major types of airplane design are

1. Conceptual design
2. Preliminary design
3. Detailed design

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1.1 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

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Steps involved in conceptual design,

 Comprehensive market survey.

 Studies on operating conditions for the airplane to be designed and on
relevant design requirements (specified by Airworthiness Authorities).
 Evaluation of similar existing designs and Studies on possibilities of
introducing new concepts.
 Collection of data on relevant power plants.
 Laying down PRELIMINARY SPECIFICATIONS.

It depends on what are the major factors for designing the aircraft.
1. Power plant location
2. Selection of engine
3. Wing selection
Aircraft Conceptual design involves sketching a variety of possible
configurations that meet the required design specifications by drawing a
set of configurations.
Designers seek to reach the design configuration that
satisfactorily meets all requirements as well as go hand to hand with
factors such as aerodynamics, propulsion, flight performance, structural
and control systems. This is called design optimization.
Fundamental aspects such as fuselage shape, wing configuration
and location, engine size and type are all determined at this stage.
Constraints to design like those mentioned above are all taken into
account at this stage as well.
The final product is a conceptual layout of the aircraft
configuration on paper or computer screen to be viewed by engineers and
designers.

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1.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN

After completing the conceptual design, the next phase is
preliminary design. During this stage, the conceptual design is optimized
to fit into the necessary parameters.
The design configuration arrived at in the conceptual design phase
is then tweaked and remodeled to fit into the design parameters. In this
phase, wind tunnel testing and computational fluid dynamic calculations of
the flow field around the aircraft are done.
Major structural and control analysis is also carried out in this
phase. Aerodynamic flaws and structural instabilities if any are corrected
and the final design is drawn and finalized. Then after the finalization of
the design lies the key decision with the manufacturer or individual
designing it whether to actually go ahead with the production of the
aircraft.
At this point several designs, though perfectly capable of flight and
performance, might have been opted out of production due to their being
economically nonviable.
The steps involved in preliminary phase are,

 Layout of the main components.

 Arrangement of airplane equipment and control systems.
 Selection of power plant.
 Aerodynamic and stability calculations and Preliminary
structural design of major components.
 Weight estimation and c.g. travel.
 Preliminary and Structural Testing and drafting the
preliminary 3-view Drawings

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1.3 DETAILED DESIGN

During this phase, engineers must use the existing designs to
fabricate the actual aircraft. It specifically determines the design, location
and quantity of elements such as ribs, spars, sections and more.
Furthermore, all aerodynamic, structural, control and performance
aspects are achieved and tested in full in the previous preliminary design
stage.
The detail design stage, rather, is used to turn these designs into a
working aircraft. It may also include flight simulations to test the design
and ensure it functions are intended.
During this phase the actual parts get designed including all the
individual structural components and all the systems including landing
gear, hydraulic, electrical, pneumatic, fuel, propulsion and all the rest.
Another important task during this phase is production design.
Production designers wish to modify the design for ease of
manufacturing, that modification can have a major impact on performance
or weight. During detailed design, the testing effort intensifies actual
structure of the aircraft is fabricated and tested.

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CHAPTER 2
PRELIMINARY DESIGN PROCEDURE

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2.1 COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET

Table 2.1 : Comparative study of Geometric characteristics .

WING WING
NUMBER
NAME SPAN LENGTH AREA ASPECT HEIGHT TYPE OF OF
(m) (m) (m2) RATIO (m) ENGINE ENGINES

Airbus
(A350-1000)
65 74 443 9.5 17 RR Trent XWB 2

Airbus
(A350 – 900)
65 67 442 9.25 17 RR Trent XWB 2

Airbus
(A340 – 600)
63 75 437 8.56 18 RR Trent 500 4

Airbus
(A340–300)
60 64 363 9.26 17 CFM56 – 5C 4

GECF6
Airbus PW4000
(A330 -300) 60 64 361.6 9.26 17 RRTrent700
2

Boeing
(777 – 9)
65 77 516.7 10.1 19.7 GE9X 2

Boeing
(777 – 200)
61 64 423 9 18.5 GE90
PW4000
RRTrent800
2
Boeing
(777 – 300)
61 74 428 9 18.5 PW4000
RRTrent800
2
Boeing
(777-300ER)
65 74 428 9.8 18.5 GE90
2

Boeing
(747 -400M)
64 71 541.2 7.7 19.6 GECF6 80
PW 4000
(COMBI) 4

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Table 2.2 : Comparative study of Weight characteristics .

