State-of-the-Art Review

Literature Review of Advances in Materials Used in

Development of Alkali-Activated Mortars,
Concretes, and Composites
Nailia R. Rakhimova 1 and Ravil Z. Rakhimov 2
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Abstract: Materials providing an improvement and conformance to increasing technical and ecological requirements plays a crucial role in the
sustainable development of resource- and energy-intensive cements and concretes. Over the past decades, an extensive resource base of natural
and technogenic materials has been established for alkali-activated materials (AAMs) and is being continuously expanded with the rapid
development of the alkali-activation theory and technology and the ongoing studies of many research groups around the world. This paper
reviews the recent progress in fiber reinforcing; potential assessment of various aluminosilicates for alkali activation (AA) and modification of
alkali-activated cements (AACs); replacement of natural aggregates with wastes and by-products; replacement of expensive alkali activators
with more appropriate alternatives; and modification of AACs by chemical admixtures, metals, and nanomaterials. This literature review was
carried out from the perspectives of the suitability of materials and their effects on the efficiency improvement of engineering, economic, and
ecological performances AAMs. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002899. © 2019 American Society of Civil Engineers.
Author keywords: Slag; Fly ash; Alkali; Cement; Mortar; Concrete.

Introduction
Portland cement (PC) and concrete are the most consumed and
most resource-, energy- and pollution-intensive products in the
construction industry. In the recent decades, attempts to improve
the engineering performance of the PC and make it more environ-
mentally sustainable have led to significant changes in the compo-
sition and range of inorganic binders based on both the portland
clinker and nonclinker-calcium aluminate, calcium sulfoaluminate,
phosphate, alkali-activated cements (AACs). The progress in this
field has been driven by significant developments in the materials
science field as well as continuous development and achievements
in the production and processing of a wide range of organic and
inorganic materials from natural and waste origins. Apparently,
none of the alternative non-portland clinker cements will compete
with the PC in the near future in terms of the scale of production
and applications; however, their further development and practical
adoption are highly important for at least partial replacement of the
PC, special purposes, and sustainable future of the cement and
building construction industries.
Invented more than 70 years ago, chemical, and particularly
alkali, activation of glassy aluminosilicates—which is an approach
for the nonfired or low-temperature production of inorganic binders
from various natural and technogenic starting materials whose
properties are comparable to those of the PC—has gained ever-
increasing appeal from the standpoints of theoretical research and
industrial implementation. Over the past few decades, practical
1
Research Lecturer, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Ton Duc Thang Univ.,
19 Nguyen Huu Tho, Tan Phong Ward, District 7, Ho Chi Minh City
700000, Vietnam (corresponding author). ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000
-0003-1735-1758. Email: nailia.rakhimova@tdtu.edu.vn
2
Professor, Dept. of Building Materials, Kazan State Univ. of
Architecture and Engineering, Kazan 420043, Russia.
Note. This manuscript was published online on August 21, 2019.
Discussion period open until January 21, 2020; separate discussions must
be submitted for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering, © ASCE, ISSN 0899-1561.
experience and many on-going studies have supported the funda-
mentals of alkali-activated materials (AAMs), namely raw materi-
als range and requirements, chemistry and mineralogy, structure
and engineering properties, controlling factors, concretes and mor-
tars mix design, processing, service life, and durability of AAMs
(Pacheco-Torgal et al. 2014; Provis and Van Deventer 2014). The
continuing interest in AAMs is motivated by several reasons. It is
generally accepted that AAMs are advantageous in effectively
converting wastes and by-products into cements, reducing green-
house gas emission during concrete production, providing better
mechanical properties and durability compared to conventional
concrete, and wide opportunities of AAMs not only in building
construction but also in other industries (Duxson et al. 2007;
Huseien et al. 2017; Ma et al. 2018; Palomo et al. 2014; Passuello
et al. 2017; Provis 2018; Rahman et al. 2015; Tang et al. 2019).
However, many aspects of the production and application of AAMs
require further investigation. The use of geopolymer concrete
(GPC) in practice is considerably limited primarily because of the
lack of research regarding its structural elements, practical design
standards, and full-scale application studies (Ma et al. 2018). There
is no consensus regarding the superiority of AAC over PC in re-
spect of its carbon footprint as long as the environmental impact of
AAMs is dependent on the binder design, and the production of the
most effective sodium hydroxides and silicates contributes to CO2
emissions. The origin, availability, logistics of precursors and alkali
components, improvement in engineering properties, standardiza-
tion of AAMs, and others are in the process of being studied and
development. The need for further research is also necessitated
by substantial differences in conventional PC materials and AAMs.
Although many approaches used for the improvement in ecological
and engineering performance of PC and concretes are applicable
for AAMs, the AAMs have unique features of property- and
structure-formation processes. Furthermore, the range of materials
for controlling the chemistry, structure, properties, and cost of
AAMs is not entirely the same as for PC and concretes, and call
for different mechanisms.

© ASCE 03119002-1 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(11): 03119002

 This review spans 120 papers published from 2016 up to begin-
ning of 2019 in the fields of design and investigation of AAMs
produced or modified with various types of materials used earlier
or applied for the first time. The review covers fibers, key and
secondary precursors, fine and coarse aggregates, alkali activators,
chemical admixtures, metals, and nanomaterials.
Materials in Recent Studies
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Fibers
Fiber reinforcement as an effective way of enhancing the mechani-
cal capacity of inorganic binder-based materials is widely and
continuously studied for AAMs as well. An analysis of the recent
literature shows that the studies in this area have focused on the
effects of fibers made of different materials, namely steel, glass,
basalt, synthetic materials, sisal, and wood. The mechanical and
other characteristics of the mostly room temperature–cured AAMs
based on different precursors and alkali activators were compared
with conventional PC composites and investigated in terms of fiber
percentage, size, shape, angle, and processing factors.
Steel fibers were used in studies by Faris et al. (2016), Ma et al.
(2019b), Farhan et al. (2018), and Onuaguluchi et al. (2017). In a
study by Faris et al. (2016), the optimal weight percentage of the
straight steel fibers providing the highest compressive strength of
67.72 MPa and highest flexural strength of 6.78 MPa of alkali-
activated concrete (AACO), produced by using sodium silicate
and sodium hydroxide activated fly ash (FA), was 3%. Nabeel et al.
