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2012

English for
General Sciences
[A Lecture Handout]

Jenderal Soedirman University

Compiled by:
Dyah Raina Purwaningsih, S.S., M.Hum
Ika Maratus Sholikhah, S.S., M.A
Tri Murniati, S.S., M.Hum
Unit 1

Description
When we describe a process or procedure, we often use the present passive tense (is/are + past
participle): this is a general description. When we report a particular procedure we are
concerned with only one particular occasion in the past; then we often use the past passive
tense (was/were + past participle). A description that does not involve a process or procedure is
often written in the present simple active tense. Sequence, or order, is important in both
describing a process and reporting a procedure.

(1) Read the following carefully. Underline the verbs in the present passive tense.
HOW PAPER IS MADE
Paper is made from wood, and many of the world’s paper mills are found in those
countries which have great forests—Canada, Sweden, and Finland.
The trees are felled or cut down.
The branches and leaves are removed.
The trees are transported to the sawmill.
The bark is stripped from the trunks.
The trunks are sawn into logs.
They are conveyed to the paper mill.
They are placed in the shredder.
They are cut into small chips.
They are mixed with water and acid.
They are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp.
The wood pulp is cleaned.
It is also chemically bleached to whiten it.
It is passed through rollers to flatten it.
Sheets of wet paper are produced.
The water is removed from the sheets.
These sheets are pressed, dried, and refined until the finished paper is produced.
(2) When describing a process, sequence markers, e.g. first, then, next, finally,…are often
used. They help to link the sentences.
(3) Sometimes in order to avoid repeating a subject, a relative pronoun and relative clause
are used.
e.g. The bark is stripped from the trunks.
The trunks are sawn into logs.
Becomes:

The bark is stripped from the trunks which are sawn into logs.

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(4) Some of the sentences from the text have been joined together below to form a
paragraph. Fill in the blanks with appropriate verbs (sometimes preposition), and, if
suitable, a relative pronoun.
First, the logs…………………………….in the shredder. Then they………………..into
small chips…………………….water and acid. Next, they…………………..into a heavy
pulp…………………… It……………………also chemically………………………to whiten it. After this,
it…………………………….rollers to flatten it. Then, sheets of wet paper…………………………….
Finally, the water…………………..from the sheets…………………………….until the finished
paper……………………

(5) Look at the following sentences. They are in the WRONG ORDER. Write them out in the
correct order using the sequence of pictures to help you.
HOW A BREAKFAST CEREAL IS MADE
It is stored in the silos.
These are woven into biscuits.
The wheat is harvested from the field.
Each biscuit is baked until brown.
It is cut into thin strips.
The grain is cooked to soften it.
It is packed ready to be eaten.
The wheat grain is transported to the silos.

(6) Look at the following table carefully.


Writing in English: Manchester University: march, 1973 (50 students)
% students Type of writing (average) frequency (average) length
52 Essay 5 per term 2000 words
34 Report 2 per term 4000 words
14 Dissertation 1 per year 8000 words
12 thesis 1 after 2-3 years 300-1000 pages

In………………….a survey was conducted among……………………………overseas


postgraduates students at …………………………. The purpose of the survey was to discover
the type, ……………………………and ……………………………of academic writing that was
expected of the students by their supervisors or tutors. ……………….of the
students……………………………reports, of an……………………….2 per term,
………………….average length…………………………………………..

(7) Write a description of the information below. Write in a similar way to that above.
Writing in English: University of Newcastle upon Tyne: May, 1974 (45 students)
% students Type of writing (average) frequency (average) length
36% Essay 6 per term 2750 words
36% Report 5 per term 3750 words
7% Dissertation 1 per year 100 pages
7% thesis 1 per year 73 pages

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Unit 2
Definition
The previous unit was concerned with describing things. When we describe things we
sometimes need to define them as well, especially in academic writing, so that it is perfectly
clear what we mean. We may also need to give examples of what we define, and to classify.
These will be covered in the following unit.

STAGE 1
(1) If we look in a dictionary for the word “school” we may find:
School an institution where children are educated
More formally in writing we would put:
A school is an institution where children are educated.
Look at these other examples:
A doctor is a person who gives medical treatment to people.
Aluminium is a metal which is produced from bauxite.

Complete the following sentences in the same way as the examples above!
1. A college……………………………………….students receive higher or professional
education.
2. A dentist……………………………………treats people’s teeth.
3. Steel…………………………is produced from iron and carbon. (We can also say that steel
is an alloy.)

(2) Join pairs of sentences by using relative clauses.


e.g. Bronze is an alloy. It is produced from copper and tin.
Bronze is an alloy which is produced from copper and tin.

The following sentences have been mixed up. Join the eight sentences on the left
with the correct ones from the ten on the right. Use the appropriate relative pronoun.
1. An engineer is aperson a. It produces electricity.
2. A microscope is an instrument b. He studies the way in which
3. A generator is a machine industry and trade produce and
4. A botanist is a person use wealth.
5. A square is a geometric figure c. He treats the diseases of animals.
6. A cucumber is a vegetable d. It makes distant objects appear
7. An economist is a person nearer and larger.
8. An encyclopedia is a book e. He designs machines, buildings, or
public works.
f. It gives information on subjects in
alphabetical order.

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g. He studies plants.
h. It makes very small objects appear
larger.
i. It is long and round with a dark
green skin and light green watery
flesh.
j. It has four equal sides and four
right angles.

STAGE 2
(1) Look at the following definition.
Plastics are compounds made with long chains of carbon atoms.
You will notice that the ‘wh’-word has been omitted. A definition written in this way
uses a reduced relative clause. In full the definition would be:
Plastics are compounds which are made with long chains of carbon atoms.
Write out the following definitions in full, putting the ‘wh’-word in the correct place.
1. Plastics are substances moulded into shape when they are heated.
2. A mineral is a structurally homogenous solid of definite chemical composition
formed by the inorganic processes of nature.
Write out the following definitions omitting the ‘wh’-word so that a reduced relative
clause is used.

3. Rayons are man-made fibres which are produced from wood.


4. A fossil is an organic trace which is buried by natural processes and subsequently
permanently preserved.

(2) Often subjects, particularly academic subjects, omit the ‘wh’-word in the following way:
Criminology is the study of crime.
Psychiatry is the study and treatment of mental illness.
Politics is the science of government.
Botany is the science of the structure of plants.
Write out definitions of the subjects given below. Use the notes given next to each subject;
write in the same style as above.

1. Demography—study—population growth and its structure.


2. Zoology—science—structure, forms and distribution of animals.
3. Biology—science—physical life of animals and plants.

(3) Academic subjects may be more cautiously defined, thus:


Geography may be defined as the science of the earth’s surface.

Linguistics may be defined as the science of language.

Write out definitions of the following subjects in the sam way as above.

1. Sociology—science—nature and growth of society and social behavior.

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2. Theology—study—religious beliefs and theories.
3. Astronomy—science—sun, moon, stars and planets.
Write a definition of your subject in a similar way to the above!

STAGE 3

It is possible for academic subjects to be defined more specifically. Normally, this can only be
done if more information is given.

(1) Look at the following example (‘branch’ has the meaning of ‘division’).
Psychology may be defined as the branch of biological science which studies the
phenomena of conscious life and behavior.

Write out definitions of the following subjects in the same way as above.