NAME EMPTY WEIGHT (kg) GROSS WEIGHT (Kg)

Airbus 129000 308000

(A350 – 1000)

Airbus 115700 280000

(A350 – 900)

Airbus 177000 380000

(A340 – 600)

Airbus 130200 275000

(A340 – 300)

Airbus 124500 242000

(A330 – 300)

Boeing 184600 351500

(777 – 9)

Boeing 134800 242600

(777 – 200)

Boeing 160500 299300

(777 – 300)

Boeing 167800 318875

(777 – 300ER)

Boeing 183500 396900

(747 – 400M)
(COMBI)

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Table 2.3 : Comparative study of Performance Characteristics.

NAME MACH RANGE SERVICE CRUISE RATE OF THRUST
NUMBER (km) CEILING(m) SPEED CLIMB (KN)(EACH)
(km/h) (m/s)

Airbus
(A350 - 0.89 16100 13137 945 0.06 374.5
1000)
Airbus
(A350- 0.85 15000 13106.4 904 0.06 431.5
900)
Airbus
(A340- 0.83 14450 11887.2 890 2.8 275.3
600)
Airbus
(A340- 0.86 13500 12634 871 29 151.2
300)
Airbus
(A330- 0.82 11750 12527.3 870 11.7 310
300)
Boeing
(777 –9) 0.84 14075 13140 905 10 470
Boeing
(777 – 0.84 9700 13140 905 10 417
200)
Boeing
(777- 0.84 11120 13140 905 10 440
300)
Boeing
(777 - 0.84 14690 13140 905 10 514
300ER)
Boeing
(747- 0.85 13450 13716 920 7.6 280
400M)
(COMBI)

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2.2 COMPARATIVE GRAPHS

It is a Data Visualization technique, where determination of
sense of data, classification of data, categorization of data, relationships
among data, patterns of data are studied.

MACH NUMBER
0.9
0.89
0.88
0.87
0.86
0.85 MACH NUMBER
0.84
0.83
0.82
0.81
0 20 40 60 80 100

GRAPH 2.1 : LENGTH VS MACH NUMBER

HEIGHT
20

19.5

19

18.5

18 HEIGHT

17.5

17

16.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

GRAPH 2.2 : LENGTH VS HEIGHT

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RANGE
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000 RANGE
6000
4000
2000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

GRAPH 2.3 : LENGTH VS RANGE

CRUISE SPEED
950
940
930
920
910
900 CRUISE SPEED
890
880
870
860
0 20 40 60 80 100

GRAPH 2.4 : LENGTH VS CRUISE SPEED

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SERVICE CEILING
14000

13500

13000

SERVICE CEILING
12500

12000

11500
0 20 40 60 80 100

GRAPH 2.5 : LENGTH VS SERVICE CEILING

THRUST
600

500

400

300
THRUST
200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

GRAPH 2.6 : LENGTH VS THRUST

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EMPTY WEIGHT
200000
180000
160000
140000
120000
100000
EMPTY WEIGHT
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

GRAPH 2.7 : LENGTH VS EMPTY WEIGHT

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2.3 SELECTION OF DESIGN PARAMETERS

Parameters are qualitative and quantitative aspects of physical
and functional characteristics of a component, device, product or system
that are input to its design process. Design parameters determine cost,
design and risk tradeoffs in the item’s development.
The parameters of an aircraft has been calculated based on design
of aircraft. In aircraft design continuous and discrete design parameters
are expediently determined in two steps,
STEP 1: The discrete design parameters are chosen.
STEP 2: The continuous design parameters are varied for each
aircraft configuration received.

