Keeping Dry &

Staying Warm
(Part 1)

How to stay dry, warm or cool in the outdoors.

You, the environment, your garments and layering techniques.

By Mike Parsons & Mary Rose

with Chris Townsend and Chuck Kukla, supported by

Alan Hinkes OBE and Marian Parsons.

i
 Copyright © 2020 Outdoor Gear Coach

Published by Outdoor Gear Coach

www.outdoorgearcoach.co.uk

All rights reserved. No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon
may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means – graphic,
electronic or mechanised, including photocopying, recording, taping or
information storage and retrieval systems without the written permission
of the publisher.

First published January 2020

ISBN 978-1-9162830-1-5

Cover designed by Howard Marsden,

Source Creative Ltd, Blackburn
sourcecreative.co.uk

Book designed and typeset by

David Siddall Multimedia, Monmouth UK
davidsiddall.com

While every attempt has been made to ensure the guidance in this book relates to
the accurate and safe use of clothing in the mountains, the authors cannot accept
responsibility for any accident, injury or damage sustained while following the
advice contained.

ii
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

Table of contents
Why read this book?.........................................................................................................iv
More information..............................................................................................................vi
Learning and teaching KD&SW...........................................................................................x
Acknowledgements and thanks....................................................................................... xiii
Who we are, the principal authors...................................................................................xviii
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Language of Garments
1.1: Garment Size, Grade, and Fit..................................................................... 1
1.2 Tailoring for Function................................................................................. 9
1.3 Hoods..................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 2: Garments
2.1 The battles of understanding. Waterproofs, breathability, windproofing
and the importance of best choices of base and mid layers............................ 23
2.2: What drives outdoor garment innovation?............................................... 41
2.3: Garment construction methods: seams and machine stitching types,
seam taping and bonding............................................................................... 53
2.4: Repair, reuse and recycle........................................................................ 57
Chapter 3: The basic priciples of layering
3.1: Garment layering basics, principles and practice..................................... 63
3.2: How to keep your hands warm in the cold and wet.................................. 81
Chapter 4: Socks and Layering for feet and legs........................................................... 99
Chapter 5: Keeping your pack contents dry................................................................. 111

Further reading.............................................................................................................. 118

iii
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

Why read this book?

Who we are:
Our six-person team is an interna-
tional, multidisciplinary team that includes:
Mike Parsons, a retired pack and garment
manufacturer, formerly the owner and inno-
vator at Karrimor, then founder of OMM; Image 0.1: (Dreamstime)
multi activity experience over 7 continents.
Professor Mary B Rose, an academic textile historian, and the lead author on our joint book,
Invisible on Everest: Innovation and the Gear Makers; Chris Townsend, the renowned product
tester and reviewer for many years, for UK-based The Great Outdoors magazine, and an
author of many outdoor books; Chuck Kukla, a USA-based MIT engineer also working in
outdoor retail staff training. We are supported by Marian Parsons, a lifelong climber, moun-
taineer and backpacker and finally Alan Hinkes OBE, who over 28 expeditions and climbing
all 14 8,000m summits has remarkably never developed frostbite. Collectively, we have
experience of a wide range of activities over seven continents.
Not content with this experienced team alone, we have engaged with several distinct
communities. A large number of outdoor professionals have added tips and comments.
Academics have checked key aspects of human physiology and nutrition. We have engaged
in dialogue with the technical staff of about 20 outdoor garment brands. We have worked
closely with retailers to understand their needs and customer service and information issues.
(See our acknowledgements page.)
OGC Outdoor Gear Coach is a self-publishing, self-funded, independent not-for-profit
Community Interest Company (CIC). We are not advertising-funded and do not do product
reviews. We are active on social media: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and YouTube.