1. Criminal psychology—psychology—investigates the psychology of crime and the


criminal.
2. Chemistry—science—deals with the composition and behavior of substances.
3. Social economics—economics—is concerned with the measurement, causes and
consequences of social problems.

(2) A definition may be extended in order to be more precise and/or to give more
information about the subject. Look carefully at the following examples:

Sociology may be defined as the branch of science which studies the development
and principals of social organization. It is concerned wi th group behavior as distinct
from the behavior of individuals in the group.

Econometrics may be defined as the branch of economics which applies


mathematical and statistical techniques to economic problems. It is concerned with
testing the validity of economic theories and providing the means of making
quantitative predictions.

Now write a definition of your subject in a similar way to the above.

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Unit 3
Exemplification
The last unit was concerned with definitions. It is often useful in definitions to give examples:
this action is known as exemplification (or exemplifying), e.g. (=this is an abbreviation meaning
‘for example’)

Linguistics may be defined as the science of language, for example, its structure, sound
systems, acquisition.

There are different ways of exemplifying, e.g.

Geology may be defined as the science of the earth’s history as shown by its crust, rocks,
etc.
Geography may be defined as the science of the earth‘s surface. It is concerned with a
number of features, particularly physical, climate, and products.

STAGE 1

(1) Read the following text carefully.


WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
A language is a signaling system which operates with symbolic vocal sounds,
and which is used by a group of people for the purpose of communication.
Let us look at this definition in more detail because it is language, more than
anything else that distinguishes man from the rest of the animal world.
Other animals, it is true, communicate with one another by means of cries: for
example, many birds utter warning calls at the approach of danger; apes utter different
cries, such as expressions of anger, fear and pleasure. But these various means of differ
in important ways from human language. For instance, animals’ cries are not articulate.
This means, basically, that they lack structure. They lack, for example, the kind of
structure given by the contrast between vowels and consonants. They also lack the kind
of structure that enables us to divide a human utterance into words.
We can change an utterance by replacing one word in it by another: a good
illustration of this is a soldier who can say, e.g. “tanks approaching from the north”, or
he can change one word and say “aircraft approaching from the north” or “tanks
approaching from the west”; but a bird has a single alarm cry, which means “danger!”
This is why the number of signals that an animal can make is very limited: the
Great Tit is case in point; it has about twenty different calla, whereas in human

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language the number of possible utterances is infinite. It also explains why animal cries
are very general in meaning.

Read the passage again and draw a box around all the words which have the same
meaning as the word ‘example’. Notice how they are used and the punctuation that is
used with them.

Now draw a line under all the examples, e.g.


For example, many birds utter warning calls at the approach of danger;

(2) The following sentences are based upon the information contained in the passage
above. Complete the sentences making use of each of the following words (use each
only once):
Illustration for example a case in point an example for instance such as
1. At the approach of danger many birds utter warning calls: this is………………………of
animals communicating with each other.
2. Cries,……………………….those of anger, fear and pleasure, are uttered by apes.
3. There are important differences between human language and animal
communication: …………………………………animals’ cries are not articulate.
4. Animals’ cries lack,…………………………………., the kind of structure that enables us to
divide a human utterance into wrds.
5. A good…………………………of changing an utterance by substituting one word for
another is a soldier who can say “tanks approaching from the north” or “tanks
approaching from the west”.
6. Th number of signals that an animal can make is very limited: the Great Tit is
………………………………………….
STAGE 2

(1) Look at the following figure:


LANGUAGE FAMILIES

Latin
Portuguese Spanish Italian French Rumanian etc
1. There are a number of languages which are descended from Latin; for example,
Portuguese and Latin.
This can be expressed with another way:
2. There are a number of languages, sucha s Portuguese and Italian, which are
descended from Latin.

(2) Write two sentences about the following information: firstly, one sentence as in 1
above, and then another sentence as in 2.
Latin
Romansch Provencal Catalan Sardinian etc

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Unit 4
4411
Classifica tio n

When we divide something into groups, classes, categories, etc. we classifying those
items. The classification is normally made according to a criterion or several criteria (standards
or principles on which judgments are based).
In a classification essay, a writer organizes, or sorts, things into categories. The
classification essay organizes supporting details into three or more groups with each group
having its own identifying characteristics. For this reason, classification essays rely heavily on
description and example as supporting details, description providing the means for identifying
distinguishing characteristics and examples illustrating the members of each class.

Stage 1
(1) Read the following carefully

Classification

We can classify all the living things in the world into two big groups: living things and
non-living things. Living things have common characteristics as they can move, breathe,
grow and have young ones. They also need food. Non-living things are different
because they do not have these characteristic. Monkeys, trees, fish and flowers are
examples of living things but glass, water, plastic, metal and oxygen are non-living
things.

We can subdivide living things into two more groups: animals and plants. Why do we do
this? The answer is because they are different in many ways. Plants cannot move from
place to place. They have not got brains, hearts, lungs or blood, but they are alive. (10)

Also, plants can do something very important which animal cannot. Plants can make
their own food. Grass, wheat, roses and gum-trees are all types of plants. However, not
all plants have flowers on them so we can divide them into two groups: flowering and
non-flowering plants. Roses, daffodils and fruit trees all have flowers, but mushrooms,
fungi and ferns do not.

We can also divide animals into two groups: vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates
such as dogs, people, birds and frogs have a backbone, whereas jelly-fish butterflies and
spiders do not. There are five important groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds,
reptiles, amphibians and fishes. So you can ses that we put some things together in a
group because they are similar in many ways and they have characteristic which divide
or separate them from other things. In other words, we classify things. We make
classifications so that it is easier to learn about things.

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(2) Statement about classification
Read these statements. Write the correct statements in your notebook. Leave out the incorrect
statements.

a) We can divide plants into two groups: flowering and non-flowering.


b) When we classify things, we put some of them together in a group because they are
similar in many ways.
c) Non-living things need food and oxygen.
d) Living things have common characteristics.
e) Roses are non-flowering plants.
f) Animals cannot make their own food,
g) Plants cannot move from place to place.
h) Amphibians are invertebrates.
i) Not all plants have flowers.
j) We can classify all things in the world into two big groups: living things and non-living
things.
k) Plants haven’t got brains, hearts, lungs or blood but they are alive.
l) Vertebrates are animals which have a backbone but invertebrates do not.
m) Fungi and ferns are invertebrates.
n) There are five important groups of vertebrates: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians
and fishes.
o) Plastics and metal are living things.
p) We can divide animals into two groups: vertebrates and invertebrates.
q) Plants can make their own food but animals cannot.
r) All plants have flowers.
s) Living things can move, breathe, grow and have young.
t) We can subdivide living things into animals and plants.
u) Living things need food.

(3) Explaining the Statements


Complete these sentences using words from the Reading Passage.

1 Non-living things such as glass, _______________ and _______________ cannot


breathe, _______________, _________________, or ________________.
However, ______________ things can. Animals __________________ from place
to place and plants open and close their petals. They both have ______________
and _______________ up. So non-living things have different ______________
from living things.

2 Both ______________ and ___________________ have common characteristics.


That is why they are both living things. However, they are different in some ways.
For example, plants can make ____________ but animals cannot. Also plants
cannot move from ____________ to ______________ . Thus plants and animals
are both living things but there are some big differences between them.