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TABLE 2.4 : MEAN VALUES

MAIN VALUE UNIT
PARAMETERS
CRUISE SPEED (V) 902 km/h

MACH NUMBER (M) 0.846 ---

LENGTH (L) 70.4 m

WING SPAN (b) 62.9 m

WING AREA (S) 395.54 m2

ASPECT RATIO (AR) 9.143 ---

GROSS WEIGHT(Wo) 309417.5 Kg

HEIGHT (h) 18.08 m

RANGE (R) 13383.5 Km

SERVICE CEILING 12956.79 m

RATE OF CLIMB 9.152 m/s

THRUST (T) 366.35 KN

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2.4 WEIGHT ESTIMATION

Weight prediction in the preliminary sizing is essential for the
performance prediction, centre of gravity determination, design of the
undercarriage and providing weight limits to various departments. Good
weight estimation starts with clear definitions and effective subdivision of
the items. The airplane is composed of a large number of parts which can
be combined into groups according to several schemes. The weight of
these groups and several combinations of groups are of importance in the
design. During the initial conceptual design the choice of the airplane
layout, geometry and detailed configuration affects weight. The design
layout should be carefully optimized and high accuracy of the initial weight
prediction is a prerequisite. Weight prediction is necessary not only to
make an assessment of the design qualities, but also to set a goal for the
structural and systems design offices. The initial weight prediction must be
a realistic challenge.
During detail design it is essential to save every small item of
weight that can possibly be saved, in order to ensure a high standard of
weight predication accuracy and to continuously monitor the weight, using
an effective weight control system. In order to save weight, the use of
advanced materials and sophisticated manufacturing techniques may be
considered, resulting in a reduction of the amount of material required.
The weight saving may be used to reduce the takeoff weight or to increase
the payload or fuel load. However, the cost involved may lead to a
noticeable increase in the price of the airplane and as assessment of the
value of, the weight saving should be made. The aircraft weight is
estimation is done by subdividing the parts into various groups,

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Airframe structure: The wing group, the tail group, the body group,
the gear group and the engine nacelle group. The surface controls group
may be classified as airframe structure or as a part of the airframe
services.
Propulsion group: The engines, items as associated with engine
installation and operation, the fuel system, and thrust reversing
provisions.
Airframe equipment and services: APU’s, the hydraulic, electric and
electronic systems, furnishings and equipment, air-conditioning, anti-icing
systems and other equipment. A further subdivision into fixed and
removable equipment is useful for obtaining an accurate and repeatable
empty weight definition.
Fixed equipment and services: they are considered an integral part
of a particular aircraft configuration. These include the weight of fixed
ballast and the fluids which are contained in a closed system.
Removable equipment and services: are those items of equipment
or system fluids that are not considered an integral part of a particular
aircraft configuration. Removable separating walls, passenger seats, floor
covering, basic emergency equipment.
Operational Items: are those items of personnel, equipment and
supplies that are necessary on a particular operation, unless already
included in the basic empty weight. These items may vary for a particular
airplane configuration according to the operator’s allowances for the
service intended. However, a minimum crew is defined for each airplane
by government regulations.

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ESTIMATION :
Gross weight, W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty
For large commercial flights,
Wcrew = 1120 kg ( 4 pilots + 10 cabin crew)
Wpayload = 36000 kg (450 passengers +...)
Gross weight W0 = Wcrew+Wpayload/(1–(Wf/W0)-(We/W0)]

Estimation of empty weight fraction (We/W0),

(We/W0) = AK(W0)c
The quantities ‘A’ and ‘c‘ depend on the type of the airplane. K
is sweep constant.
For commercial aircrafts,
A = 1.45 , K = 1 and c = -0.06

(We/W0) = 1.45 (W0)-0.06

Estimation of fuel weight fraction (Wf/W0),

(Wf/W0) = Ktf x (1 –Wn/W0)
[The estimation of fuel weight ratio can be obtained only
by mission profile]

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MISSION PROFILE

Cruise

Loiter
2 3

Climb Glide
Landing
Take off

4 5
0 1

0-1 = Taxing , 1-2 = Climb , 2-3 = Cruise ,

3-4 = Descent , 4-5 = Landing

(Wn/W0) = (W1/W0)x(W2/W1)x(W3/W2)x(W4/W3)x(W5/W0)
General conditions for commercial aircrafts,

[ From Jan – Roskam Airplane Design Vol-8 ]

Fuel fraction for warm up, taxing and take-off, (W1/W0) = 0.995
Fuel fraction for climb, (W2/W1) = 0.98
Fuel fraction for cruise (W3/W2),
From Breguet range equation:
(W3/W2) = exp { -R x TSFC / (3.6 x V x L/D) }
Range of the aircraft, R = 13383.5km
Volume, V = 150m3
TSFC - Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption

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To calculate (L/D),
(L/D) = 1/ √(4 Cd0 K)
K = (1/πeAR)
= (1/πx0.8x9.143)
K = 0.043
Cdo = Cd – KCl2
Cl = (2W/ρV2S)
V - Velocity
= (2x309417.5 / 0.259x[902]2x395.54)

Cl = 0.007 {D=(1/2)xρxV2xSxCl

Cd = (2T/ρV2S) D=T[At Cruise]

T – Thrust [ 2 Engines ] T=(1/2)xρxV2xSxCl}

= ( 2x[732.7x103] /0.259x[902]2x395.54)
Cd = 0.017
Cdo = 0.017 – [ 0.043x(0.007)2]
Cdo = 0.017
(L/D) = 1/ √(4 Cd0 K)
= 1/ √(4x0.017x0.043)
(L/D) = 18.5

