Structures II, MACE, University of Manchester

Topic 1 Beam Theory

Basic Theory of Beam Bending

A beam is shown in Fig.1. The x-axis coincides with the axis of the beam and the cross-
section of the beam lies in the y-z plane. The load will be applied in the z-direction and
displacement in the z-direction is called deflection, denoted as w. A point on a cross-section
may also displace in the x-axis as a result of bending deformation and this displacement is
noted as u. It is assumed that there is no displacement in the y-direction. This is always true
if the load is applied in the x-z plane and the cross-section of the beam is symmetric about the
z-axis.
z, w z
w=w(x)

q=q(x) x, u dA

A y

Figure 1 a beam and its cross section

Neutral axis: An axis in the plane of the cross-section of the beam is called neutral axis if the
first moment of area of the cross-section of the beam about the y-axis vanishes, i.e.
S = ∫ zdA = 0 where A is the cross-section area. In future, axis y will always be chosen such
A
that it coincides with the neutral axis.

Assumptions employed in beam theory:

(1) No extension/shortening to the beam neutral axis due to bending.
This means u=0 at the neutral axis under pure bending.
(2) Cross-section remains plane and perpendicular to the beam axis after deformation.

Consider a very small segment (length dx) of the beam as shown on the
right. After application of transverse load, it deflects upwards by w and
its cross section rotates by an angle θ. According to assumption (2)
above
dw
θ = α ≈ tan α = (small deformation is assumed)
dx
Therefore, the point located at z from the neutral axis on the cross section
has a displacement in the beam axial direction due to bending, which is
dw
u = − zθ = − z (1)
dx
So the normal/direct strain at this point is
du d 2w d 2w
ε= = − z 2 = zκ let κ = − 2 (2)
dx dx dx
where κ is the “curvature” of the beam (approximate).
Normal stress is (from Hooke’s law)
d 2w
σ = Eε = Ezκ = − Ez 2 (3)
dx
where E is the Young’s modulus of the material.

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Bending moment on the cross section is

d 2w
M = ∫ zσdA = ∫ zEεdA = Eκ ∫ z 2 dA = EIκ = − EI (4)
A A A dx 2
where I is the second moment of the cross-section area of the beam
I = ∫ z 2 dA (5)
A
Moment-curvature relationship (from equation 4)
M
κ= (6)
EI
Stress-moment relationship (by substituting equation 6 to equation 3)
M
σ= z (7)
I
Shear force on the cross section (from moment equilibrium of the segment below)
dM d 3w
Qdx = dM ⇒ Q= = − EI 3 (8)
dx dx
Equilibrium of forces transverse to the beam
dQ d 2M
dQ + qdx = 0 ⇒ +q = +q=0 (9)
dx dx 2
Governing equation for deflection (substitute equation 4 to equation 9)
d 4w
EI =q (10)
dx 4

[Note] Many of the above formulae are not applicable if the y axis does not coincide with the
neutral axis of the cross-section and, hence, it is essential to place the coordinate axis
properly first before you start to solve any problem.

Boundary conditions of the beam:

dw
Built-in: w = 0 and = 0; (11)
dx
d 2w
Simple-support: w = 0 and M =0 or = 0; (12)
dx 2
Free-end: M = 0 and Q = 0. (13)

Sign convention for beam (also illustrated in Fig. 2):

Figure 2

♦ Positive deflection is in the same direction of positive z-coordinate;

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♦ Positive distributed load q is in the same direction of positive z-coordinate;

♦ Positive bending moment produces positive (tensile) stress in the quadrants of positive z-
coordinate;
♦ Positive shear force produces shear stress in the positive z-direction on a positive cross-
section or in the negative z-direction on a negative cross-section.
♦ A cross-section is called positive if the outward normal to the section is in the positive
direction of x and, otherwise, it is negative.

