Case studies

Presented By
Dr.R.Murugan
Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
National Institute of Technology Silchar
 Digital camera
Data compressor
Software modem
Elevator Controller
Alarm Clock
Digital Cameras
 Introduction
• Digital Camera Embedded System
– General-purpose processor
– Special-purpose processor
Custom or Standard
– Memory
– Interfacing
• Designing a simple digital camera
– General-purpose vs. single-purpose processors
– Partitioning of functionality among different types of
processor
A Simple Digital Camera
A Simple Digital Camera
Design Challenges
Design Challenges
Design Challenges
Design Metric
Time-to-Market
The Performance: A Design Metric
Digital Camera Designer’s Perspective
 File management
Exchangeable image file format
• EXIF standard gives format for digital pictures:
– Format of data in a file.
– Directory structure.
• EXIF file includes:
– Image (JPEG, etc.)
– Thumbnail.
– Metadata (camera type, date/time, etc.)
Data Compressor
Compression
DCT step
Quantization Step
Huffman Encoding
 Requirements
name Data compression module
purpose Code module for Huffman data compression
inputs Encoding table, uncodedbyte-size input symbols

outputs Packed compressed output symbols

functions Huffman coding

performance Requires fast performance

manufacturing NA
cost
power NA
physical NA
size/weight
Requirements Specification
Non-functional Requirements
Non-functional Requirements
Informal Functional Specification
Software Modem
 Theory of Operation and
Requirements
• The modem will use frequency-shift keying (FSK),a technique
used in 1200-baud modems.
• The FSK scheme transmits sinusoidal tones, with 0 and 1
assigned to different frequencies.
• Sinusoidal tones are much better suited to transmission over
analog phone lines than are the traditional high and low
voltages of digital circuits.

Frequency Shifting Key

 Cont…
• The scheme used to translate the audio input into a bit stream
is illustrated in Figure below:

Frequency Detection Scheme

• The analog input is sampled and the resulting stream is sent

to two digital filters (such as an FIR filter).
• One filter passes frequencies in the range that represents a 0
and rejects the 1- band frequencies, and the other filter does
the converse.
 Cont…
• The outputs of the filters are sent to detectors, which
compute the average value of the signal over the past n
samples.
• When the energy goes above a threshold value, the
appropriate bit is detected.
• The receiver will detect the start of a byte by looking for a
start bit, which is always 0.
• By measuring the length of the start bit, the receiver knows
where to look for the start of the first bit.
• However, since the receiver may have slightly misjudged the
start of the bit, it does not immediately try to detect the bit.
Instead, it runs the detection algorithm at the predicted
middle of the bit.
 Requirements
name Modem
purpose A fixed baud rate frequency-shift keyed modem
inputs Analog sound input, reset button.
outputs Analog sound output, LED bit display
functions Transmitter: Sends data stored in microprocessor memory
in 8-bit bytes. Sends start bit for each byte equal in length
to one bit.
Receiver: Automatically detects bytes and stores results in
main memory. Displays currently received bit on LED.
performance 1200 baud

manufacturing Dominated by microprocessor and analog I/O.

cost
power Powered by AC through a standard power supply.
physical Small and light enough to fit on a desktop
size/weight
 Specifications
• The basic classes for the modem as shown below:

Class Diagram for Modem

Block diagram of Modem
Types of Modem
 System Architecture
• The modem consists of one small subsystem (the interrupt
handlers for the samples) and two major subsystems
(transmitter and receiver).
• Two sample interrupt handlers are required, one for input and
another for output, but they are very simple.
• The transmitter is simpler, so let’s consider its software
architecture first.
• The best way to generate waveforms that retain the proper
shape over long intervals is table lookup.
• Software oscillators can be used to generate periodic signals,
but numerical problems limit their accuracy.
 Cont…
• Table lookup can be combined with interpolation to generate
high resolution waveforms without excessive memory costs,
which is more accurate than oscillators because no feedback
is involved.
• The required number of samples for the modem can be found
by experimentation with the analog /digital converter and the
sampling code.