Why read this book? Six key reasons:

A unique must-read resource for outdoor enthusiasts and professionals alike. Gain
1 a better understanding of what you are buying, selling and/or wearing, and blogging
or writing about. Despite what advertising may imply, the garment does not do it all
for you. Garment performance depends on user understanding of both the materials and
usage skills. We develop your understanding of garment selection for activity and weather
and the layering skills which are the key to as much as 50% of your garment’s performance.
Quote Alan Hinkes, IFMG guide (the only British climber to climb all 148,000m summits.)
“Certainly garment selection and how to use and layer them are a very high proportion of
overall performance. I learned from a wide range of people when I first started climbing;
such as Glenmore Lodge instructors, other older climbers from my local climbing club and
certainly Polish mountaineers. Simply being comfortable, let alone surviving in the outdoors
or extreme weather takes a lot of effort & attention to detail”.

iv
 This unrivalled resource is the first ever independent book on outdoor garments. It
2 gives a vital in-depth insight into all the options available to you, using generic
words and accepted scientific terminology to ensure we are the most reliable and
consistent information source.
Choosing the most appropriate garment is much more important, in our view, than
merely seeking out the lowest price. We also help you to get better performance from your
existing garments or help you through the maze of competing garment/fibre/fabric choices,
when making your next purchase. RRR (repair, re-use, recycle) and sustainability issues are
covered.
Over the last 10 years, there has been an almost exponential increase in garment
4 choice in terms of types, fabrics, fibres, laminates, coatings, and the ways they are
combined, and a vast increase in the number of words and marketing expressions
used to describe them. Sometimes each brand uses a different word to explain the same
function or feature. This complexity makes experiential learning harder. Hence the possibili-
ties of making a poor or indeed wrong choice have increased enormously.
Sandy Allan, the British IFMG professional mountain guide and winner of the Piolet d’Or
for the first traverse of Nanga Parbat’s Mazeno Ridge (together with Rick Allen) said: “Gone
are the days when I could pick up a piece of clothing and quickly get a feeling of what it would
or would not do for me.”
Our objective in this book is to put back that “feel” of what a garment will do or not do.
In other words, to give you an ability to “read the garment”, using the knowledge from this
book and the practical layering tips.
Our one-day seminars are accepted as CPD (Continued Professional Develop-
5 ment) for UK mountain leaders, British IML’s (International Mountain Leaders),
AMI (Association of Mountain Instructors) and British IFMG (International Feder-
ation of Mountain Guides).
For outdoor professionals, whether guides, instructors or retail staff or brand sales
6 people, this book is the basic reading material for our future projected Outdoor Gear
Coach accredited garment professional training course.

v
More information
• A reminder of outdoor
experiences, hot and cold
• The importance of
layering skills
• Our target readers
• Our approach and key
distinguishing features of
this book Image 0.2: Snowy camp (Alan Hinkes)

Reminding ourselves what it’s like out there in the great outdoors
What are your memories of being on the hill in tough weather? Do these recollections
bring back any memories for you?
Frozen fingers, feet like wooden planks, icy beard, frosted nose. The agony of hot aches
when thawing out: you were almost too scared to go back into the warmth?
Soaked to the skin in a freezing wind, frightened of the onslaught of hypothermia: not
easy to forget?
Ever shivered all night in an unplanned bivouac, knowing that you mustn’t go to sleep
in case you never wake up? (And then taken three days to recover your normal body
temperature?)
Or have you ever got caught in a snowstorm on a mountain bike with SPD pedals, with a
long, rough unrideable climb into the face of the easterly wind, your feet colder than on any
winter Himalayas trip?
Or a typical UK hill day – wet and
windy, temperature dropping, rain turning
to snow, wind rising to gale force: perhaps
the trickiest of all conditions.

Image 0.3: Mike, layer improvising (Mike Parsons)
Keeping cool
Struggling with overheating, even in
cooler weather?
Staying comfortable in cooler weather
is vital in terms of avoiding overheating.
This causes moisture build-up that may
condense and give the impression of
leakage of your outer garment, a key factor
in keeping dry.
As temperatures soar above 20°– 25°C,
are you able to change your layering

vi
system and hydration practices to deal with it? Keeping cool in hot weather needs a big
change in layer types. In both cases, a basic understanding of the simple science of evapo-
rative cooling and human physiology helps a lot and this we provide.