Shear stress

The shear force Q on the cross section produces shear stress in the beam. Consider a small
area ∆A surrounding a point on the cross section, the shear force acting on this small area is
∆Q.
z
∆Q
∆A

τ
y

x
Figure 3

The shear stress at this point on the cross section is defined as:
∆Q
τ = lim (14)
∆A→ 0 ∆A

Shear stress is parallel to the surface. The dimension and unit for shear stress are same as
normal/direct stress.

Complementary shear stress

Consider a rectangular block of unit thickness subjected to those shear stresses only as shown
in Fig.4. Equilibrium considerations result in
τ1
∑ X = 0 : τ × BC − τ × AD = 0 ⇒ τ
1 3 1 =τ3 B C

∑ Y = 0 : τ × CD − τ × AB = 0 ⇒ τ
2 4 2 =τ4 τ4 τ2

∑ M = 0 ( for equilibrium)
A

∑ M = τ × BC × AB − τ × CD × AD = 0 A τ3 D
A 1 2

∴ τ1 = τ 2 Figure 4

Thus an applied shear stress is automatically accompanied by a shear stress of equal intensity
on the plane at right angles (and causing an opposite turning moment) to the original shear
stress. The pair of shear stresses is called complementary shear stresses. In future, we shall
not distinguish between τ1 and τ2.

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Sign Conventions

A plane is defined by its normal. A positive plane of an element means its outward normal
points to the positive direction of one of the coordinate axes.

Like normal stress, shear stress is a type of internal force. It requires a sign convention to
define its sense. By conventions, positive and negative shear stresses are as shown in Fig. 5,
i.e., a shear stress is positive if it is in the positive direction of coordinate axis on a positive
plane or in the negative direction of coordinate axis on a negative plane. A negative shear
stress can be logically inferred as a shear stress in the positive direction of coordinate axis on
a negative plane or in the negative direction of coordinate axis on a positive plane. One may
find that the sense of normal stress can be stated in the same way.

τ τ

z τ Positive τ τ τ Negative τ τ

τ Arrows showing τ
direction of normal
x to face

Figure 5

Transverse Shear Stress on Beam Cross Section

Shear force Q is the resultant of distributed shear stress over the cross-section. However, the
bending theory as outlined above does not provide any indication about the distribution of this
shear stress over the cross-section. Special considerations are required as follows before such
a distribution can be obtained.

(a) segment of beam (b) cross section (c) top part of the beam
Figure 6
Take an infinitesimal segment dx of the beam as shown in Fig. 6(a) above. The stress
resultants on both ends of it are as indicated. Relative to M on the left end, an increment dM
is expected on the right end. The moment equilibrium of the segment leads to
` dM = Qdx . (15)
Now take the top part of the beam segment as shaded in Fig. 6(a) and (b) as a free-body as
shown in Fig. 6(c). The resultant of normal stress on this part of the cross-section on the left
end is

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M M M
N (z ) = ∫ σdA = ∫ zdA = ∫ ( ) zdA = S (z ) (16)
A( z ) A( z ) I I A z I
where A(z) is the shaded part of the cross-section area (i.e. whole cross-section minus the
hatched part in Fig. 6(b)) and
S ( z ) = ∫A( z ) zdA (17)

is the first moment of area A(z) about y-axis, which is in general a function of z, the
coordinate of surface as indicated in the figure above. The resultant at the right end is N plus
an increment dN which is obtained from equations (15) and (16) as
dM S (z )
dN = S (z) = Qdx (18)
I I
From the consideration of equilibrium in the x-direction, N on the left and that on the right
cancel each other, while the increment dN has to be balanced by a shear force F on the bottom
surface of this part of the beam segment (see Fig. 6(c)), i.e.
S (z )
F (z ) = dN = Qdx (19)
I
Assume that the shear stress τ is distributed evenly across the width at that location b(z).
Then
τb( z )dx = F ( z ) (20)
The shear stress can be found as
F S (z )
τ= = Q (21)
b(z )dx Ib(z )
As shear stress is always paired, the same amount of shear stress τ is also found on the cross-
section at the corresponding z as shown in Fig. 6(c). It is obvious that the shear stress
vanishes on the top (i.e. z=ztop) and bottom (i.e. z=zbottom) surfaces as expected, since
A(z) = 0 if z=ztop and therefore S (z top ) = 0 ;
A(z) = A if z=zbottom and therefore S (zbottom ) = 0 , because axis y is the neutral axis.