3 Animals get their food from other _______________ or from plants. Plants are the
only _____________ things that can make their own food. Animals need plants for

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their food supply. So animals could not _____________ without plants.

4 Animals can be divided into two _______________: ________________ and


invertebrates. A vertebrate has a backbone but an __________________ does
not. So we divide animals into these groups because they have or have not a
_____________, not because they have hair or smooth skin.

(4) Comprehension
Answer the following questions in your own words.

1. Why do we put plants and animals into the same group, 'living things'?
2. Why are things such as water and metal classified in a separate group to plants and
animals?
3. What are the most important differences between plants and animals?
4. Do all animals have backbones?
5. In which group would you classify daffodils and roses?

Stage 2
(1) Read the following carefully:

The Classification of Birds

Birds are instantly recognisable creatures. Perhaps it is their ability to fly that causes
this. Some people might consider that their shape was the most distinguishing feature.
Everyone, however, agrees upon the characteristics that a bird possesses: two wings,
feathers, two legs, a toothess bill or beak, warm blood and it lays eggs.

The modern system of classifying birds is like a pyramid, with the base formed by 8514
different species. A convenient definition of species is: an interbreeding group of birds
which do not normally mate with other such groups.

The next division above the species is the genus, a group of species showing strong
similarities. The scientific name of a bird give the genus first, then the species. Thus, the
scientific name (Latin) of the golden eagle is 'Aquila crhysaetos' (eagle, golden). When
there are strong points of similarity between one genus and another, these related
genera are grouped together and are said to belong to the same family. The names of
the 215 families of birds always end in 'idae'. The golden eagle, for instance, is one of
the 'Falconidae' (falcon family).

Families with broadly similar characteristics are grouped together into 27 orders, whose
names end in 'iformes'. The golden eagle falls into the order of 'Falconiformes' (falcon-
like birds). The largest order is 'Passeriformes' or perching birds. This contains 63
families, and more species than all the rest put together. The feet are designed so that
they can grip a perch, with three toes in front and one behind. In addition, all are
known as song-birds. Two large families within this order are sparrows, with 155
species, and crows, with 100 species.

Finally, all of the orders make up the class 'Aves' (birds). This system of classification has
enabled scientists to differentiate 8514 species of birds. Placing a bird in the right family
depends upon the number of features. Among them are external characteristics, such

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as the shape of the beak and feet, and the colour pattern of the features. However, at
the level of order, the next higher category, distinctions are based on such features as
the structure of the skull, the arrangement of the muscles in the legs, and the condition
of the young at that the time of hatching.

(2) Look at the diagram below. It is the shape of a pyramid and represents the classification of
birds. If necessary read the texts again and then complete the diagram, writing on the line
provided. Inside the pyramid write the classification divisions or categories. To the right of the
diagram give one example, for each division, of the classification of the bird ‘golden eagle’ (in
English not Latin). To the left of the diagram, write the number of the divisions--if they are
known.

Diagram 1. The Classification of Birds

Class: birds

e.g.

e.g.

e.g.

8514 e.g. golden eagle

(3) From the information in the text:


a) Give a definition of a bird.
b) Give a definition of a species.
c) Give two criteria that are used in assigning birds to the order of ‘Passeriformes’.
d) Give two examples of families of birds from the order of ‘Passeriformes’.
e) List some of the general characteristics of families of birds, and then of orders of
birds.

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Stage 3
(1) Look at carefully at Diagram 2. It is a tree diagram classification of drinks.
a) What are the three criteria that are used in the classification?
b) Write a description of the classification of drink based upon the information in
diagram 2. Begin your description:
Drinks may be classified into two main groups: ….

Diagram 2: A Classification of Drinks

DRINKS

alcoholic non-alcoholic

e.g. spirits wine beer


hot cold

e.g. tea coffee cocoa

aerated non-aerated

e.g. lemonade tonic soda Coca cola others


water water e.g. milk

squashes or
cordials (i.e. fruit juices
diluted with (i.e. normally
water) undiluted)

(2) Now draw a diagram for the subject, or part of it, that you are studying. Write a brief
description of the classification diagram making sure that it is clear what the criteria are.

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Structure and Vocabulary Aid
criterion/criteria
basis/bases
features
characteristics

to …. To …. Two, etc categories sub-category


classify sub-classify several classes sub-class
categorise sub-categorise a number groups sub-group
group sub-group various types sub-order
divide into sub-divide the following kinds sub-division
arrange main species
put into general sorts
fall into broad breeds
place in orders
distinguish divisions
differentiate families
members

X consists of .... according to .... whether or not.... there is X ....


comprises .... whether there is X or not ….

X may be classified according to ....


on the basis of ....
depending (up)on ....

The classification is based (up)on ....

Note the possible sequence:


.... may be divided ....
.... may be sub-divided ....
.... may be further sub-divided ....

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Unit 5
12
ComparIson and Contrast

In most academic subjects and in life generally, we often need to compare and contrast things.
Similarities and differences are often noted when classifying (see the previous unit). The
language of comparison and contrast is frequently needed when studying tables and other
statistical information.

Formation
(1) The regular comparative and superlative of adjectives and adverbs is formed as follows:
(a) By adding the ending –er and –est to word with one syllable.
(b) By placing the word more and most in front of words with three or more syllables.
word length adjective or adverb comparative superlative
1 syllable new newer newest
soon sooner soonest
3 syllables or more, convenient more convenient most convenient
e.g. easily more easily most easily

(c) Words with two syllables may be like (a) or (b) above:
 Generally they will add the ending –er and –est if they end in:
-y or –ly e.g. funny (funnier, funniest): friendly (friendlier, friendliest)
BUT NOTE: adverbs ending in –ly take more and most.
e.g. quickly (more quickly, most quickly)
-ow e.g. narrow (narrower, narrowest)
-le e.g. able (abler, ablest)
-er e.g. clever (cleverer, cleverest)

 Most of the remaining words take more and most:


e.g. careful (more careful, most careful)
 Some common two syllables adjective can have either type of comparison, e.g.
common, handsome, polite, quiet.
Polite politer politest
More polite most polite

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(2) Irregular comparison is made by:
(a) A small group of very frequent adjective:

bad worse Worst


far further/farther furthest/farthest
good better Best
many more Most

(b) A small group of adverbs:

badly worse Worst


far further/farther furthest/farthest
little less Least
much more Most
well better Best

Use in sentence constructions


There are a number of constructions using comparisons. Some of the commonest ones are
shown below in sentences:
(1) Showing equivalence (i.e. the same)
(a) Ann is as clever as Tom.
(b) This book is the same price as that one.
(c) There are as much students in this room as the other one.
(d) There is as much liquid in the first test-tube as in the second.

(2) Showing non-equivalence (i.e. not the same)


(a) The medical library is not as big as the science library.
so
(b) John’s essay was longer than Peter’s.
(c) However, Peter’s essay was more carefully written than John’s and contained fewer
mistakes (than John’s).
(d) There were not as many students in the seminar as at the lecture.
(e) The student did not do as much homework as his teacher had hoped.
(f) This problem is less difficult than the previous one.

(3) Showing one item compared with a number (i.e. the superlative)
(a) He scored the highest marks in the annual examination.
(b) The most convenient time for him to see his tutor was in the early afternoon.
(c) Some economists find that the least interesting part of their subject is statistics.