(2018) used straight microsteel, deformed macrosteel, and hybrid
steel fibers in their study. Hybrid fibers (1% by volume microsteel
and 1% deformed macrosteel) were the most effective in increasing
of many mechanical characteristics of the ambient-cured alkali-
activated ground-granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS)/FA con-
crete (the compressive strength by 10.8%, splitting tensile and
flexural strengths by 80% and 52.3%, and direct tensile strength
by 37.5%). The addition of steel fibers also affected the stress-strain
curve, and the slope of the descending branch decreased signifi-
cantly compared with the reference concrete mix. Onuaguluchi et al.
(2017) studied the mechanical properties, total porosity, and corro-
sion performance of ordinary PC, Class F FA, and metakaolin
(MK)-based alkali-activated mortars (AAMOs) reinforced with 1%
to 2% volume fractions of scrap tire steel fibers. Fibers improved
the deformation and toughness of all mortars, and the proposed
FA-based concrete mixes were recommended for applications
where exposure to marine or other aggressive environments would
occur or where aesthetics is a concern. Ma et al. (2019b) experi-
mentally explored the feasibility of directly entraining a continuous
microsteel cable (1.2 mm) during the filament (12 mm) deposition
process, forming a 3D-printed reinforced geopolymer (GP) com-
posite. Researchers reported good bonding and coordination of
the microcable and GP and significant improvements in the mech-
anical strength, toughness, and postcracking deformation of the GP
composite.
Al-Majidi et al. (2017), Goncalves and Bindiganavile (2018),
and Bhutta et al. (2018b) investigated the properties of AAMs re-
inforced with steel and/or glass synthetic fibers. Al-Majidi et al.
(2017) studied the effect of the addition of 1%–3% (by volume) of
steel, polyvinyl alcohol, and glass on the mechanical properties of
AAMs based on FA, GGBFS, and silica fume (SF) mixed with po-
tassium silicate. Steel fibers of 13 mm length were more effective in
increasing the compressive strength from 15 MPa up to 70 MPa as
well as the flexural strength compared to polyvinyl alcohol and glass
fibers. The authors concluded that the room temperature–cured,
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(11): 03119002
strain-hardening GPC with superior deflection capacity can be pro-
duced using a ternary GP binder mix reinforced with 2% polyvinyl
alcohol fiber or with 2%–3% of 13 mm long steel fibers. Goncalves
and Bindiganavile (2018) and Goncalves et al. (2018) evaluated the
crack growth resistance, thermal conductivity from 30 °C to 300 °C,
and the specific heat capacity of paste and concrete prepared with
alkali activated (AA) FA and reinforced with a blend of steel and
polypropylene fibers and found these properties can be predicted
based on the rule of mixtures. The presence of fiber reduced the
thermal conductivity and more so at subzero temperatures, which
the authors explain by the drop in mean pore size such that the free
water remains a liquid for colder temperatures.
Bhutta et al. (2018b) investigated the influence of inclination
angle (0° and 45°) on the interfacial bond-slip behavior of macro-
steel fibers (straight, hooked end-deformed, and length deformed)
and length-deformed polypropylene fibers reinforced in FA and
MK-based AA composites under quasi-static and dynamic load-
ings. The fiber type and loading rate did not affect the peak bond
strength and toughness of AA composites, which were superior
compared to PC composites. The fiber failure modes in dynamic
pullout are no different from those observed in the quasi-static pull-
out in AACs. AACs exhibited a good interfacial bond strength with
different types of fibers regardless of fiber inclination angle or type
of loading. The performance of almost all inclined fibers is inferior
to the aligned fibers pullout in AACs regardless of loading and
matrix.
Behfarnia and Rostami (2017b), Nguyen et al. (2018a, b),
and Noushini et al. (2018) investigated AAMs incorporated with
synthetic fibers. According to Behfarnia and Rostami (2017b),
the optimal concentration of polypropylene fibers to improve the
mechanical properties was 0.24% (by volume), and greater quan-
tities negatively affected water adsorption and chloride penetration
resistance.
Nguyen et al. (2018a) in attempt to compensate the brittleness of
AA ladle slag matrix reinforced it with polypropylene fibers. The
mechanical properties of AAMOs reinforced by multifilament-fiber
or split-film-polypropylene fiber reveals that the effect of 2% hy-
drophilic polypropylene fibers is evident with increments of 300%,
80%, 7.6 times, and 150 times in flexural, tensile strength, fracture
toughness, and energy, respectively.
Noushini et al. (2018) analyzed the compressive and indirect
tensile strengths, modulus of elasticity and rupture, flexural tough-
ness, and fracture energy of GPC added with five types of synthetic
fibers at a 0.5% volume fraction. The results indicated that the
macro-polyolefin fibers exhibited the largest fracture energy, which
is likely due to high mechanical bonding and low fiber aspect ratio.
Relationships are established to predict the compressive and tensile
strengths, modulus of elasticity, compressive stress-strain curve.
Nguyễn et al. (2018b) provided a preliminary approach for
developing a new self-healing material based on AA GGBFS
(AAS)-based polyethylene fiber-reinforced composites. AAS-based
composites were more advantageous compared to PC-based com-
posites in terms of a reduction of relative crack width, but PC-based
composites had a higher resonant frequency recovery than AAS-
based composites. It is also observed that calcium carbonate is the
dominant healing material of cement- and slag-based composites.
According to Alomayri (2017) 2% by weight of glass microfib-
ers was reported to be optimum, and not only improved flexural
characteristics of GPs but also had an influence on precracking
of samples. Almeida et al. (2018) showed the addition of sisal fibers
to AA FA compositions improved both the compressive and tensile
strengths. Nonetheless, the inclusion of sisal fibers had a higher
impact on the improvement of the postcracking behavior, in particu-
lar on the ductility and postcracking strengths of these reinforced
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 composites. Fibers with a 50 mm length were more effective in in-
creasing the residual tensile strength as well as the dissipated energy.
Sarmin and Welling (2016) investigated a lightweight GP wood
(3–5 mm in size) composite synthesized from AA FA and MK. The
inclusion of wood particles in the concrete decreased workability
and density of GP composite, and demanded a greater amount of
alkaline activators. The compressive strength of lightweight GP
matrix without wood particles added samples cured at 80°C temper-
ature was 5.4 MPa, which significantly increased up to 45% when
10% wood particles were added. It was also recommended that
during curing, the samples should be wrapped to preserve moisture
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and to prevent shrinkage cracks.
According to Punurai et al. (2018) replacement of FA with basalt
fibers in GP resulted in increased setting times and strength and re-
duced drying shrinkage of pastes. The basalt fiber acted as small
reinforcing fibers and enhanced the development of calcium-silicate
hydrate (CSH), calcium-aluminate-silicate hydrate (CASH), and
sodium-aluminate-silicate hydrate (NASH), which further enhanced
the properties of paste, reduced the total porosity, and critical pore
size of GP.