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To calculate TSFC,
TSFC = mf/T
mf = f x m a
T – Thrust = 732.7kN
f – Fuel Air ratio = 0.067
mf – Fuel mass flow rate
ma – Air mass flow rate = 1088.6kg/s
TSFC = (0.067 x 1088.6) / 732.7
TSFC = 0.1kg/Ns

(W3/W2) = exp { -R x TSFC / (3.6 x V x L/D) }

= exp {-13383.5x0.1 / (3.6 x150x18.5) }
(W3/W2) = 0.874

Fuel fraction for loiter ,

(W4/W3) = exp { - E x TSFC / (L/D)}
E – Endurance = (1/Ct) x (L/D) ln(W1/W2)
Ct = TSFC / 3600
= 0.1 / 3600
Ct = 2.77 x 10-5

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E = (1/ 2.77X10-5) X 18.5 ln(1/0.98) = 13492.78 hr

E = 3.74 s
(W4/W3) = exp { -3.74 x 0.1 / 18.5}
(W4/W3) = 0.98
Fuel fraction for descent, landing and taxing,
(W5/W4) = 0.98

(Wn/W0) = (W1/W0) x (W2/W1) x (W3/ W2) x (W4/W3)

x (W5/W4)
= 0.995 x 0.98 x 0.874 x 0.98 x 0.98
(Wn/W0) = 0.82

(Wf/W0) = Ktf x [1 –(Wn/W0)] (Fuel weight ratio)

For large Commercial Aircrafts, Ktf = 1.6 (Constant value)
(Wf/W0) = 1.06 x [1 – (0.82)]
(Wf/W0) = 0.19

Therefore,

Gross Weight,W0 =Wcrew+Wpayload/[1–(Wf/W0)-(We/W0)]

W0 = 1120 + 36000 / [ 1 – (0.19) – 1.45(Wo)-0.06]

(say : Wo = 309417.5kg)

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ITERATION 1,
For Wo = 309417.5kg
Wo = 283580.6kg
ITERATION 2,
For Wo = 283580.6kg
Wo = 291513.7kg
ITERATION 3,
For Wo = 291513.7kg
Wo = 293989.6kg
ITERATION 4,
For Wo = 293989.6
Wo = 288951.35kg
ITERATION 5,
For Wo = 288951.35kg
Wo = 289765.9kg
ITERATION 6,
For Wo = 289765.9kg
Wo = 289505.64kg

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ITERATION 7,
For Wo = 289505.64kg
Wo = 289588.66kg
ITERATION 8,
For Wo = 289588.66kg
Wo = 289562.16kg
ITERATION 9,
For Wo = 289562.16kg

Wo = 289570.62kg
ITERATION 10,
For Wo = 289570.62kg
Wo = 289567.9kg
ITERATION 11,
For Wo = 289567.9kg
Wo = 289568.78kg
ITERATION 12,
For Wo = 289568.78kg
Wo = 289568.5kg
Therefore,
Gross Weight, Wo = 289568.5kg

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Maximum Fuel weight onboard,

(Wf/Wo) = 0.2
Wf = 289568.5 x 0.2
Wf = 57913.7kg

Maximum fuel capacity,

Vf = Wf / ρfuel
ρfuel = 0.809 kg/ltr (Value obtained from Jane’s All the
Vf = 57913.7 / 0.809 World Aircraft)
Vf = 71586.77ltr (in wings + 3-9 belly tanks)

Wing Loading,
Pw = W0/S

W0 – Gross Weight
S – Wing Area
= 289568.5 / 395.54
Pw = 732.1kg/m2

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Thrust Loading,
Pt = T/W0
W0 – Gross Weight
T – Total Thrust (Each Engine – Say : 2)
= [732.7x101.97]/ 289568.5
Pt = 0.258 {1N = 101.97 gram}

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CHAPTER 3
POWER PLANT SELECTION

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3.1 Aircraft Power Plant :

Aircraft power plants are essentially engines, and they help
airplanes get off the ground. It is made up of many components, such as
cylinders, pistons, and fans, which help produce the energy needed to
propel an aircraft. The power plant may be a jet engine or a combination of
propellers and an engine. Additionally, there are numerous types of
engines for a variety of aircraft, such as helicopters or commercial jets. Jet
engines are typically one of the more common types of aircraft power
plant.

Engine Selection :

Most of the commercial passenger aircraft uses Turbofan engines

with high Bypass ratio for better performance by reducing fuel
consumption and noise.
The thrust loading based on sea level static thrust is:
T/W = 0.258 (From thrust loading calculation)

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Thus, the thrust required is,

Treq = (T/W) x WO x g
= 0.258 x 289568.5 x 9.81

Treq = 732.89kN (If two engines)

It is observed that the maximum thrust requirements occurs from
Vmax consideration
i.e. Tmax = 732.89kN.
If a twin engine configuration has been adopted, the above
requirements implies a thrust per engine of 366.44kN.