In the case of the rectangular cross-section, the width of the beam b(z)=b and z top = h 2 , h
being the height of cross-section, I = bh 3 12 , then z
ztop
b
S (z ) = ∫ zdA = 2 (z )
2
top − z2 τ(z)
z

h 2 − 4z 2 y
τ= Q quadratic function of z (Fig. 7).
8I
3Q 3
τ max = τ z =0 = = τ at neutral axis.
2bh 2 Figure 7

where τ = Q bh is the average shear stress over the cross-section. Obviously, the maximum
shear stress is 50% higher than the average shear stress τ over the cross-section. A design
using τ would underestimate the stress level and, hence, overestimate the strength of the
structure. This would be on the risky side, which is usually bad.

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[Note] Before using formula (21) for beam of other cross-sections, remember:
• Shear stress τ is at a location where a border divides the cross-section into two parts
(shaded and hatched in Fig. 6(b))
• I is calculated for the whole cross-section
• S(z) is calculated for only the shaded part of the cross-section, see Fig. 6(b)
• b(z) is the breadth of the border which divides the cross-section into two parts, Fig. 6(b).
• The location of the border where shear stress is required can be indicated by coordinate z
or y, depending on the real application as will be illustrated in example below.

Example 1: Find the shear stress in the web and flange wing of an I-beam under three-point
bending, where the applied central load is 2P. The cross-section is as shown in the figure.

P 2P P

Q=−P Q=+P

Figure 8

b τ y = bw / 2
y
t A(z) τw z =h τf

z h
τ
F
τw z =0

bw
τf

Figure 9 (a) Figure 9 (b)

Solution:

The shear forces Q on both sides of the centrally applied load 2P are of opposite sense, i.e.
Q = ±P .
 h+t 2 h
 b b  2
( ) [ (
I = ∫ z dA = 2 ×  b ∫ z dz + bw ∫ z 2 dz  = 2 (h + t ) − h3 + w h3  = bt 3h 2 + 3ht + t 2 + bw h 3
2
 3
) ]
A  h 0  3 3  3

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For shear stress at the position z in the web (figure 9a):

h+t h
b bw 2 bt b
∫( zdA = b ∫ zdz + b ∫ zdz = ((h + t ) ) ( ) ( )
2
S (z ) = w − h2 + h − z 2 = (2h + t ) + w h 2 − z 2
A z ) h
2 z
2 2 2

τw =
S ( z)
Q=
3 bt (2h + t ) + bw h 2 − z 2
P
( )
Ib( z ) ( (
4 bw bt 3h 2 + 3ht + t 2 + bw h 3 ) )
3 bt (2h + t )
τ w z =h = P
( (
4 bw bt 3h + 3ht + t 2 + bw h 3
2
) )
3 bt (2h + t ) + bw h 2
τw = P
z =0
( (
4 bw bt 3h 2 + 3ht + t 2 + bw h 3 ) )
If the web is bonded on to the flange using an adhesive, the required minimum bonding
strength of the adhesive would be given by τ w z = h .

When bw is small enough (relative to b), h is large enough (relative to t) and bt>>bwh
P
τw ≈
2bw h
i.e. the shear stress is equally distributed over the cross-section of the web.