Natural Materials, Wastes, and By-Products as
Main and Supplementary Precursors and Fine and
Coarse Aggregates of AAMs
Many types of different wastes and by-products have been inves-
tigated as precursors and supplementary cementitious materials
throughout the history of AAMs. Recent studies have widened the
range of materials and insights into opportunities for their applica-
tion in the AAMs production.
GGBFS, FA, and MK as Primary or Secondary Precursors
for AAM
Though GGBFS, FA, and MK are generally used as the key pre-
cursors, these materials continue to be studied for AAMs. Compar-
ative assessment of concretes depending on the binder type and
aggregates in studies of Espuelas et al. (2018), Marinković et al.
(2017), and Nguyen et al (2018c) revealed the best performance of
GGBFS or GGBFS/FA as binders. Espuelas et al. (2018) analyzed
four types of cements with different GGBFS or FA contents as well
as 15 AACs for the construction mortars manufacturing from a
technical and environmental points of view. CEM I 52.5 was found
to have the worse impacts in three of the four environmental cat-
egories, except for the dust because of the highest impacts in this
category of the activator compounds. AA FA concrete exhibited the
worst combination for all the impact categories because of the low
mechanical properties demonstrated when the FA was the only pre-
cursor. AAS concrete reached the best values for the acidification
and eutrophication and close to the best values for the climate
change and dust impact categories, demonstrating this as the best
overall combination from an environmental point of view. The
study of Nguyen et al. (2018c), showed that while blended PC with
GGBFS, blended PC with FA, high volume limestone AASCs, and
MK-based GP reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of
cements relative to PC, only MK-based GP is impractically expen-
sive in North America due to the rarity of the mineral and the
corresponding cost of supplying it. Marinković et al. (2017) com-
pared four green concrete mixes with a conventional concrete mix,
namely recycled aggregate concrete with a cement binder, high-
volume FA concrete with natural and recycled aggregates, and
AA FA concrete with natural aggregates. An attributional life cycle
assessment, based on the scenario that included construction prac-
tice, transport distances, and materials available in Serbia, was per-
formed. Recycled aggregate concrete mix with a cement binder
showed the worst overall environmental performance while AACO
© ASCE 03119002-3
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(11): 03119002
with natural aggregates, despite the uncommonly high amount
of alkali activator that had to be used, showed the best overall envi-
ronmental performance in both scenarios: (1) strength require-
ments; and (2) strength, serviceability, and durability requirements.
In order to improve the environmental and cost efficiency and ex-
tend applicability, a partial replacement of FA with GGBFS was
recommended. Rafeet et al. (2017) presented the guidelines for mix
proportioning of FA/GGBS-based AACOs and analysis of cost
between equivalent AACOs and PC concretes (PCCOs). The cost
analysis indicated that normal strength PC concrete will be less
expensive than AACOs with current prices. AACOs may be eco-
nomically more favorable for medium to high strength applications
because the cost per cubic meter was found to be comparable to that
of PCCO. Lowering the cost of AAC may be reduced by identify-
ing alternative alkali activators or processes to produce and sell
them at a lower price. A series of experiments were carried out in
study of Fang et al. (2018) to measure workability, setting time,
compressive, splitting tensile, flexural strengths, and dynamic elas-
tic modulus of AAFS concrete in comparison with PCCO. The
comparative studies showed that equations provided by ACI code,
Eurocode, and previous researchers for PCCO overestimated the
values of splitting tensile, flexural strengths, and dynamic elastic
modulus of AA FA/GGBFS concrete. The optimal mixtures of con-
crete were set as GGBFS content of 20%–30%.
The combination of aluminosilicate-rich materials with more
reactive calcium sources as an effective way to regulate the Ca
content and to control the reaction rate and reaction products, the
microstructure and nanostructure, and properties of blended acti-
vated systems is one of the main areas of the development of AAMs
(Oderji et al. 2019; Provis 2018; Rakhimova et al. 2018; Rakhimova
and Rakhimov 2019a). Recent studies have continued to study
blended systems based on FA, MK, and GGBFS. Several studies
were focused on mechanical characteristics and durability aspects
of GGBFS/FA mixed binders. Studies by Valencia-Saavedra et al.
(2018), Zhang and Yue (2018), Rafeet et al. (2017), Bhutta et al.
(2018a), and Yazdi et al. (2018) on the strength characteristics of the
blended cements complement the earlier conclusions about the
strengthening effect of GGBFS on FA-based and MK-based AAMs.
Yazdi et al. (2018) used 50% by weight GGBFS/50% by weight FA
mixes for 3D printing, obtained samples exhibited a 7-day compres-
sive strength of up to 25 MPa, which is sufficiently high for many
construction applications. Bhutta et al. (2018a) reported that the
addition of GGBFS had a beneficial effect on the interfacial bond
strength as well. Valencia-Saavedra et al. (2018) developed GPCs
based on FA with high unburned content (21%), the addition of 20%
GGBFS to FA-based GP increased density, reduced setting time,
and increased the compressive strength from 20 to 43 MPa after
28 days of curing at room temperature. Zhang et al. (2018) described
the degradation mechanism of AA FA/GGBFS blends exposed to
sulfuric acid. The results indicated that incorporating GGBFS into
FA was favorable for increasing the compressive strength and com-
pactness of samples, but not helpful for decreasing susceptibility of
acid attack that would certainly lead to porosity increase in corroded
parts. The Al/Si atomic ratios in the corroded layer decreased after
acid attack, and the reduction ratios became smaller as the GGBFS
content increased, suggesting a dense matrix is an advantage in im-
peding the loss of aluminum from gel structures. Chi et al. (2017)
studied the properties of AA FA/GGBFS concrete exposed to sul-
fate attack depending on FA/GGBFS ratio, activator modulus ratio,
and sodium oxide concentration. Researchers reported that 100%
GGBFS-based concrete with Na2 O concentration of 8% and activa-
tor modulus ratio of 1.23 has the superior performance. In a study
by Zuo et al. (2019) conceptual models were proposed to describe
the elemental concentrations in the pore solutions. Compared to the
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 AAS paste with the same alkaline activator, 50% replacement of
GGBFS by FA did not result in a substantial change of the pore
solution composition.