(4) Showing parallel increase (i.e. two comparatives)


The bigger the problem (was), the more interesting he found it.

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NOTE: A common mistake is to confuse and mix some of the constructions, producing, for
example, the wrong construction ‘more . . . . as’ which should be, of course, ‘more . . . .
than’
Stage 1
(1) Look at the following tables:
Table 1: The Longest Rivers in England
The Severn --- 220 miles (354 kilometres) long
The Thames --- 215 miles (346 kilometres) long

Table 2: Temperature and Rainfall in Edinburgh, Scotland


Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Temperature 39,1 39,5 41,3 45,4 50,1 55,7 58,6 58,3 54,7 48,5 43,3 39,9
Rainfall 1,7 1,6 1,9 1,4 2,0 1,9 2,7 3,1 2,0 2,6 2,1 2,1

Now complete the following sentences. If necessary, look at the formation of comparisons.
Number 1 has been done for you.
1. The Severn is longer than the Thames.
2. The Thames is _________ long _____ the Severn.
3. The Severn and the Thames are __________________ in England.
4. In Edinburgh January is a _____________ month __________ December.
5. July is a _______________ month __________ June.
6. There is ______________ rain in May ___________ in March.
7. August has the ______________ rain; in other words, August is ____________ month.
8. May is _________ warm _______ June.
9. April is ______________ month.
10. The rainfall in May is ____________________ in September.
11. June is ___________ wet ________________ March.
12. The rainfall in February is ___________________ in March.
(2) Look at the text below. Read carefully and do the exercise.

Characteristics of Indica Japonica Rice Varieties


There are two main groups of rice varieties. These are the Indica varieties and the Japonica
varieties. The Indica varieties grow in tropical countries, where the climate is hot. The
Japonica varieties grow in countries like China and Japan, where the climate is more
temperate. The Indica varieties usually grow in less fertile soils than the Japonica varieties.
In general, Indica varieties have a taller stem than the Japonica varities.

Taken from A.J. Clyne. 1985.


English for the Life Science. IDP Australia: Canberra

Make 5 statements of comparison based on the information in the text.


Example: The Indica varieties grow in less temperate climate than the Japonica
varieties.

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(a) _________________________________________________________________
(b) _________________________________________________________________
(c) _________________________________________________________________
(d) _________________________________________________________________
(e) _________________________________________________________________

Stage 2

Look carefully at the information below:

Table 3: 4 Nordic countries (information 1976)

Information Denmark Finland Norway Sweden


Temperature in
Fahrenheit: 83 F 82F 83F 83F
(average max 11F -11F -2F 3F
annual) min
Area: sq. miles 16.600 130.165 125.018 173.624
Population 4.767.597 4.715.800 3.973.000 8.208.000
Density: per 113 15,4 18 12,2
km2
Forest area 11% 73% 20% 55%
Agricultural 70% 13% 3% 11%
area
Constitution constitutional Republic constitutional constitutional
monarchy monarchy monarchy
Religion Lutheran Lutheran Lutheran Lutheran

(1) Similarities:

(a) Look at the following examples based on the table above:

 Both Denmark and Norway have a constitutional monarchy.

 Denmark and Norway are similar (or: alike) in that they both have a constitutional
monarchy.

 Sweden is similar to Norway in that it has a small agricultural area.

 Sweden is similar to Norway in its constitution.

 Denmark and Sweden both have the same kind of constitution.

 Denmark, like Finland, has a population of about 43/4 million.

(b) Now write one sentence similar to each of the above six types, basing your information
on Table 3.

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 17
(2) Differences:

(a) Look at the following examples based on Table 3:

 Norway and Sweden are dissimilar in that Norway has a much smaller population
than Sweden.

 Denmark is different from (or: unlike) Finland in that it has a constitutional


monarchy (…. whereas Finland is a republic).

 With regard to population, Sweden is bigger than Norway.

 Denmark has a constitutional monarchy, whereas (or: while) Finland is a republic.

 Whereas Finland is a republic, Norway has a constitutional monarchy.

 Denmark has the smallest land area; however, it has the largest percentage
agricultural area.

 Although Denmark has the smallest land area; on the other hand, it has the largest
percentage agricultural area.

 (On the other hand,) Denmark has the smallest land area; on the other hand, it has
the largest percentage agricultural area.

 The main difference One of the differences between Finland and Sweden is that
Finland is a republic, whereas Sweden has a constitutional monarchy.

(b) Now write one sentence similar to each of the above nine types, basing your
information on Table 3.

(3) Compare and contrast your country with one of the Nordic countries on Table 3. It is not
necessary to refer to all the items. If you do not know some of the details for your country,
give a rough estimation; but try to find out by looking in appropriate reference books. If
necessary, look at the Structure and Vocabulary Aid in this unit to help you.

Structure and Vocabulary Aid


Qualification of Comparison

considerably
a great deal
(very) much
(quite) a lot
rather smaller
somewhat bigger
(It is) a bit cheaper than ….
a little
slightly
scarcely
etc
hardly
only just

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 18
exactly
precisely
just
virtually
X is practically the same as ….
more or less
almost
near exactly
X is not entirely the same as ….
approximately
about quite

X is totally X is not quite as/so big


completely expensive
entirely different from Y quite as ….
quite etc.

X and Y are different in every way.


dissimilar respect.

totally Different
completely
entirely
quite

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 19
Unit 6
13
Cause and Effect
In academic writing events or actions are frequently linked with their cause and effect. Look at
the following diagram which summarises this relationship.

Event
situation
action
idea forward in time
problem or sequence

problem
back in time or
sequence effect
consequence
cause
reason result
purpose solution

Now look at these examples of the cause and effect relationship:

connective

Heat causes iron to expand


Prices rose. As a result, fewer good were sold
Any marks on the leaves are probably due to the same virus

The cause is in a box ; the effect is underlined.

There are a number of ways to express the relationship shown in the diagram above. You will
need to look at the Structure and Vocabulary Aid at the end of this unit before you do the
following exercises.

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 20
Stage 1

(1) The parts of the sentences below have been mixed up. Join the 6 parts on the left with the
correct parts from the 9 on the right.

1. There is acid in that bottle: a. the road was icy


therefore . . . b. he was unsuccessful
2. The bad effect of the fluctuation in c. prolonged illness
termperature . . . d. it must be handled very carefully
3. Bad labour relations caused . . . e. careful storage
4. The accident occurred because of . f. the icy road conditions
.. g. the strike
5. He passed his examination h. he worked hard
because . . . i. was to kill the laboratory specimens
6. Delayed treatment often results in
...
(2) Making use the information in the correct answers from the previous exercise. Complete
the following sentences. Inside the box write the appropiate connective or verb marker (see
Structure and Vocabulary Aid). The first one has been done as an example.

e.g. Icy road conditions caused the accident

1. he worked hard ________________________________

2. Prolonged illness is often ______________________

3. The strike was _______________________________

4. The laboratory specimens were killed ______________________________

_________________________________________________________________

5. That bottle must be handled very carefully

_________________________________________________________________

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 21
Structure and Vocabulary Aid
Look carefully at the connectives or markers of cause-effect relationships shown below. Notice
particularly how they are used in a sentence construction.

(1) The cause of higher price was an increase in demand.


reason for

(2) The effect of an increase in demand is higher prices.