The shear stress τf in the flange is mainly parallel to the flange, as shown in figure 9b. A
border is used to divide the cross section into two parts at a position which is away from the
flange center by a distance y. The first moment of the shaded part is
h +t h +t
b  b  1b 
∫h z 2 − y dz =  2 − y  ∫h zdz = 2  2 − y t (2h + t )
S ( y) =

Assuming a uniform distribution of the shear stress over the thickness of the flange wing, the
shear stress τf as a function of y can be obtained as (breadth of the border is b(y)=t)
S ( y) 3 t (2h + t ) b 
τf = Q= P − y 
Ib( y ) 2
( (
2
4 t bt 3h + 3ht + t + bw h 3
2  ) )
The maximum value is located at y=bw/2:
3 t (2h + t )
τ f max = τ f = P (b − bw )
y =b w 2 ( (
8 t bt 3h + 3ht + t 2 + bw h 3
2
) )
Under the same extreme conditions as above, i.e. bw << b, h >> t and bt>>bwh
P
τ f max = τ f ≈
y =0 4ht
From view point of bending, the thinner the flange is, the farther the flanges can be put apart
and therefore the better. According the equation above, as t decreases, the shear stress in the
flange increase dramatically and the flange may fail in shear. This is a possible failure
mechanism which needs to be considered when designing the flange.

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Example 2: Carry on with the above example and assume that the flange is bolted on to the
web and the permissible shear force a bolt can take is R. How should be the bolts spaced?

Figure 10

Solution: The shear force per unit length between the web and flange is

3 bt (2h + t )
F = bwτ w z =h = P
4 bt (3h + 3ht + t 2 ) + bw h 3
2

Denote the bolt space by l. Over a length of l, the resultant of this shear force is Fl which will
be taken by a bolt. To ensure the safety of the bolt, Fl ≤R, i.e.

l ≤ lmax =
(
R 4 R bt (3h 2 + 3ht + t 2 ) + bw h 3
=
)
F 3Pbt (2h + t )

The bolts can be spaced at most by a distance lmax as given above apart. Otherwise, the bolts
may not be able to transmit the shear safely.

When bw is small enough (relative to b), h is great enough (relative to t) and bt>>bwh
2 Rh
l max ≈
P

Beams on Elastic Foundation

Assume the beam rests on an elastic foundation. The elastic constant of the foundation is
denoted as k (force per deflect per length in x-direction, i.e. force/length2)
q
w=w(x) M+dM
M
z, w
q=q(x)
x Q f=kw Q+dQ

Elastic foundation
Figure 11

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dQ d 2M
Equilibrium in z-direction: +q− f =0 or − kw + q = 0 (22)
dx dx 2
d 4w
Governing equation for deflection: EI 4 + kw = q (23)
dx

Bending of Axially Loaded Beams

Assume the axial load N. An infinitesimal segment (length is dx) of the deformed beam is
taken and the free body diagram is shown below. The governing equations will be derived
from the consideration of the equilibrium of the deformed segment.
q M+dM
w=w(x) M
z, w N
q=q(x) dx Q+dQ
x w N Q w+dw

N N
Figure 12

Force equilibrium in x-direction: N−N =0 (automatically satisfied)

Force equilibrium in z-direction: − Q + qdx + (Q + dQ ) = 0 (24)

dx
Moment equilibrium about : − M − qdx + (M + dM ) − (Q + dQ )dx + Ndw = 0 (25)
2
dQ
From equation (23) we have +q=0 (26)
dx
Neglecting higher order terms of small parameters (0.5qdxdx, dQdx) in equation (25)
dM dw d 3w dw
Q= +N = − EI 3 + N (27)
dx dx dx dx
Due to the presence of axial load N on the cross-section of the beam, shear force Q is no
longer simply Q anymore, N makes a contribution as well.