Combinations of various types of ash (cofired fly ash, waste
product of paper making) and slag (municipal slag, water-quenched
slag, waste product of iron smelting) have been investigated as
well. El-Wafa and Fukuzawa (2018) studied early-age strength
of AA municipal slag–FA-based GP mortars. Both curing regimes
and activator content were significant factors influencing the per-
formance of early-age strength of GP mortars. Sung et al. (2017)
evaluated the effects of using cofired FA and water-quenched slag
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in the manufacture of cementitious materials and based on the me-
chanical and durability tests concluded that studied mixes should
not be used for primary structures.
Alcamand et al. (2018) and Samson et al. (2017) presented
results of GGBFS’s incorporation into MK. Alcamand et al.
(2018) evaluated the physical, mechanical, and durability-related
properties of MK partially replaced with 20%–40% GGBFS. For
MK/GGBFS systems, the durability appeared to be inversely pro-
portional to the amount of GGBFS content. The authors concluded
that high-calcium AAM are more susceptible to magnesium sulfate
attack due to the formation of an additional CASH gel. Ettringite
and gypsum forming due to extreme solubility of calcium ions
under severe sulfate attack will expand and crack. Samson et al.
(2017) investigated thermomechanical performance of blended
AA MK-GGBFS foam concrete. The retained matrix composi-
tion (A25 MK62.5 GGBS12.5 ) is then employed for foam concrete
production with thermal conductivity ranged between 0.084
and 0.139 W=ðm · KÞ, compressive strength between 0.53 and
3.34 MPa. With the goal of developing a cementitious composite
that could be cured at room temperature, Peng et al. (2019) reported
that GGBFS incorporated into MK significantly facilitated the cur-
ing and strength increase of the synthesized composite at ambient
temperature.
Mineral Materials as Primary and Supplementary
Precursors for AAM
A wide range of Si-, Al-, and Ca-rich mineral sources have been
investigated as single precursors and as admixtures in binary and
ternary AACs based on GGBFS, FA, MK, and waste glass.
PC as Admixture to AAM. Aliabdo et al. (2016) studied the effect
of PC addition, solution resting time and curing characteristics on
FA-GPC performance. Using additional PC in FA based GPC and
30 min instead of 24 h resting solution reduced workability, but
improved compressive and tensile strengths, modulus of elasticity,
and reduced water absorption and porosity of concretes. Assi et al.
(2018) proposed new mixtures for GPC that were characterized as a
cost-competitive, more environmentally friendly alternative to PC
with reduced cost up to 50% in comparison with the standard mix.
Through the use of a sodium hydroxide and SF-based activating
solution and the addition of PC to the mixture, the new mixtures
had superior properties and lower costs. The addition of PC to
the mixture eliminated the need for external heat to achieve early
compressive strength, improved the overall compressive strength,
lowered thermal energy usage during production up to 52%, and
reduced the environmental impact.
Mineral Admixtures to GGBFS-Based AAM. Si-rich silica
fume, waste glass (WG), natural pozzolan, Al-rich red mud (RM),
and Ca-rich lime powder, and basic oxygen slag fines were studied
to manipulate the engineering properties such as the strength,
shrinkage, and durability of AA GGBFS (AAS)-based materials.
In a study by Rostami and Behfarnia (2017) a substitution 5% to
15% by weight of GGBFS by SF increased the 28-day and 90-day
compressive strength by 13%–27% and 23%–32%, respectively,
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(11): 03119002
reduced the initial and total water absorption, and increased the re-
sistance to penetration of chloride ion. Zhang and Yue (2018) found
the optimum ratio of water glass and sodium hydroxide for AAS
supplemented with glass powder. The designed AAS mortars at op-
timal variables of Na2 O equivalent of 8.31% and a glass powder
content of 14.57% had higher strength up to 66.4 MPa at 28 days
and resistance to sulfate attack, but and a higher shrinkage than PC
mortar. The flexural and compressive strengths of AA GGBFS/
glass powder mortars at 3 and 28 days were 6.6, 7.1, 8.4, and
66.4 MPa, respectively. Panda et al. (2017, 2018, 2019) proposed
FA-based GP mixtures incorporated with GGBFS and SF for 3D
concrete printing. Parametric study by Najimi et al. (2018a, b) of
NaOH activated natural pozzolan/GGBFS mortars showed that the
best strength characteristics were demonstrated by mixture 30∶70
natural pozzolan/GGBFS, 50∶50 was optimum based on chloride
penetration and absorption results. Robayo-Salazar et al. (2018)
evaluated, through a life cycle assessment, the global warming
potential and global temperature change potential of an AACO
based on natural volcanic pozzolan from Colombia (70%) and
GGBFS (30%). The results obtained demonstrate the possibility of
producing an AACO of normal strength, with an equal or even
higher compressive strength than the PCCO, and a clear environ-
mental advantage as its carbon footprint/global warming potential
is 44.7% lower (AACO ¼ 210.90 kg CO2 eq=m3 versus PCCO ¼
381.17 kg CO2 eq=m3 ).
The conversion of red mud (RM) into valuable products remains
an important issue and was addressed in studies of Bayat et al.
(2018), Lemougna et al. (2017), Nie et al. (2019), Krivenko et al.
(2017), and Toniolo et al. (2018) where RM was incorporated
into AAS and WG. Bayat et al. (2018) studied the effect of RM
additions on the properties of AASCs. The increased RM contents
improved cohesiveness, but decreased consistency where 20% of
RM provided the highest compressive strength from 7 to 28 days,
42 and 60 MPa, respectively. Lemougna et al. (2017) studied
the binder systems based on RM and GGBFS for mortars and
lightweight materials. The compressive strength at the 50∶50
ratio at 7 days was of 54 MPa. High temperature and long curing
were increasingly significant for strength development as the
percentage of RM increased in the system. Addition of H2 O2 al-
lowed to obtain lightweight materials with bulk density of about
1.0 g=cm3 .
Zhu et al. (2018) concluded that the use of lime powder
CaðOHÞ2 increased the plastic, but reduced autogenous and dry-
ing shrinkage of AAS concrete. This is because the addition of
CaðOHÞ2 accelerated the hydration at very early stage, while a non-
noticeable impact could be identified after 120 h. Lu et al. (2018)
reported that AAS mortars produced with basic oxygen slag fines
had compressive strength comparable to normal PC mortars, and
their volume expansion was much lower than the reference AAS
and PC mortars.