One consequence to raise prices.
result increase

(3) The demand has increased. (;) Therefore, the prices are higher.
So,
As a result.
CAUSE consequence, EFFECT
Accordingly,
Consequently,
Because of this,
Thus,
Hence,
For this reason,
*Now,

(4) Because the demand has increased, the prices are higher.
As
Since
*Now (that)
(*Includes in its meaning a present time element)

(5) An increase in demand often causes higher prices.


results in
leads to
produces

(6) Higher prices are (often) caused by an increase in demand.


due to
because of

(7) The prices are higher because of an increase in demand.


as a result of
on account of
owing to
through
because there is
since
as
because the demand has increased.
(8) When there is an increase in demand, (then) prices rise.
If

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 22
Stage 2
(1) Read the following carefully:
CLIMATE
For the last hundred years the climate has been growing much warmer. This has had a
number of different effects. Since the beginning of the 20th Century, glaciers have been
melting very rapidly, for example, the Muir Glacier in Alaska has retreated 2 miles in 10
years. Secondly, rising temperatures have been causing the snowline to retreat on
mountains all over the world. In Peru, for example, it has risen as much as 2700 feet in 60
years.
As a result of this, vegetation has also been changing. In Canada, the agricultural cropline
has shifted 50 to 100 miles northward. In the same way cool-climate trees like birches and
spruce have been dying over large areas of Eastern Canada. In Sweden the treeline has
moved up the mountains by as much as 65 feet since 1930.
The distribution of wildlife has also been affected, many European animals moving
northwards into Scandinavia. Since 1918, 25 new species of birds have been seen in
Greenland, and in the United States birds have moved their nests to the north.
Finally, the sea has been rising at a rapidly increasing rate, largerly due, as was mentioned
above, to the melting of glaciers. In the last 18 years it has risen by about 16 inches, which
is about four times the average rate of rise over the last 9000 years.

Now look at the following cause and effect table. From the text above copy into the table
where necessary the causes and effects mentioned; also wri te, in the central column, the
appropriate connective or marker of the cause/effect relationship. Where an example (e.g.)
is asked for, only write the first one if more than one is given in the text. The first section
has been done as an example.

Table 1: Climate
Cause Connective or Marker Effect
The climate has been growing (different) effects 1 glaciers have been melting
much warmer very rapidly,
e.g. the Muir Glacier in Alaska
has retreated 2 miles in 10
years
2

e.g.

e.g.

e.g.

e.g.

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 23
(2) Look at Table 2 carefully. Then do the exercise which follows.
Table 2: Accidents in a large British city (1977)
Main accident causes 1977 Percentage rise (+) or
Number of accidents fall (-) over 1976
1 Drivers turning right without due care 608 +10%
2 Pedestrians crossing roads carelessly 442 +8%
3 Drivers failing to give signal 314 -5%
4 Drivers losing control of vehicles 264 +50%
5 Drivers improperly overtaking other 257 -7%
vehicles
6 Drivers misjudging distances 174 -25%

Complete the following description of the information above. In the spaces in the
paragraph write a suitable cause-effect connective.

Firstly, turning right without due care ____________________ 608 accidents in 1977.
Secondly, _____________________ pedestrians crossed roads carelessly, 442 accidents
occurred. Next, although there was a 5% decrease in drivers failing to give a signal,
nevertheless there were 314 accidents _____________________ this. In 1977, 50% more
drivers than in 1976 lost control of vehicles. _______________________, there were 264
accidents. In fifth place came drivers improperly overtaking other vehicles: these
________________________ 257 accidents. Finally, there was a 25% fall in drivers
misjudging distances; however, they were still the ________________________ 174
accidents.

(3) Now write a description on Table 3 in a similar way to the previous exercise. Practi ce using
different connectives but take care to use the correct construction.

Table 3: Accidents in a large British city (1979)


Main accident causes 1977 Percentage rise (+) or
Number of accidents fall (-) over 1978
1 Drivers travelling too close to other 401 +9%
vehicles
2 Drivers driving under the influence of 281 +12%
alcohol
3 Drivers reversing negligently 210 -10%
4 Pedestrians crossing roads in 189 -6%
dangerous places
5 Drivers travelling too quickly in bad 189 -6%
weather conditions

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Unit 7
Deri va ti on
NOUN SUFFIXES
Verb + suffix

VERB SUFFIX NOUN


improve -ment improvement
manage -ment management
elect -ion election
discuss -ion discussion
inform -ation information
organize -ation organization
jog -ing jogging
spell -ing spelling
refuse -al refusal
propose -al appraisal
dance -er dancer
sing -er singer
act -or actor

Adjective + suffix

ADJECTIVE SUFFIX NOUN


weak -ness weakness
happy -ness happiness
dark -ity darkness
stupid -ity stupidity
punctual -ity punctuality
similar -ity similarity

ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES
Noun or verb + suffix

NOUN OR VERB SUFFIX ADJECTIVE


danger -ous dangerous
fame -ous famous
music -al musical
politics -al political
industry -al industrial
economics -al economical
cloud -y cloudy

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sun -y sunny
fog -y foggy
dirt -y dirty
attract -ive attractive
create -ive creative
enjoy -able enjoyable
comfort -able comfortable
wash -able washable
drink -able drinkable
knowledge -able knowledgeable
pain -ful painful
use -ful useful
thought -ful thoughtful
job -less jobless
home -less homeless

ZERO AFFIXATION
Many words in English can function as a noun and verb, or noun and adjective, or ve rb and
adjective, with no change in form.

- What’s the answer?


- Answer the questions!

- I don’t like the cold.


- I don’t like cold weather.

- I must clean my room.


- It’s a clean room.

- I didn’t reply to the letter.


- I wrote a reply to the letter.

VERB SUFFIXES
Noun or adjective + suffix

Noun or adjective suffix verb


formal -ize formalize
visual -ize visualize
personal -ize personalize
active -ate activate
solid -ify solidify

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Exercise
Combine the suffixes on the right with the verbs or adjectives on the left, and then complete
the text below.

Improve televise elect -ment -ity -ion

Educate weak -ation -ness


manage

Govern stupid

In his first broadcast on (1)…………………….since he won the (2)………………………last month, the Prime
Minister promised to make health and (3)…………………………two of his top priorities. And in a strong
attack on the previous (4)………………………….., he said that the present (5)…………………….of the British
economy was caused entirely by their (6)……………………..and bad (7)…………………………. He said he
would act immediately and he hoped the British people would be able to see clear signs of an
(8)……………………….in the economy by the end of the year.

Look at the two examples and then complete the rest of the definitions.

Example:

- An actor is a person who acts in films, plays and on TV.


- A murderer is a person who murders someone.

1. A journalist is a person who…………………………….


2. A ballet dancer is a person who………………………..
3. A film director is a person who………………………….
4. A bank manager is a person who………………………
5. An employer is a person who…………………………..
6. A pop singer is a person who…………………………...
7. A translator is a person who…………………………….
8. A lorry driver is a person who…………………………...
9. A photographer is a person who………………………..
10. An artist is a person who…………………………………

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 27
Fill in the blanks with the correct words.

1. That much is ( S D L T A E U I P I N B ) (dispute).

2. The question of who deserves ( O E I G R I T C O N N ) (recognize) for the


discovery is, however, a bone of contention.