Merits of Turbofan Engine:

 Higher thrust speed at low airspeed.
 Lower TSFC (Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption).
 Shorter takeoff distance.
 Considerable noise reduction.

Demerits of Turbofan Engine:

 Higher specific weight.
 Larger frontal area.
 Inefficient at high altitude.

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Performance of High Bypass ratio Turbofan Engine:

The above curve shows the Overall propulsion system efficiency

as a function of Mach number for Turbofan engines. The curve shows a large
increase in Efficiency as the Mach number increases.

Comparison of Turbofan Engines:

LENGTH DIAMETER THRUST WEIGHT T/W BYPASS PRESSURE
ENGINE (m) (m) (KN) (Kg) RATIO RATIO

RR Trent 5.812 2.99 375-431 7277- 5.25- 9.6 50

XWB 7550 5.82
CFM56- 2.62 1.8 151.24 2644.4 5.25- 6.4-6.5 51-55
5C 5.72

PW4000 4.25 2.54 311 5851 5.31 4.9 32-34

7.29 3.1 360.6- 7893 5.59 8.4-9 40
GE90
432.8

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Rolls-Royce(RR) Trent XWB is an axial flow high bypass turbofan

aircraft engine.XWB stands for Extra Wide Body.
CFM56-5C is a French-American family of high bypass turbofan
engine manufactured by CFM international.
Pratt & Whitney(PW)-4000 is a family of high bypass turbofan
aircraft engine built as the successor to the JT9D series engine.
General Electric(GE)-90 is a family of high bypass turbofan engine. It
is the world’s biggest and most powerful engine.

Selected Engine series is GE90 family:

The variants in GE90 family are,

 GE90-76B/-77B/-85B/-90B/-94B
 GE90-110B1/-113B/-115B
The General Electric (GE)90 is a family of high bypass
Turbofan engines built by GE Aviation with a thrust rating from
360kN – 510kN. It entered service with British Airways in November
1995 and it is the world’s most powerful jet engine.
The GE90 was developed from the NASA 1970s Energy
Efficient Engine, a prototype variant of the General Electric DF6.
The derivatives of GE90 engine is as follows,

 GEnx
 GP7000
 GE9x
 LM9000

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 GE90-94B

BLADE - Straight
--The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has certified
the GE90-94 engine aircraft combination, paving the way for initial
revenue service by Air France. The GE90-94B is the newest growth
derivative, rated at 360-410kN of thrust. It builds on the success of its
predecessors while incorporating new technologies such as a three-
dimensional aerodynamic (3-D Aero) high pressure compressor. These
features improve fuel burn on the 777 by more than 1 percent and
increase the EGT (exhaust gas temperature) margin by approximately
20oC. This additional margin allows for the 410kN thrust rating. The GE90-
94B engine underwent extensive flight testing this summer on GE's 747
flying testbed and on an Air France 777 aircraft. Testing demonstrated the
engine's excellent operability, air starting and in-flight performance
characteristics. The GE90-94B compressor is also a key technology feature
of the GE90-115B engine under development for Boeing's Longer Range
777-200/300 aircraft.

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 GE90-115B

BLADE - Curved

The high-thrust GE90-115B engine, powering the Boeing 777-

300ER, has achieved one of the best entries into airline service for a jet
engine powering wide-body aircraftThe GE90-115B, certified at an
unprecedented 115,000 pounds (512 kN) of thrust, powers the 777-
300ER, 777-200LR and 777 freighter. Since entering service on an Air
France 777-300ER in May 2004, GE90-115B engines have accumulated
more than 360,000 flight-hours (more than 64,000 cycles) powering 46
777-300ER aircraft.

RELIABILITY
The GE90-115B has experienced no in-flight shutdowns and has an
engine departure reliability of 99.97%. There have been no forced engine
removals and only two scheduled engine removals. An outstanding

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example of the new engine's reliability is Emirates Airlines. Emirates

began flying 777-300ERs in April 2005, and now has 16 aircraft in its fleet.
The GE90-115B builds upon the reliability of its predecessor, the
GE90-94B engine for the 777-200ER. With more than 7.4 million flight-
hours accumulated, the -94B has an engine-caused in-flight shutdown rate
of 0.0014 while flying more than 90 ETOPS routes.