Mineral Admixtures to FA and WG Based AAM. In study of
Nie et al. (2019) RM was first used in flue gas desulfurization,
and then the desulfurized RM was again reused as a chemical ac-
tivator for GP made with Class C FA. The AAC with RM incor-
poration reaching 80% by mass as well as concrete mixtures for
road construction with incorporation rates reaching 90% by mass
have been designed and tested by Krivenko et al. (2017). Compres-
sive strength of cements and concretes could reach up to 60 and
70 MPa, respectively. Toniolo et al. (2018) studied GP based on
RM as source of alumina and WG as a silica supplier. Materials
provided the formation of a homogeneous polymeric gel with com-
pressive strength up to 45 MPa at 60% by weight RM. Xuan et al.
(2019) synthesized cellular AACO based on the municipal solid
waste incineration bottom ash and WG. Incorporating of 20% WG
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 powder provided the reactive silica for geopolymerization and
did not cause a decrease in strength. The municipal solid waste
incineration bottom ash as the main precursor not only contributed
to the structure forming of AACO but also acted as a source of
foaming agent due to the presence of metallic aluminum. The pre-
pared AACO incorporating 20% WG exhibited low thermal con-
ductivities ranging from 0.14 to 0.38 W=m · K with compressive
strengths ranging from 0.9 to 10.4 MPa, and density values from
494 to 1,295 kg=m3 .
Mineral Admixtures to MK Based AAM. Ramos et al. (2018) in-
vestigated a porcelain tile polishing residue as admixture to MK GP.
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The highest compressive strength was 72 MPa, obtained at 28 days
(cured at 23°C) in the composition containing 15% of residue and
85% MK, corresponding to a chemical composition with 53% SiO2 ,
25% Al2 O3 , and 11% Na2 O, relation SiO2 =Al2 O3 ¼ 3.44, and a
structure characterized as poly(sialate-disiloxo).
Ternary Alkali-Activated Cements. Matalkah et al. (2017) and
Huseien et al. (2018a, c), and paid attention on ternary AA binder
systems. Matalkah et al. (2017) evaluated the engineering proper-
ties of wheat straw ash–based GPC supplemented with FA and
MK in comparison with PCCO. Nonwood biomass ash–based
GPC provided superior mechanical characteristics, moisture barrier
qualities, durability attributes, and fire resistance. Huseien et al.
(2018a, c) investigated the ternary blends of palm oil fuel ash, FA,
and GGBFS. High contents of palm oil fuel ash decreased freeze-
thaw and wet-dry resistance, but improved compressive strength,
durability, and resistance against sulfuric acid attack. Huseien et al.
(2018b) proposed a ternary blend (70% waste ceramic powder,
20% GGBFS, and 10% FA) providing the optimum resistance at
elevated temperatures. The enhancement in AAMs resistance to
heat with increasing contents of ceramic powder and FA can be
addressed to the increase of Al-Si content, which have more ther-
mal compatibility compared with a high level of GGBFS.
Mineral Sources as a Single Precursors for AAM. Sturm et al.
(2018) designed one-part GP mortars (with sodium aluminate as
solid activator) based on three different silica materials: a micro-
silica, a silica resulting from thermal treatment of residues from
chlorosilane production, and a rice husk ash. The mortars exhibited
a high resistance against sulfuric acid attack, which is addressed to
precipitation of silica gel at the acid-mortar interface, which formed
a mechanically stable layer that protected the subjacent mortar and
thus inhibited further degradation. Türkmen et al. (2016) investi-
gated fire resistance of GPC produced from Elazıǧ ferrochrome
slag. The GPC showed good fire resistance and less reduction in
compressive strength than the PCCO. Calcined clays with various
percentage of clay minerals were found to be promising as precur-
sors for AAMs in studies by D’Elia et al. (2018), Dietel et al.
(2017), El HAfid and Hajjaji (2018), Gharzouni et al. (2018),
Karozou et al. (2019), Valentini et al. (2018); Rakhimova and
Rakhimov (2019b). Thapa et al. (2018) assessed the suitability of
gravel wash mud as raw material for the synthesis of an alkali-
activated binder.
Wastes and By-Products as Fine and Coarse Aggregates
for AAM
Many studies have been conducted to study the possibility of
replacing natural aggregates used in AAMs with various types of
wastes and by-products such as slags, ashes, glass fines, fired and
nonfired clays, construction and demolition, mining, rubber, and
polymer wastes.
Slags. Rashad et al. (2016) studied the blast furnace slag as fine
aggregate in AAS mortars. The authors stated the replacement
of natural silica sand with BFS up to 100% was beneficial in the
terms of strength and microstructure with better bonding properties
© ASCE 03119002-5
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in the interfacial transitional zone between blast furnace slag sand
and paste, and higher residual compressive strength after exposure
to different temperatures compared with natural sand mortar. Elibol
and Sengul (2016) studied AAS mortar with ferrochrome slag as
aggregate. The mortars with strength 33.3 MPa at 28 days and sig-
nificantly higher electrical resistivity compared to those produced
with natural aggregates were found to be suitable for use in con-
struction industry for low and moderate strength applications.
Chang et al. (2016) studied the performances of pervious concretes
made with electric arc furnace slag as aggregate and as a precursor.
The 28-day compressive strength of optimum mixture (void filled
percentage of 90%, and aggregate size in the range from 0.24
to 0.48 cm) was as high as 35 MPa, the water permeability coef-
ficient was 0.49 cm=s, the BPN was 79, and the sound absorption
coefficient at 125 Hz was 0.94. The porous nature of electric arc
furnace slag provided a strong interlocking effect and the AAS was
a stronger binding material than PC. In a study by Mithun and
Narasimhan (2016) copper was compared with river sand as fine
aggregate in AAS concrete mixes. The replacement of river sand
by copper slag did not decrease the strength characteristics of AAS,
and AAS mixes with either sand or copper slag possess similar
modulus of elasticity, lower total porosity, lesser water absorption,
and reduced chloride ion penetration as compared with PCCO.
Moreover, high early strength development of AAS mixes with cop-
per slag as fine aggregates can be effectively used for early strip-off
of formwork and removal of scaffolding helping faster construction.
Palankar et al. (2016, 2017) evaluated the mechanical properties and
fatigue behavior of AA-GGBFS/FA concrete made with steel slag
coarse aggregates. The authors reported the presence of calcite coat-
ing on the steel slag particles leads to formation of a weak paste–
aggregate interface resulting in a decrease of the fatigue lives and
mechanical strength of AA-GGBFS/FA mixes, and the acid and sul-
fate resistance. Nevertheless, short-term tests showed the concretes
satisfy application in pavement quality concrete.
Ashes. Menon et al. (2018) used low-value bottom ash as aggregate
and FA as a binder to prepare a concrete and stated self-curing
properties of mix of bottom ash to FA of 60∶40. Their and Özakça
(2018) investigated mechanical and transport properties of GPC
based on cold-bonded FA aggregate, nanosilica, and steel fiber.