3. Of the 3 ( S I T E S I C T N S ) (science) involved, one of them, Lise Meitner,


was a woman.

4. The standard ( O N N I T E X P L A A ) (explain) which has been

( C A R U L L Y C T N I I ) (critic) accepted, is that she was a physicist and the


discovery depended on chemical experiments.

5. But is this the whole ( T U H R T ) (true)?

6. In all ( I E O H L D I L O K ) (likely), the reason has more to do with the fact


that she was a woman and that she had to flee persecution. Her exile led to the Nobel

committee's ( E F I R L A U ) (fail) to recognize her contribution in the discovery of


nuclear fission.

Fill in each blank in these sentences with the correct noun!

1. The best……………..of what takes place is the………………………of good examples.


(explain/provide)
2. A good………………………of Archimides’ principle of the………………………of water by solid
bodies is the………………………in water of a cube of lead and a cube of wood of equal size.
(illustrate/ displace/ immerse)
3. A lake which is used for water………………………….is sometimes high enough for
the…………………………of……………………………by gravity to transport the water along the
pipesto the houses below. (store/exert/press)
4. The………………………..of water through several filter-beds and the…………………….of traces
of chlorine make the water safe to use for drinking purposes. (pass/add)
5. In science, the Centigrade thermometer is used for the…………………..of temperature.
(measure)
6. The 100 equal……………………………..are made after the………………….by……………………..of
the boiling point of water and the melting point of ice. (divide/determine/observe)

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7. The……………….of rain depends on the………………….and the…………………..of tiny droplets
of water vapour in the cloud. (form/condense/combine)
8. When the droplets are heavy enough to fall, …………………………………can take place.
(precipate)
9. The………………….and………………………of water can be observed in everyday life.
(evaporate/condense)
10. The………………………………of ice to water and water vapour by heating is a
good………………………….of the change of state of matter. (convert/illustrate)
11. The……………………….of calcium compound makes water hard. (contain)

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 29
Unit 8
Generalization and Qualification

(1). Read the following paragraph.

A Survey of Unemployment

A recent survey of people out of work analyzed the type of worker who is unemployed. Out of
the one million registered as unemployed one in five were women. 60% of men who were
unemployed were to be found in services and engineering. However, there was a 1 in 8 chance
of being unemployed in the construction industry. 1 in 20 were unemployed in industries such
as metal goods and textiles.

(It is a straightforward description of factual information)

Now compare it with the following paragraph.

A recent survey of people out of work analyzed the type of worker who is unemployed. Out of
all those registered as unemployed a minority were women. The majority of men who were
unemployed were to be found in services and engineering. However, the chance of being
unemployed was also likely in the construction industry. There was some unemployment in
industries such as metal goods and textiles.

Note: There are some changes in words in that paragraph. A number of generalizations have
been made, which involve qualifying statements. For example:

Quantity: all

Frequency: usually

Probability: likely

(2). A common way of generalizing is to write thus:

(i) The unemployed tend to be men. Or,


(ii) There is a tendency for the unemployed to be men.
Both types of generalization above can be made more precise by adding a qualification of
quantity, e.g.

(i) a. Most unemployed tend to be men. (quantity)


b. The unemployed generally tend to be men. (frequency), or:

(ii) a. There is a tendency for most of the unemployed to be men.

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b. There is a general tendency for the unemployed to be men.
Exercise:
Rewrite the following statements to show generalization in a similar way to types (i) b
and (ii) b.
Type (i) b
1. (most) unemployed from engineering, mining or chemicals—find another job
2. (most) unemployed—without jobs for more than two months
Type (ii) b

1. (most) unemployed men—found in services and engineering


2. job chances—(much) better for manual workers than for office workers
3. job prospects—(much) worse for older workers

Look at the following information which relates to a British university. It shows some
of the forms that overseas students completed during their first few weeks in Britain.
(%=percentage of students who completed that form)
% Form
100 University Registration
90 University Library Membership Application
80 National Health Service Registration
56 International Student Identity Card Application
40 Foreign Currency Exchange
3 Magazine Subscription

Here is the example of the beginning of your paragraph:


It is certain that students will need to complete a University Registration form.

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 31
Unit 9
Generalization and Qualification (2)

(1) Adverb of frequency


adverb scale
always 100%
nearly always
usually
often
sometimes 50%
occasionally
rarely seldom
never 05

Affirmative Sentences

Adv. of Main
Subject Auxiliary Predicate
Frequency Verb
The side away after a few
usually go
effects hours.
trouble accessing my
I sometimes have
favorite web site.
to Baden for the
Beethoven often went
summer.
Kevin has never been a fan of SUVs.
Brian has always wanted to own a restaurant.
I will always be grateful to you.

Negative Sentences

Adv. of Main
Subject Auxiliary Predicate
Frequency Verb
Suzanne doesn't usually get involved in politics.
It doesn't often snow here at Christmas.
music from the
I don't ever download
Internet.

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 32
Interrogative Sentences

Auxiliary Subject Adv. of Frequency Main Verb Predicate


Does Kimberly usually have breakfast at home?
Do you always read the fine print?
Did Chris ever play basketball?
Don't you ever get tired?

Imperative Sentences

Adv. of Frequency Verb Predicate


Always do your best!
Never forget this rule!
Always be truthful!

Practice With Adverbs of Frequency


After the word in, write the name of your country. After the word during, write the name of
the season or month. Choose one of the following adverbs of frequency to fill in the blanks:
seldom usually rarely sometimes often always never hardly ever

1. During ____________, it ____________ snows in _______________.


2. During ____________, it ____________ rains in _______________.
3. During ____________, it is ____________ hot in _______________.
4. During ____________, it is ____________ cold in _______________.
5. During ____________, it is ____________ humid in _______________.
6. During ____________, it is ____________ cool in _______________.
7. During ____________, it is ____________ warm in ______________.
8. During ____________, it is ____________ dry in _______________.
9. There are _____________ tornadoes in _________________.
10. There are _____________ earthquakes in _________________.
11. There are _____________ floods in _________________.
12. There are _____________ hurricanes in _________________.
(2) Modal Verbs

Fill in the blanks in each sentence using a modal verb, such as can, could, would, should, might,
may, must,or have to, based on the situational hints in italics. Select the modsal that seems
most appropriate for the situation described, and be [repared to eplain your choice.

1. I ………………………not know what to say to him if he showed up.


(I’m unprepared to speak to him)
2. She………look at things differently once the facts are in.
(a change in opinion is possible after all the information becomes available.)
3. It’s company policy; you………………..do it this way or your expense won’t be reimbursed.
(The company requires that this procedure be followed for epense reimbursements.)