Waveform Generation by Lookup Table

 Component Design and Testing:
• The transmitter and receiver can be tested relatively thoroughly
on the host platform since the timing-critical code only delivers
data samples.
• A test bench can be constructed to feed the receiver code
sinusoidal inputs and test its bit recognition rate.
• It is a good idea to test the bit detectors first before testing the
complete receiver operation.
• One potential problem in host-based testing of the receiver is
encountered when library code is used for the receiver function.
• If a DSP library for the target processor is used to implement the
filters, then a substitute must be found or built for the host
processor testing.
• The receiver must then be retested when moved to the target
system to ensure that it still functions properly with the library
code.
 System Integration and Testing
• There are two ways to test the modem system: by having the
modem’s transmitter send bits to its receiver, and or by
connecting two different modems.
• The ultimate test is to connect two different modems,
particularly modems designed by different people to be sure
that incompatible assumptions or errors were not made.
• But single-unit testing, called loop-back testing in the
telecommunications industry, is simpler and a good first step.
• Loop-back can be performed in two ways. First, a shared
variable can be used to directly pass data from the transmitter
to the receiver. Second, an audio cable can be used to plug
the analog output to the analog input.
• In this case it is also possible to inject analog noise to test the
resiliency of the detection algorithm.
Elevator Controller
 Objective
• An elevator system is a vertical transport vehicle that
efficiently moves people or goods between floors of a
building. They are generally powered by electric motors.
• The most popular elevator is the rope elevator. In the rope
elevator, the car is raised and lowered by transaction with
steel rope.
• Elevators also have electromagnetic brakes that engage, when
the car comes to a stop. The electromagnetic actually keeps
the brakes in the open position.
• Instead of closing them with the design, the brakes will
automatically clamp shut if the elevator loses power.
 Cont…
• Elevators also have automatic braking systems near the top
and the bottom of the elevator shaft.
• Many modern elevators are controlled by a computer.
• The computers job is to process all of the relevant information
about the elevator and turn the motor correct amount to
move the elevator car in correct position.
• In order to do this the computer needs to know at least three
things those are
– i) where people want to go
– ii) where each floor is
– iii) where the elevator car is
• Finding out where people want to go is very easy. The buttons
in the elevator car and the buttons in each floor are all wired
to the computer, when anyone presses these buttons, the
computer logs this request.
ELEVATOR SYSTEM OVERVIEW
Block diagram of an Elevator control
system
Elevator controller
 Cont…
• This above figure consists of floor where passenger wants
to visit.
• Elevator car moves it either upward or downward
direction.
• The arrival sensor detected the arrival of the elevator to
the respective floor.
• Floor button is used to take the elevator to the respective
floor.
• Floor lamp shows the indication of floor and direction
lamp shows the direction of elevator movement, whether
it is upward or downward direction.
• Elevator button is used for moving the elevator car either
in upward and downward direction. Based on the
elevator switch pressed, the elevator car is moved either
in upward and downward direction.
 Cont…
• D.C. Motor is another important component of elevator
system. Based on the switch pressed, the D.C. Motor either
moves in forward and reverse direction to move the elevator
in either upward or downward direction.
• Door of the elevator system is one of the important factors of
elevator system. When elevator car stops in particular floor,
the door of the elevator is opened for passenger to be come
out and come in to the elevator car.
• Arrival sensor is used in every floor, for detecting the elevator
car. When a particular car is reached to the particular floor,
this arrival sensor detects the elevator car and stops that car.
 DESCRIPTION
• When User presses an elevator button, the elevator button
sensor sends the elevator button request to the system,
identifying the destination floor the user wishes to visit.
• When any new request comes, this new request is added to the
list of floors to visit.
• If the elevator is stationary, the system determines in which
direction the system should move in order to service the next
request.
• The system commands the elevator door to close, when user
presses the elevator door closed button.
• When the door has closed, the system commands the motor to
start moving the elevator, either in up and down direction,
based on switch pressed.
 Cont…
• When the elevator moves between floors, the arrival sensor
detects that the elevator is approaching a floor and notifies
the system to stop the elevator and open the door of the
elevator system.
 FPGA BASED FUZZY LOGIC
CONTROLLER
• Here the fuzzy logic controller is implemented (FLC) on a field
programmable gate array (FPGA) system for intelligent control
of elevator system.
• This design is based on the algorithm which is developed to
reduce the amount of computation required by focusing only
on relevant rules and ignoring those which are irrelevant to
the condition for better performance of the group of elevator
system.
• Here the simulation was carried out by considering the two
inputs i.e. elevator car distance and elevator number of stops.
 Cont…
• The elevator distance is calculated by considering number of
factors such as Pc the hall call floor position, Pe the car
position, Ph the highest floor position, and Pl is the lowest
floor position.
• Based on this data car distance of every car is calculated. After
that the value of car distance along with number stop of each
car is applied to the fuzzy controller for calculation of
performance Index (PI) of each car and the car which has
maximum (PI) gives the answer to the hall calls. This would
facilitate reducing the average waiting time (AWT) of the
passenger.
OVERVIEW OF DISPATCHING ALGORITHMS
Dispatching algorithms is the most important aspects in elevator
control system, this algorithms can reduce the average waiting
time of passenger up to certain value and also reduce the power
consumption of the elevator system. Here we implement six
types of dispatching algorithms, these are
(i) Collective up Algorithms (CU)
(ii) Collective Down Algorithms (CD)
(iii) Selective up Algorithms (SU)
(iv) Selective Down (SD)
(v) Selective - Collective UP (S-C-U)
(vi) Collective – Selective Down (C-S -D)
 Cont…
• Based on the traffic amount and traffic percentage any one of
the algorithm is selected on particular time instance, so this
makes the reduction of average waiting time and power
consumption of elevator system.
FUZZY LOGIC FOR EMBEDDED SYSTEM
• Intelligent systems are becoming increasingly distributed in
terms of both their applications and their implementation.
• While large systems will remain important e.g. for commerce
and industry, smaller embedded intelligent system have also
started to appear in the home and workplace.
• Fuzzy logic extends from the traditional crisp boundary of
Arisolelian logic (true or false) to include the concept of
partial truth, having truth value between completely true and
completely false.
• Motorola’s HC68HC12 (HCS-12) microcontroller incorporates
several fuzzy logic primitives directly in its instruction set.
 Cont…
• The instruction set contains the fuzzy logic operations of
trapezoidal membership rule evaluation, and weighted
average defuzzification.
• The microcontroller also includes other instructions that are
helpful in fuzzy logic application such as MIN / MAX
instruction.
• Motorola’s HC12 allows the development of low level
application that can utilize the unique features of fuzzy logic.
ALARM CLOCK
 Alarm clock interface
Alarm on Alarm off