The increase of water penetration of mixes incorporated with FA
aggregate was compensated by nanosilica addition provided the
refining of pore structure and considerable decrease in the gas per-
meability coefficient. The highest compressive strength of 40.28 to
56.47 MPa was achieved due to the incorporation of 1% SF and
2% nanosilica.
Glass Fines. Hajimohammadi et al. (2018) found glass fines a sus-
tainable alternative to fine sand in lightweight GP foam applica-
tions. The glass fines decreased the density at acceptable strength,
decrease of the shrinkage, and improvement of the pore structure
of foams.
Fired and Nonfired Clay Aggregates. Pottery sand as aggregate
has been used in study of Jiao et al. (2018). Optimal mix GGBFS/
pottery sand of 1∶1.75 had compressive strength 93 and 123 MPa
after 1 and 28 days, respectively, using a silicate modulus of 1.2 and
Na2 O content of 8%. Reig et al. (2017) used tile ceramic waste as
both a recycled aggregate and a precursor. The mortars that con-
tain only recycled aggregates demonstrated compressive strength
23 MPa (3 days at 65°C), while recycled aggregates/limestone
(50∶50) was 43 MPa. Panizza et al. (2018) developed the GPCs
with 28-day compressive strength of 70–80 MPa based on fired
clay aggregates and potassium-silicate activated MK-GGBFS pre-
cursors. The residual pozzolanicity provided higher increment of
strength from 7 to 28 days. Rickard et al. (2016) studied the
mechanical and microstructural properties of GPs with either quartz
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 or expanded clay aggregates at various temperatures up to 750°C.
Quartz aggregate due to large thermal expansion led to greater
strength losses in comparison with expanded clay aggregate con-
crete. Moreover, sintering promoted crack healing in the samples
allowing the GPCs to regain strength after undergoing signifi-
cant cracking. In a study by Abdollahnejad et al. (2019) fired and
unfired ceramic wastes introduced in AAS and as an aggregate.
The researchers noticed decrease of the compressive strength and
explained that by reduction of the calcium content.
Fired and Nonfired Clay Aggregates. According to Navarro et al.
(2018) recycled concrete (RCA) as aggregate for SiMn slag mortars
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exhibited poor results compared to silica and limestone sands.
According to Alonso et al. (2018) partial replacement by 20% of
conventional aggregate with the construction and demolition wastes
was observed to yield mortars with acceptable fire resistance and
shrinkage, and higher mechanical strength, despite higher total
porosity in comparison with a reference sample made of conven-
tional aggregate. Parthiban and Mohan (2017) reported that the
replacement of natural aggregate with 50% RCA led to the highest
strength properties, whereas the AASC mixes with 100% RCA con-
tent showed superior performance than the PC mixes. Resistance to
chloride salts of the AAS mixes with 75% replacement level of natu-
ral aggregate with RCA demonstrated comparable or even better
performance than the PC mix. The improved performance of imper-
viousness to chloride salts shall be very much connected in the de-
velopment of AASC mixes with RCA in marine structures.
Mohammadinia et al. (2016) investigated the performance of
AA FA concrete with reclaimed asphalt pavement, RCA, and
crushed brick under different curing conditions and sample prepa-
ration methods. Mechanical tests of studied mixes showed that
reclaimed asphalt pavement and RCA can be suitable as a viable
construction materials for several civil engineering applications
such as pavement base/subbase applications, backfilling, and foot-
path construction when made with addition of 8% and 16% if cured
at 40°C for a period of 7 days.
Mining Wastes. Capasso et al. (2019) and Venu Madhav et al.
(2018) studied mining wastes to produce AACOs. Croymans
et al. (2017) demonstrated that bauxite can, from a radiological
point of view using activity concentration indexes developed by
Markkanen, be used in concrete for building materials and in road
construction, even in percentages reaching 90% (by mass).
Rubber and Polyurethane Waste. The study of the effect of re-
cycled crumb rubbers (Long et al. 2018) on the properties of AAS
mortar showed that the recycled crumb rubbers serve competently
as an energy dissipating material and mortar incorporated with 60%
of rubber behaves as a typical thermoplastic material; however, the
workability and mechanical strengths of mortars decreased with the
increase of rubbers replacement rate. Luhar et al. (2018, 2019) par-
tially replaced natural sand with waste rubber tire fibers in FA GPC
and reported opposite results. Rubberized GPC was found to be
superior in context of compressive, flexural, split tensile, pull off
strengths, modulus of elasticity, and abrasion resistance to its coun-
terpart, rubberized PCCO. Bergamonti et al. (2018) obtained light-
weight hybrid organic-inorganic GPs using polyurethane waste
providing enhanced thermal resistance of the buildings.
Chemical Additions, Polymers, and Metals
Chemical Additions
Polyethylene, hexylene glycols, cross-linked sodium polyacrylate,
and air-entraining admixtures have been used in recent studies to
regulate the properties of AAMs. In a study by Bilek et al. (2018)
polyethylene glycol (PEG) and ethylene glycol (EG) with molecu-
lar weight from 2,000 to 10,000 were used to influence on the
© ASCE 03119002-6
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(11): 03119002
drying shrinkage and hydration of AAS materials. The authors con-
cluded that drying shrinkage gradually decreased with increasing
molecular weight up to 2,000, and PEG2000 and PEG10000 were
the most effective in shrinkage reduction. Different efficiency in
shrinkage mitigation of PEGs was attributed to their more effec-
tive surface tension reduction and changes in pore structure. The
polymerization degree of EG also played an important role during
the hydration process of AAS, where monomeric EG affected more
its initial stages of hydration, while the action of its polymeric
forms was more obvious after several hours. Ling et al. (2019)
stated that a hexylene glycol chemical-based shrinkage reducing
admixtures substantially coarsened pore structure, significantly re-
duced free drying shrinkage, noticeably reduced restrained ring
shrinkage, distinctly delayed crack initiation time, and consider-
ably decreased crack width of AAMs studied. Song et al. (2016)
based on the results of effect superabsorbent polymer (cross-linked
sodium polyacrylate) on the compressive strength, the internal
relative humidity, and autogenous shrinkage of AAS mortars con-
cluded that this chemical addition acted as effective internal curing
agent. Internal relative humidity owing to self-desiccation and
autogenous shrinkage decreased as the dosage of chemicals in-
creased. However, the strength increase ratio from 7 to 28 days was
larger in the specimens with polyacrylate than in specimens without
it. This is because of the internal curing effect by polyacrylate,
which helped continue hydration of the specimens by releasing
its absorbed water. Tu et al. (2019) reported that chemical shrinkage
and autogenous shrinkage of AA FA-GGBFS pastes incorporated
with 0.2%–0.5% of superabsorbent polymer (AQUASORBTM
3005 S) were reduced by around 18%–45% and 76%–85%, respec-
tively. Rodrigue et al. (2018) obtained an appropriate air void sys-
tem in AA binder systems with strong mechanical properties and
low porosity/microcracking by introduction of air entraining ad-
mixtures, GGBFS/FA, water and admixture proportioning. Du et al.