FUEL BURN
The 777-300ER using GE90-115B has improved its fuel burn by
3.6 percent over pre-flight predictions to become one of the most efficient
long-range aircraft ever produced. These fuel burn improvement equates
to an annual jet-fuel savings of more than 1.3 million liters of fuel. GE90-
115B enhancements include re-bladed low-pressure turbine in the first
three stages, improved high-pressure compressor clearances, and leakage
reduction.

ECOMAGINATION
The GE90-115B hydrocarbon emissions are 60 percent below the
level that will be allowed by 2008 international standards. 777-300ERs
will emit 177,000 fewer tons of greenhouse gas emissions each year than
competing airframe powered by four engines. That equals the carbon
dioxide absorbed by 43,000 acres of forest, an area more than twice the
size of Manhattan, or the carbon dioxide emissions that would be saved by
removing nearly 25,000 cars from the road for a year. The GE90-115B is
part of GE's "ecomagination" product portfolio-GE's commitment to
develop new, cost-effective technologies that enhance customers'
environmental and operating performance.

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3.1.1 ENGINE LOCATION

The engines can be located in/on the front of the aircraft
fuselage or towards the rear of the airpla
airplane. In multi-engine
engine aircraft, the
engines are typically located under the wings on each side. The engine is
typically covered by a cowling that helps streamline the flow of air around
the engine and keep it cool.
For a commercial aircraf
aircraft,
t, the effective engine location
include engine buried type (engine inside wing), engine above wing,
engine below wing, engine on the aft fuselage, engine on top of
fuselage. These are entirely depends upon certain factors like weight
and balance of complete te aircraft, position of its c.g, propulsive
efficiency, total lift and drag, design of empennage etc.

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The chosen engine location is Under Wing,

MERITS OF UNDER WING LOCATION:

 Provide much easier access to the engine in case of

maintenance and service.
 Can fit larger engine to get high bypass ratio. But depends
on the size and length of landing gear.
 Many engines can be fixed under the wing. Normally 2
and even 3 each (eg: Antonov).
 Provide beneficial wing bending relief in flight. Thus
reduces wing fluttering.
 Since separated far from fuselage, the failure(fire) of the
engine do not affect the fuselage.
 Since the wing act as a roof the noise will be reduced.

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CHAPTER 4
DESIGN OF WING, FUSELAGE AND
EMPHANAGE

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4.1 DESIGN OF WING

4.1.1 AIRFOIL DESIGN:
NACA AIRFOIL - During the 1930's several families of airfoils
and camber lines were developed by the National Advisory Committee
for Aeronautics (NACA). Many of these airfoil shapes have been
successfully used over the years as wing and tail sections for general
aviation and military aircraft, as well as propellers and helicopter rotors .
The ordinates for numerous specific airfoils of these series at a
coarse set of data points were published in a series of NACA reports.
However, when performing parametric studies on effects of such
variables as thickness, location of maximum thickness, leading edge
radius, location of maximum camber and others, it is not always easy to
obtain the ordinates of the desired shapes rapidly and accurately. To
remedy this problem the NASA Langley Research Center sponsored the
development of computer programs for generation of ordinates of
standard NACA airfoils.

INTRODUCTION TO FEA :
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by
R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz method of numerical analysis and
minimization of variational calculus to obtain approximate solutions to
vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J.
Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader
definition of numerical analysis. The paper centered on the "stiffness and
deflection of complex structures".

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Results of FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting

failure due to unknown stresses by showing problem areas in a material
and allowing designers to see all of the theoretical stresses within. This
method of product design and testing is far superior to the manufacturing
costs which would accrue if each sample was actually built and tested. In
practice, a finite element analysis usually consists of three principal steps:
1. Preprocessing
2. Analysis
3. Post processing

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION TO CFD :
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD), is a branch of fluid
mechanics that uses numerical methods and algorithms to solve and
analyze problems that involve fluid flows. Computers are used to perform
the calculations required to simulate the interaction of liquids and gases
with surfaces defined by boundary conditions. With highspeed

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supercomputers, better solutions can be achieved. Ongoing research yields

software that improves the accuracy and speed of complex simulation
scenarios such as transonic or turbulent flows. Initial experimental
validation of such software is performed using a wind tunnel with the final
validation coming in full-scale testing, e.g. flight tests.

COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS

TEST ON ANSYS SOFTWARE

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4.1.2 AIRFOIL GEOMETRY DESIGN :

An aircraft wing is geometrically complex and can be described
by dozens of variables. The airfoil, or cross-section, of a wing plays a
critical role in generating lift. Unlike the Wright Brothers who relied on
high area, low-efficiency bi-plane wings, modern optimization tools allow
for complicated and variable airfoils to be justified. Since the airfoil is an
oriented two-dimensional form, several variables describes its shape. The
chord line describes the length from leading edge to trailing edge via the
horizontal reference of the airfoil. The optimum angle of attack AOA,
represents the steepness of wing with respect to the horizontal motion
direction. In many situations, the AOA is taken as a parameter for the
entire wing, although it is possible to calculate an optimum for each airfoil
section.