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 33
4. I’m in terrible shape! I ……….exercise more!
(I’ve decided that more exercise is an absolute necessity for me.)
5. …………you get this report done for us by tomorrow morning
(Are you willing and able to prepare this report by tomorrow if we ask you?)
6. ………….you handle this much work on a regular basis?
(Do you have the capacity to handle this much work regularly)
7. We were vworried about you. You……..have called us as soon as you knew you’d be
late.
(Calling someone when you will be late is agood idea, in my opinion.)
8. You……….want to think a little more carefully about that before trying it next time.
(I think you were stupid not to think more carefully about it.)
9. This computer’s not working. It ……………….have been damaged by the thunderstorm.
(The damage is a logical deduction based on the information available.)
10. Ellen…………………….be sent to London this summer; if the board decides that the
situation there warrants it.
(The trip is certainly possible, but whether or not she goes depends on the board’s
preference.)
11. My trainer says I’m in terrible shape. According to him I…………..exercise more.
(My trainer is trying to compel me to exercise more.)
12. You……….always try reinstalling Windows, that might work if the disk is corrupted.
(This is one possible course of action, and there’s a possibility of it working under
certain conditions.)
13. I …………not do that if I were you.
(I don’t think your behavior is prudent, and my own normal behavior is different.)
14. When she was young, she…………….play tennis every single day, rain, or shine.
(She did this habitually when she was young, although she doesn’t necessarily do it
now.)
15. ……………….. I suggest this dark blue jacket?
(You’re a customer in my upscale store, and I’m trying to be very polite.)
16. I ………………….admit, it’s a very nice-looking car.
(I have no choice but to admit that the car looks nice.)
17. She …………….admit that it was a very nice-looking car.
(She had no choice but to admit that the car looked nice.)
18. I …………………….think not.
(I find that absolutely impossible to believe.)
19. ………………………we be required to ditch the aircraft, there are flotation devices under
your seats.
(There are live-saving devices under your seats for use if we ditch in water.)
20. You……………..say that.
(That’s another correct way of summarizing the situation.)

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 34
Unit 10
Interp reta tio n of Data

Interpretation of data looks at ways in which we can comment on significant features in


diagrammatic information. The data are presented in table, diagram, chart, graph, etc. Although
the information contained in is normally clear, it usually requires some written comment. Not
all the information should be described. Start to introduce the information with a general
comment and then describe or comment to the most significant or important information.

( 1) Look at the following table carefully


Table 1: Agricultural Output in Japan
(Billion yen)
Item 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Rice 1,947 1,815 1,790 1,901 1,795
Vegetables 2,033 2,051 2,089 2,111 2,033
Fruits and nuts 727 773 756 741 657
Table taken from www.stat.go.jp

Table 1 shows the output comparison of rice, vegetables, fruits and nut in 2005 to 2009.
In comparing those output, we can describe them in comparison and contrast or we can give
comment based on Structure and Vocabulary Aid in the end of this unit. We can give such
comment as:

 As can be seen in Table 1, a yield of vegetables in 2005 accounted as many as in 2009.


 According to Table 1, a largest amount of fruits and nuts in Japan were at 2006
.
Look at the more complete table
Table 1a: Agricultural, Forestry, and Fishery output

Introduction : Table 2 shows Japan's economic growth, which represents by the output of
agricultural, forestry and fishing industries. The information is divided into column, compares 5
years output, from 2005 to 2009

Comment: As can be seen from the table, Japan's total agricultural output in 2009 was 8.05
trillion yen, down 4.9 percent from the previous year. Crops yielded 5.48 trillion yen, down 5.8
percent from the previous year. Compared with dairy cattle product, there was a marked
increase in 2009

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(Billion yen)

Table taken from www.stat.go.jp

(2) Look at the following graph carefully


Graph 2: Trends in Food Self-Sufficiency Rates of Major Countries (In term of calories)

Graph taken from www.stat.go.jp

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 36
The graph draws food self-sufficiency rate is among major industrialized countries.

a. Now comment on the information contained in Graph 1. Before you write, look at the
Structure and Vocabulary Aid at the end of this Unit.
b. Estimate the percentage on food self-sufficiency rate of Canada in 2012. Base your estimate
on the trend shown in the graph

(3) Look at the following chart carefully


Chart 3: Self-Sufficiency Rates for Selected Categories of Agricultural Produce

a. The chart shows self sufficiency rates for selected categories of agricultural produce in
Japan.
b. Comment on the self sufficiency rate of fruits in 2005. Base you comment on the
information contained in Chart 1
c. Comment on self sufficiency rate of fruits and meats in 2005 compared with 2008.

Chart taken from www.stat.go.jp

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 37
(4) Look at the following diagram carefully

Diagram 4: Average weekly expenditure per family in Great Britain (1971)

Diagram taken from R.R. Jordan.


Academic Writing Course.1986

The diagram, often called a pie diagram, gives information about family spending in Britain.
Look at the information and then write generalized comments that draw attention to the most
significant items.

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 38
Structure and Vocabulary Aid

 As can be from the chart


seen in diagram …………………….
table
graph
table 1
 According to figure 2 ……………………………….
chart 3
chart
diagram
 It can be shown from the table that ……
graph
figure
statistics
 There was a/ an (very) minimal
slight
small rise
slow increase
gradual fluctuation
steady decrease …………
marked decline
large reduction
dramatic fall
steep drop
sharp
rapid
sudden
 In relation to …… twice high
Compared with … three times as… large as………
many
 Half of double percentage
Double (that) treble the number of ……
Treble half
 Graph a trend involves a direction an upward trend
a downward
a curve involves a shape and position Convex/concave
Top/ bottom
A slope
peak
plateau

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 39
Unit 11

A r g u m e n t

Giving argument deals with putting together a number of the language function to express our
ideas. In developing argument or discussion we need to express our opinion or views, and then
we need to conclude. When we discuss or argue academic writing, we normally need to present
a balanced view. We often look at what other people have already said on the same subject or
we look at other ideas. We probably look at the advantages and disadvantages of a particular
idea or action; we look at the arguments for and against. Then we try to evaluate the different
opinions, comparing and contrasting, and eventually give our own opinion or views

(1) For and Against

MINISTRY TO PROVIDE LAND FOR AGRICULTURE

FOR AGAINST

1. Providing more land for agriculture 1. Previous same agricultural projects


will increase the surplus of rice give no results
2. Achieving sufficient amount of rice, 2. Great agriculture project sometimes
Indonesia will stop rice import lead to corruption case
3. It is a good way to give the 3. Government are often unwell-planned
opportunity to the private
companies in controlling agriculture
area

a. Now read carefully the following passage


b. Can you think any other arguments to add to the list, for or against? If so, write them down.

Ministry To Provide Land for Agriculture

Forestry Minister Zulkifli Hasan said on Thursday that his ministry would provide
deforested land for the cultivation of rice, to achieve a surplus of 10 million tons by 2014. He
said the Agriculture Ministry could request land without limitations on land portions or location.
“We would fully support whatever location they *the Agriculture Ministry+ choose. It could be in
Java, Sumatra or Kalimantan. If they requested 200,000 or 300,000 hectares, then we would
fulfill the request,” he said after opening an annual national seminar to mark World Food Day,
which falls on Oct. 16.