(2018) reported that epoxy resin addition allowed to obtain AAS
based composites with high early term strength and proper setting
property for deepwater oil well cementing.
Metals
Gevaudan et al. (2019) proposed a new acid degradation mecha-
nism in AACs microdoped with copper (Cu) and cobalt (Co). Low
additions of Cu and Co inhibited the rate of calcium sulfate mineral
formation resulting in lower permeable porosities and smaller cor-
rosion depths. Fe, Cu, and Co ions formed passivation barriers at
the acid degradation front, played a critical role in reducing the ex-
tent of dealumination, and improved the acid resistance of AACs.
Li et al. (2019) decreased the water absorption rate of AAS by in-
corporation of 4% of CaSt. The mechanism is based on the opti-
mization of the pore structure (decreases the pore connectivity,
introduction of isolated pores, reduction of defects in microstruc-
ture, and changes of pore size distribution) and formation of water-
repellent films on the surface of pores.
Alkali Activators
The search for alternative alkali activators remains a great challenge
for AAMs technology. Several recent studies were focused on the
replacement of the fast-dissolving, high cost, and environmentally
harmful solid sodium hydroxide and metasilicate with more eco-
logically appropriate alternatives. Luukkonen et al. (2018) per-
formed an attempt to replace synthetic sodium metasilicate with
a combination of sodium hydroxide and slow-dissolving silica de-
rived from rice husk ash or microsilica in the preparation of one-
part AAS mortar. The results showed that rice husk ash or micro-
silica exhibited much lower silicon solubility compared to sodium
metasilicate when exposed to 0–10 M NaOH solutions. It led to
J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

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Fig. 1. SEM image of 90-day sample containing 1% nanosilica at
200 μm scale. (Reprinted from Construction and Building Materials,
Vol. 131, K. Behfarnia and M. Rostami, “Effects of micro and nano-
particles of SiO2 on the permeability of alkali activated slag concrete,”
pp. 205–213, © 2017, with permission from Elsevier.)
much lower compressive strength of mortars, which was at 28 days
and 32–34 MPa, whereas the compressive strength of mortar pre-
pared with sodium metasilicate was 100 MPa. In a study by Ma
et al. (2019a) in order to decrease the CO2 emission and high alka-
linity of sodium metasilicate the sodium carbonate was used to re-
place a portion of sodium metasilicate for one part GP synthesis.
The replacement level of sodium carbonate slightly impacted on the
fluidity and increased the final setting time significantly, the com-
pressive strength and porosity decreased, the quantity of gelatinous
products reduced and calcite produced. Judged from the cost per
MPa and total CO2 emission for 1 m3 of cementitious materials,
one part GP activated by composite activators is cleaner than that
activated by single sodium metasilicate or sodium carbonate. In
a study by Saeli et al. (2019) GPs were produced using biomass
fly ash and an alkaline effluent, both from a kraft pulp industry.
Mortars were manufactured by mixing that binder with commercial
sand in various distinct 331 proportions. Optimal formulations
(binder=alkali ¼ 1∶3) showed suitable workability and compressive
strength values higher than 20 MPa (belonging to Class M20). All
prepared formulations belong at least to Class M10, allowing vast
applications in construction, such as in masonry.
Fig. 2. Construction process and quality control.
© ASCE
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(11): 03119002
Nanomaterials
Behfarnia et al. (2017a) studied the effects of microsilica and nano-
silica on the properties of AAS concrete. The additions of micro-
silica were demonstrated to be more effective compared with
nanosilica in compressive strength improvement, decease of short-
term and total water absorption, rapid chloride permeability, and
resistance of AAS concrete against CO2 penetration. Substitution
of 10% microsilica and 3% nanosilica increased the 28-day and
90-day compressive strengths by 24% and 28%, and 12% and 11%,
respectively. Replacement of GGBFS with microsilica decreased
the short-term and total water absorption of AAS concrete by 19%
and 10%, but nanosilica failed to trigger any improvement in this
respect. Researchers identified a new phase formed in the presence
of nanosilica leaving strongly undesirable impacts on the structure
of AAS paste. This new phase is calcium silicate carbonate with
mineral name tilleyite and has a layered and laminate structure
(Fig. 1). Ibrahim et al. (2018) investigated influence of nano-SiO2
on the strength and microstructure of natural pozzolan based
AACO and concluded that pozzolan based AAM is suitable
for construction applications without incorporating nano-SiO2 .
Rovnaník et al. (2016) showed that incorporation of 0.1% carbon
nanotubes increased the compressive strength from 60 to 78 MPa,
modulus of elasticity 15 to 19 MPa, and fracture toughness from
0.8 to 1.05 MPa · m1=2 . Shahrajabian and Behfarnia (2018) studied
the effects of nanoparticles of silica, alumina, and clay on the com-
pressive strength and freeze and thaw resistance of AAS concrete.
Adding nanosilica up to 3%, nanoalumina up to 2%, and nanoclay
up to 2% could result in the highest compressive strength in AAS
concrete at the ages of 7, 28, 90, and 120 days due to the production
of more products and the formation of a more compact structure
in AAS concrete. In order to improve the compressive strength
and durability of concrete under freeze-thaw cycles and with tak-
ing into account the cost, the authors recommended nanosilica
up to 1%.
Alkali-Activated Concrete Processing Advances
The study of Hu et al. (2019) explored the method of preparing
a cast-in-place FA- and RM-based GP pile with heating systems.
According to reported test results in the laboratory and field the
heating patterns could promote the GP pile to achieve the required
strength in a short period of time with limited power consumption,
03119002-7 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.
 whereas the control pile without a heating system remained weak
for the same duration, demonstrating that the GP pile with heating
systems could be a promising and energy-efficient technology.