Substituting equation (27) to (26) leads to the Governing equation for deflection:

d 4w d 2w
EI − N = q. (28)
dx 4 dx 2

When one comes to prescribe boundary conditions, e.g., for a free-end where shear force is
involved, it is vitally important that the resultant shear force V is employed instead of Q. The
free-end boundary conditions will be

d 2w d 3w dw
M = − EI =0 and Q = − EI 3
+N = 0. (29)
dx 2 dx dx

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Example 3: A simply-support beam is πx

subjected to a distributed load in a sinusoidal q = q0 sin
z l
form as shown in the figure. Find the
maximum deflection. Introduce an elastic x
foundation k and an axial load N, respectively, EI
find the maximum deflection of the beam again.
Compare the results obtained.
l
πx
Solution: Assume w = w0 sin . The simply Figure 13
l
supported boundary conditions are obviously satisfied, as
π0 d 2w π2 π0
at x=0: w = w0 sin =0 and 2
= − 2
w0 sin =0
l dx l l
πl d 2w π2 πl
at x=l: w = w0 sin = 0 and 2
= − 2 w0 sin = 0
l dx l l

Substitute it into the governing equations (10), (23) and (28) respectively in each case. The
πx
governing equations are satisfied if the w0 is expressed as follows and then w = w0 sin
l
would be the right solution to the problem.

d 4w π4 πx πx l 4 q0
Plain beam: EI 4
= EI 4
w0 sin = q 0 sin w0 =
dx l l l π 4 EI

d 4w  π4  πx πx
Beam on foundation: EI 4
+ kw =  EI 4 + k  w0 sin = q 0 sin
dx  l  l l
4 4
l q0 l q 1
w0 = 4 4
= cf 4 0 where cf =
π EI + l k π EI l 4k
1+ 4
π EI

d 4w d 2w  π 4 π2 πx πx
Axially loaded beam: EI 4 − N 2 =  EI 4 + N 2  w0 sin = q 0 sin
dx dx  l l  l l
l 4 q0 l 4 q0 1
w0 = 4 2 2
= c N 4
where cN =
π EI + π l N π EI l2N
1+ 2
π EI

The foundation elastic coefficient k is a positive number and therefore the foundation always
reinforces the beam. It helps to reduce the maximum deflection by a factor of cf.

A tensile axial load reinforces the beam by a factor of cN, while a compressive axial load
reduces the stiffness of the beam. When the compressive axial load is sufficiently high, the
beam may lose its stiffness completely, i.e. cN=∞. This is described as buckling, which is the
subject of the next part of the course.

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Tutorial Questions (set 1)

1.1 Two identical bars of square cross-section (a×a) are glued together, one on top of
another, and used as a simply supported beam. The length of the beam is l. The beam
is then subjected to a uniformly distributed load q. Find the required minimum shear
strength of the glue (force per area). Evaluate it when a=10mm, l=2m and q=1kN/m.
Answer: 7.5MPa

z
q
x
2a

l a

1.2 Assembled I-beam as shown in the figure is under three-point bending (simply
supported beam subjected to a concentrated force 2P at middle). It consists of 4
identical L-section riveted onto a web of the same material. Assuming the maximum
shear force a rivet takes is R, determine the rivet spacing l. Evaluate l when a=50mm,
t=12mm, h=200mm, P=10kN and R=80kN. Should the L-sections be bonded onto the
web using glue, what is the required bonding strength?
Answer: 3.472m (at most) 0.4608MPa (at least)

P 2P P
h y y Rivets

Thickness of every
component is t

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1.3 Square box beam of uniform thickness is used as a cantilever loaded at the tip. Find
the distributions of direct stress and shear stresses along the external perimeter of
section and identify the locations where each of the stresses reaches it maximum value,
respectively. Determine the maximum stresses when P=20N and l=1.2m. Usually,
the magnitude of the shear stress is insignificant compared with the direct stress.
However, as l reduces, the situation will change. Find out to what length l should be
reduced before the shear stress starts to become significant.
Answer: σmax=37.66MPa τ max = 0.4036MPa
z
z
P
x

l a=20mm
t=1.5mm

1.4 In order to reduce the maximum

deflection of a simply supported beam πx
q = q0 sin
subjected to a sinusoidal distributed load l
by 10%, either elastic foundation or
axial tension can be applied. Find the
appropriate k or N in each case. Assume EI
the beam is of circular cross-section of
10mm diameter and its length is 1m.
The Young’s modulus is E=70GPa.
Answer: k=371.9 N/m2 N = 37.68N

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