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4.1.3 ANGLE OF ATTACK :

Angle of attack (AOA), αy = αeff + αind

αy – Geometric Angle of attack.

The angle between the line of the chord of an airfoil

a and the
relative airflow (freestream direction).

αeff – Effective Angle of attack.

It is the part in the angle of attack that lies between the

chord of an airfoil and the effective airflow.

αind – Induced Angle of a

attack.

It is the downward vertical angle between the horizontal

and the velocity of the airstream passing over the wing.

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Effective Angle of attack, αeff = [ Г/π Vα Cy ] + αL=0

Г – Circulation around camber line.

Vα – Free stream velocity = 854.78km/hr (At cruise)

αL=0 – Zero lift angle.

Cy = 2π ( By Thin Airfoil theory )
Г = (Vα Cy) / 2
= (854.78 x 2π) / 2
Г = 2685.37km/hr

αL=0 = 2π (2P + 1 - √(4P2 + 1) )

P – Perpendicular load on chord line. (Wing loading)
= 2π { [2x732.1] + 1 - √[4x(732.1)2 + 1]}

αL=0 = 6.28o
αeff = [ Г/π Vα Cy ] + αL=0
= [2685.37/(π x854.78x 2π)] + 6.28

αeff = 6.44o

Induced Angle of attack, αind = tan-1[-ωy/Vα ]

ωy – Velocity resulting from contributions of vorticity along the
chord.

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ωy = (Г/4π) x { b/ [b/2]2 – y2 } (y- By Zero lift angle)

b – Wing span
= (2685.37/4π) x {62.9/([62.9/2]2 – 0.32)}
ωy = 134 rad/s

αind = tan-1[-ωy/Vα ]
= tan-1[134/854.78]

αind = 8.9o

Geometric Angle of attack, αy = αeff + αind

= 6.44 + 8.9

αy = 15.34o

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4.2 WING SELECTION

The wings of an aircraft are designed to lift it into the air. Their
particular design for any given aircraft depends on a number of factors,
such as size, weight, use of the aircraft, desired speed in flight and at
landing, and desired rate of climb. The wings of aircraft are designated left
and right, corresponding to the left and right sides of the operator when
seated in the cockpit.

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4.2.1 TAPER RATIO(λ) GEOMETRY :

Taper ratio can be either in planform or thickness, or both. In its
simplest terms, it is a decrease from wing root to wing tip in wing chord
or wing thickness. A decrease in aspect ratio will give a corresponding
increase in drag.

For straight wing, λ = 0.4 – 0.5

For swept wing, λ = 0.2 – 0.3

The wing chord may be varied along the span of the wing, for
both structural and aerodynamic reasons. Tapered wing narrows towards
the tip. Structurally and aerodynamically more efficient than a constant
chord wing, and easier to make than the elliptical type.

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The selected wing is Swept back wing,

Swept back wing is more efficient than any other wing. In
transonic flight, a swept wing allows a higher Critical Mach Number than a
straight wing of similar Chord and Camber. This results in the principal
advantage of wing sweep which is to delay the onset of wave drag.
A swept wing is optimised for high speed flight.

Sweepback angle (Λ) = ΛC/4+[(1-λ)/AR(1+λ)]

Quarter sweep angle,

ΛC/4 = 23.436{ ln[17.714(2–λ)] – ln[AR] }

= 23.436{ ln[17.714(2–0.3)] – ln[9.143] }

ΛC/4 = 27.93o

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WINGTIP DEVICE :
Wingtip device are intended to improve the efficiency of fixed wing
aircraft by reducing drag. Wingtip devices also improves aircraft handling
characteristics and enhance safety for aircraft. Such devices increase the
effective aspect ratio of a wing without greatly increasing the wingspan.