PM buzzer

Alarm
ready
light
set set hour minute
time alarm button
 Operations
• Set time: hold set time, depress hour, minute.
• Set alarm time: hold set alarm, depress hour, minute.
• Turn alarm on/off: depress alarm on/off.
 Alarm clock requirements
Name Alarm clock
purpose 24-hour digital clock with one alarm
inputs set time, set alarm, hour, minute, alarm on/off

outputs four-digit display, PM indicator, alarm ready, buzzer

functions keep time, set time, set alarm, turn alarm on/off, activate
buzzer by alarm
performance hours and digits, no seconds; not high precision

manufacturing consumer product

cost
power AC
physical fits on stand
size/weight
 Alarm clock class diagram

1 1 1 1
Lights* Display Mechanism
1
1
1

Buttons*

Speaker* 1
Block diagram
 System architecture
• Includes:
– periodic behavior (clock);
– aperiodic behavior (buttons, buzzer activation).
• Two major software components:
– interrupt-driven routine updates time;
– foreground program deals with buttons, commands.
 Interrupt-driven routine
• Timer probably can’t handle one-minute interrupt interval.
• Use software variable to convert interrupt frequency to
seconds.
 Testing
• Component testing:
– test interrupt code on the platform;
– can test foreground program using a mock-up.
• System testing:
– relatively few components to integrate;
– check clock accuracy;
– check recognition of buttons, buzzer, etc.