Yang et al. (2018) reported about the first structural application
of site-cast AAS concrete in China. The quality and costs were
successfully managed through careful control of raw materials,
suitable selection of admixtures, proper mix proportions, and an
efficient construction team (Fig. 2). It was also reported that AAS
concrete has the potential for use in cold weather. The ambient
temperature during construction was at times below 5°C, yet no
specific procedures were needed to maintain the temperature or
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provide additional heat. Alkali activated mixes designed for 3D
printing were proposed by Panda et al. (2017, 2018, 2019) (Fig. 3).
Conclusions
A review of the recent studies in the fields of the application of
fibers, various sources as primary and secondary precursors, fine
and coarse aggregates, alternative alkali activators, chemical ad-
mixtures, metals, and nanomaterials was carried out from the per-
spectives of the suitability, potential, and effect on and efficiency

Fig. 3. Robot-assisted concrete-printed: (a) bathtub; (b) helix tower; and (c) freeform design by large scale gantry. (Reprinted from Journal of Cleaner
Production, Vol. 167, B. Panda, S. C. Paul, L. J. Hui, Y. W. D. Tay, and M. J. Tan, “Additive manufacturing of geopolymer for sustainable built
environment,” pp. 281–288, © 2017, with permission from Elseiver.)

© ASCE 03119002-8 J. Mater. Civ. Eng.

J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(11): 03119002

 improvement in engineering, and economic, and ecological perfor-
mance of AAMs.
The review revealed the following:
• A wide range of materials for the design, investigation, and en-
hancement of engineering, ecological, and economic parameters
has been used by researchers over the past 3 years.
• Numerous studies continue to confirm the technical and ecolo-
gical superiority of AAM over PC-based materials. Bringing
down the cost of AACO is necessary for it to become commer-
cially competitive to PCCO.
• Fibers made of steel, glass, basalt, synthetic materials, sisal, and
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wood were investigated and found to be effective for reinforcing
AAM-based composites. Many engineering properties of AAM
composites such as compressive, splitting tensile, flexural, and
direct tensile strengths; toughness and postcracking deforma-
tion; fracture toughness and energy; modulus of elasticity and
rupture; porosity and corrosion performance; thermal conduc-
tivity; drying shrinkage; and self-healing ability can be influ-
enced by reinforcing with fibers.
• The properties of the fresh and hardened pastes, mortars,
and concretes based on various alkali-activated aluminosilicate
sources and their mixes were investigated. The properties in-
cluded workability, set time, density, moisture absorption, void
content, capillary sorptivity, cohesiveness, compressive, split-
ting, flexural strengths, residual compressive strength after im-
mersion in boiling water, dynamic elastic modulus, acid (sulfate,
sulfuric, magnesium, penetration of chloride ion)/fire/freeze-
thaw/wet-dry resistance, thermomechanical performance, plas-
tic, autogenous, and drying shrinkage.
• The design and study of binary cement systems based on
GGBFS and FA or MK are of continued interest. Many studies
complemented the earlier stated strengthening effect of GGBFS
incorporated in FA- and MK-based AA systems. GGBFS-FA
blends were recommended for AA concretes as a commercially
promising and viable alternative to PCCOs. Durability studies
of binary systems stated that the incorporation of GGBFS into
FA or MK increases the susceptibility of the latter to sulfuric and
magnesium sulfate acid attack, whereas the addition of FA to
GGBFS decreases the susceptibility of GGBFS to the sulfate
acid attack.
• The addition of the PC to the AAM eliminates the need for
external heat to achieve early compressive strength, improves
the overall compressive strength, lowers the thermal energy
usage during the production by up to 52%, and reduces impact
on environment.
• SF, WG, lime powder, natural pozzolan, RM, and basic oxygen
slag fines were investigated as additions to the GGBFS-based
AAM. The addition of SF (5%–15%) and natural pozzolan
(30%) to GGBFS improved its strength characteristics and re-
sistance to the penetration of chloride ions. Lime powder and
basic oxygen slag fines provide the volume stability of AAS
systems.
• Calcined clays, municipal slag, SiMn, ladle slags, cofired FA,
water-quenched slag, wheat straw ash, palm oil fuel ash, rice
husk ash, waste concrete and ceramic powders, municipal solid
waste incineration bottom ash, porcelain tile polishing residue,
and microsilica (a silica resulting from thermal treatment of re-
sidues from chlorosilane production), and gravel wash mud de-
monstrated different levels of suitability as primary or secondary
AAM precursors.
• A wide range of mineral wastes and by-products were found to
be suitable for partial and/or total replacement of natural aggre-
gates in AA mortars and concretes. Blast furnace, ferrochrome,
electric arc furnace, copper slags, and expanded clay aggregates
© ASCE 03119002-9
J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2019, 31(11): 03119002
can be used for the production of mortars and concretes with
properties at least comparable to the conventional PCCO. In
some respects they are even better, e.g., in thermal resistivity
and chloride ion penetration. AAMOs and AACOs can be pro-
duced with up to 50% construction and demolition wastes in
place of natural aggregates. Reclaimed asphalt pavement, re-
cycled concrete aggregate, and bauxite residue can be viable
aggregate materials for many civil engineering applications
such as pavement base/subbase applications, backfilling, and
footpath construction. Steel slag and fired and unfired ceramic
wastes demonstrated poor results as coarse aggregates.
• The search for alternative alkali activators for the AAM tech-
nology remains a challenge. A combination of sodium hydroxide
and slow-dissolving silica derived from rice husk ash or micro-
silica, sodium metasilicate partially replaced with sodium carbo-
nate, and alkaline effluent from the kraft pulp industry have been
investigated as alternative alkaline activators for AAMs.
• Chemical additions such as polyethylene, hexylene glycols,
cross-linked sodium polyacrylate, air-entraining admixtures,
and metals such as Cu, Co, and CaSt can be used for regulating
the properties of AAMs.
• Nanomaterials were not found to be a breakthrough for AAMs.
Nanosilica was found to be less effective than microsilica in
improving the physical and mechanical properties of AAMs.
• Mortars, concretes, lightweight foam concretes, backfilling,
self-healing, road construction, deepwater oil-well cementing
materials, and marine structures based on alkali-activated ce-
ments have been proposed in recent studies.
Recent studies have significantly contributed to the AAMs tech-
nology by way of comparative analyses with conventional PCCOs;
expanding the raw materials’ base especially with wastes and by-
products; insights into the potential of various materials to be used
for multifunctional AAMs production; improving engineering,
economic, and ecological aspects of AAMs in terms of optimal pre-
cursors and alkali activators; and widening the opportunities of the
applications of AAMs. However, further studies are required for the
assured successful practical adaption of the AAM technology.
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