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 40
Zulkifli said that the Forestry Ministry regularly allocates up to 10-15 percent of the
total land under its jurisdiction in order to be converted into rice fields and food plantations. He
said his ministry provides land which can produce at least 5 million tons of food. He added that
the government had decided that deforested land converted into food plantations or rice fields
would come under the management of the Agriculture Ministry.
“We would not try to regain them back in several years’ time,” he said. However, the
government wants the land to be properly controlled by an authority to make sure that the rice
field or food plantation projects operate according to plan. Without specific details, the minister
mentioned a case in Central Kalimantan in the 1990s in which 1.5 million hectares of land
allocated for rice production bore no result.
“That huge allocation of land was never [converted into] rice fields. At present, we only
want to make sure that conversions really take place and that they’re successful,” the minister
said. He said he would like to see state-owned enterprises (SOEs) have control over converted
lands as it would be more beneficial as it was easier to cooperate with SOEs and there would be
less opposition.“It might be possible for private companies to control an area of land, although I
doubt their eagerness,” Zulkifli said.
The Forestry Ministry’s director general for river basin management and social forestry,
Harry Santoso, told the seminar that from 1998 to 2010, the ministry had donated more than
16.04 million hectares of land for conversion. “During that period, the combined annual food
production reached 9.5 million tons from crops such as rice, corn and soybean,” he said.
Currently, the ministry has three major programs in support of the national food
security program: agroforestry; planting under trees (PLBT); and plant enrichment. Both
agroforestry and PLBT mean planting seasonal plants under trees aged less than three-years-old
but with different types of plants. Plant enrichment means planting multipurpose trees, such as
petai or bitter bean; breadfruit; sago palm; sugar palm; cashew nut; durian; avocado and
mango.
Agriculture Ministry data shows that in 2010, there were 7.8 million hectares of rice
fields in the country. The ministry estimates that Indonesia will need 8.26 million hectares in
2020, and 9.5 million hectares in 2030.

Taken fro m The Jakarta Post, Jaka rta | Fri, 09/30/2011

(2) Advantages and Disadvantages

Big Investors, Small Farmers in Africa: a Fair Deal?

Foreign investment in African land is growing. Countries like China, Saudi Arabia and South
Korea are leasing or buying millions of hectares to grow food for their people.
Research shows that many large land deals lack protections for small farmers. Contracts may
guarantee leases for up to ninety-nine years, leaving local people without land for generations.
Better practices balance exports with local food needs and give farmers ways to
enforce promises by investors. They also make clear what kinds of jobs and how many job s will
be created. Smallholders can gain influence if they form cooperatives or unions or have the
support of nongovernmental organizations.
There are different business models for cooperation between investors and local farmers.
Lorenzo Cotula is a senior researcher at the International Institute for Environment and
Development in London. One popular method, says Mr. Cotula, is contract farming. "Contract
farming has been around for a very long time and which essentially involves a company

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 41
providing credit, inputs like seeds and fertilizers and training and all that, and then buying
produce from the farmers at a fixed price when harvest time comes." Said Lorenzo Cotula.
Companies usually deduct the cost of the inputs from the final purchase price. He says
contract farming represents up to sixty percent of tea and sugar farming in Kenya and one
hundred percent of cotton farming in Mozambique. Contract farming may give farmers more
access to markets for high-value crops. But Mr. Cotula found that contracts often go to
wealthier farmers. Poorer farmers often work as labor on the contracted farms. The price that
companies pay to farmers may be low, and companies might not honor purchase agreements
when market conditions change.
Also, growers may go into debt when the company deducts payments for inputs
from the final purchase price. Another business model is a joint venture. Lorenzo Cotula says an
equity stake, or share of ownership, in a business can give communities a voice in decision-
making. It can also provide income in the form of dividend payments. But a practice called
"transfer pricing" can make those dividends disappear. Prices are inflated or deflated in deals
with companies linked to the partner in the joint-venture. This practice reduces profits for the
joint-venture company and dividends for smallholder partners. As a solution, contracts may
require fair market prices for sales to partners.
Taken from www.voanews.com

a. Do you think investors leasing or buying land in Africa is fair to farmers? What are the
advantages?
b. What are the disadvantages? Write 5-8 sentences explaining your answer.

ADVANTAGE DISADVANTAGE

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 42
Unit 12
Drawing Conclusion
Drawing a conclusion often involves making a summary of the main points already made. In
addition to, or instead of, this, a final, important piece of information, etc. should be added. In
this unit, we practice making concluding remark.

Structure and Vocabulary Aid

Summarizing Concluding
In short, ……. In conclusion, ……..
In a word, …. On the whole, ……
In brief, ……… Altogether, ……….
To sum up, … In all, ………………..

It is generally accepted
widely argued that………
held
believed

Therefore, it can be conclude that……..


Thus, may deduced
On this basis, inferred
Given this,

From Table 1 it can be seen that ……


the table may concluded
figure shown
data estimated
results calculated
information inferred

In conclusion, we can/ may say that……….


Finally, it can/ may be said

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 43
(1) Read to the following passage carefully
Hundreds of hectares of farmland south of Bantul, Yogyakarta, were inundated over the
past three days, causing losses of hundreds of millions of rupiah. The flooding was
blamed on sediment and silt that clogged a nearby estuary, thus preventing water from
several major rivers from emptying into the sea. Consequently, the flow of water turned
inland.

Now write the suitable conclusion


In conclusion, it can be said that ……….

(2) Read the following passage carefully

HEALTH
It is generally accepted that a dietary intake of about 2500 calories a day is a basic
requirement for proper health, of which a particularly important element is the protein
content. Therefore, it can be assumed that if the protein intake in the diet falls below a
certain level, it will lead to malnutrition and disease. The average adult’s body contains
about 10.9 kg (24 lb) of protein, only 2.2 kg (5 lb) can be lost without death occurring
An adult needs to replace about 40 grams (1 ½ oz) of protein a day. In developed
countries nearly everyone gets about twice as much protein as he really needs, often
from eating such food as milk, cheese, eggs, fish and meat, all of which are high in protein
content. In developing countries, on the other hand, many vegetables that are eaten
contain little protein. Some, however, are rich in protein, for example, soya beans.
Table 1: Daily calorie and protein consumption

Country Daily calorie intake per capita Daily total protein intake per capita
(grams)
USA 3200 95.6
UK 3150 87.5
Mexico 2550 65.7
Japan 2460 74.7
Nigeria 2180 59.3
India 1810 45.4

Taken from R.R. Jordan.


Academic Writing Course. 1986

Now, complete the following:


It can be concluded from the text and Table 1 that people in the USA_________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
On the other hand, those in India_____________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 44
(3) Study the following table, which gives you information about supply of cereal grains in
1995, 2000, 2005, 2008, and 2009.

Table 1 : Supply of Cereal Grain

Table taken from www.stat.go.jp

a. Analyze the information in the table above. Comment on the significant items and
discuss them. What conclusions can you draw?
b. Now write a suitable conclusion

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 45
Bibliography

Azar, Betty Schrampfer. Fundamentals of English Grammar. Jakarta: Binarupa Aksara. 1993
Cleland, Bill and Ruth Evans. Learning English Through General Science. Melbourne: Longman
Cheshire. 1987

Jordan, R.R. Academic Writing Course. London: Bell and Bain, Ltd. 1986

Rochman, Syaifur, et.all. English for Basic Sciences. Purwokerto, Universitas Jenderal Soedirman.
2003

Ministry To Provide Land for Agriculture. (online)(www.thejakartapost.com, diakses pada 1


Maret 2012 )

Big Investors, Small Farmers in Africa: a Fair Deal? (online)( www.voanews.com, diakses pada 1
Maret 2012)

Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Statistics Bureau, Director-General for Policy
Planning and Statistical Research and Training Institute. (online)( www.stat.go.jp, diakses
pada 1 Maret 2012)

E n g l i s h f o r G e n e r al S c i e n ce s Page 46

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