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WING PARAMETERS:
Taper ratio, λ = 0.3
DESIGN FORMULA VALUES
PARAMETERS

Wing loading (PW) W0/S 732.1kg/m2

Wing area (S) W0/PW 395.54 m2

Aspect ratio (AR) b2/S 9.143

Root chord (CR) 2S/[b(1+λ)] 9.67m

Tip chord (CT) λ x CR 2.9m

Mean chord (Cm) (S/b) 6.28m

Sweep back angle (Λ) ΛC/4+[(1-λ)/AR(1+λ)] 28o

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4.3 TAIL SELECTION

The horizontal and vertical tails are designed to provide stability;
the movable surfaces on tails namely elevator and rudder provide control.
The complete design of tail surfaces requires information on location of the
centre of gravity(c.g.) of airplane, shift in (c.g.) location during flight and the
desirable level of stability. However, to obtain the (c.g.) location, the weights
of horizontal and vertical tails are needed which depends on their size.
Hence, preliminary sizing of the two tails are carried out.

Significance:
An airplane’s tail design is important because it stabilizes and
controls the airplane in both up and down movements of pitch and side to
side movements of yaw.

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The Parts of an Airplane’s Tail :

The tail of an airplane is called by various names, such as
“empennage” and “stabilizer.” The preferred term is “stabilizer,” because it is
at least partially descriptive of the component’s function. However, the
stabilizer provides not only stability but also some of the airplane’s control.
The tail of an airplane is designed to provide both stability and
control of the airplane in pitch and yaw. There are many different forms an
aircraft tail can take in meeting these dual requirements of stability and
control.
Most tail designs have a horizontal wing like structure and one or
more vertical or near-vertical structures. Whenever practical, these
structures are identified as the horizontal and vertical stabilizers.
The many types of airplane tail design include, the conventional, T-
tail, cruciform-tail, dual-tail, triple-tail, V-tail, inverted V-tail, inverted Y-tail,
twin-tail, boom-tail, high boom-tail, and multiple-plane tail designs.

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The selected design is conventional tail,

The conventional tail design is the most common form. It has one
vertical stabilizer placed at the tapered tail section of the fuselage and one
horizontal stabilizer divided into parts, one on each side of the vertical
stabilizer. For many airplanes, the conventional arrangement provides
adequate stability and control with the lowest structural weight.

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TAIL PARAMETERS:
Tail span, bth = 21m [Horizontal]

btv = 9.5m [Vertical]

Mean Chord, Chm = 6.3m [S = Chm x b]

Taper ratio, λ = 0.3

Quarter sweep angle, ΛC/4 = 27.93o

DESIGN FORMULA HORIZONTAL VERTICAL

PARAMETERS

Tail area (St) Chm x bt 132.3m2 59.85m

Aspect Ratio(ARt) (bt)2/St 3.33 1.5

Root chord (CRt) 2St/[bt(1+λ)] 9.69m 9.69m

Tip chord (CTt) λ x CRt 2.9m 2.9m

Sweptback angle ΛC/4+[(1-λ)/AR(1+λ)] 28o 28.3o

(Λt)

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CHAPTER 5

5.1 LANDING GEAR SELECTION

The landing gear supports the aircraft when it is not flying,
allowing it to take off, land and usually to taxi without damage. Landing
gear placement is essential for ground stability and controllability. A
good landing gear position must provide superior handling
characteristics and must not allow overbalancing during takeoff or
landing.

LANDING GEAR ARRANGEMENT:

Wheeled undercarriages normally come in two types:
 Conventional or “tail dragger “ undercarriage.
 Tricycle undercarriage.

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Conventional or “tail dragger “ undercarriage , where

there are two main wheels towards the front of the aircraft and a single,
much smaller, wheel or skid at the rear.

Tricycle undercarriage, where there are two main wheels

[or wheel assemblies] under the wings and a third smaller wheel in the nose.

LANDING GEAR LOADING :

The nose gear is of double-bogey type with two wheels. The main gear
consists of two sets of wheels (wing-retracted) each of multi-bogey type with
4 wheels each.

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Nose gear:
Load on nose gear, Pn = 0.1W0
= 0.1 x 289568.5
Pn = 28956.85kg
Load per tyre, Pt = P0/2
= 29446.7 / 2
Pt = 14478.4kg
Wheel diameter, Dn = A (Pt)B (from Raymer)
= 2.69 (14478.4)0.251
= 29.8 inch
Dn = 0.7m
Wheel width, Bn = C (Pt)D

0.216
= 1.17 (14478.4)

= 9.26 inch
Bn = 0.235m

Main gear:
Load on main gear, Pm = 0.9 W0
= 0.9 x 289568.5
Pm = 260611.65kg

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Load per tyre, Pt = Pm / 4

= 260611.65 / 4
Pt = 65152.9kg
Wheel diameter, Dm = A (Pt)B (from Raymer)
= 2.69(65152.9)0.251
= 43.45 inch
Dm = 1.1m
Wheel width, Bm = C (Pt)D

0.216
= 1.17 (65152.9)

= 12.8 inch
Bm = 0.325m

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