The importance of layering skills

Our USA editor Chuck Kukla is a member of a small team at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT), researching complex tasks and training staff in the outdoor chain, REI.
His thoughts add a new dimension:
“Keeping warm and dry and remaining cool is a complex task with many dimensions;
understanding human physiology and basic science plus having the ability to read the
terrain and environment, anticipating weather changes,social dynamics, knowing how to
select and combine gear, knowing the capabilities of your equipment, decision making and
the ability to improvise.”

Our target readers

This book and training system is designed to support, help and stimulate everyone in the
outdoor community, whether you are;
• Any outdoor enthusiast, especially early adopters.
• A customer-facing person, working anywhere in the outdoor and ski and bike indus-
tries, helping and advising others.

“Mom, are we waterproof or just water-resistant?”

Image 0.4: (CartoonStock)

vii
 • Brand and retail staff.
• Product journalists and bloggers.
• PR companies representing garment brands.
• Bike retailers and other customer facing personnel who have excellent mechanical
training system yet nothing for garments.
• Outdoor instructors, guiding professionals, sponsored athletes,
Our objective is to embrace the mountain leadership and instructional community within
a common training system to educate end users on performance optimisation.
If you are reading this book in the paper version, we assume you will be using this as a manual
or handbook, maybe in a professional capacity. Go ahead with plenty of micro post-it notes.
Since the almost total disappearance of garment and textile manufacture from the
Western world, there has been a subsequent loss of the related language and even recogni-
tion of the basic textile types. Garment and textile language, to most people at least, is no
longer in their everyday vocabulary. We therefore carefully selected 53 key, generic words
you need to be able to read and understand garment hang tags and specs. We went further
and selected about 30 of the most well-known outdoor-related textile brands (not garment
brands) and described them using our generic words, that is non-marketing words. We also
discovered, from talking to activity groups and retail staff, the two most common misunder-
standings about garment function. So we again decided to address these at the very outset,
particularly as we found that these were the same on both sides of the Atlantic.
We move through to selected aspects for a deeper look, including construction, RRR
(repair, reuse and recycle) before moving on to and through the practical layering skills that
add so much to garment performance, and hand and feet comfort.

The key distinguishing features

Key details have been checked by:
Leading garment brands to ensure that what we have written is technically correct,
useful, and unbiased towards any particular brand. Any errors or omissions are the authors’
responsibility alone.
Retailers, in both the UK and the USA for suitability and usefulness for staff and
customers.
Outdoor professionals for applicability for
end users.
1. Videos: Short videos introduce
and support each chapter. There
are also links to selected external
videos, for further information.
2. Cartoons are used for fun, and to
emphasise a point.
3. Specialised graphics have been
commissioned to illustrate key issues
or concepts. All graphics are OGC
branded.
4. The language of garments: We
focus on generic words/expressions
and have selected and described Image 0.5: Capillary action in fibres (OGC)

viii
 the 53 key ones used by the industry in product descriptions – swing tickets, garment
inner labels, catalogues and websites and brand workbooks.
5. Sustainability. Every chapter of our book will contain small practical comments
about sustainability aspects related to that chapter.
6. Sound science base. The scientific principles on which garments are based don’t
change, but ways of making garments do. Understanding these principles helps you
understand and even challenge “new breakthrough” products.
7. Keeping our book up to date. Our ebook format allows easy updating, which is free
to you, and has carefully selected links to interesting websites. Looking ahead at new
developments we have created an “emerging technologies” section in each chapter.
We cautiously highlight potential new technologies that may or may not be tomorrow’s
winners. Only you and the market as a whole are the deciders.
8. History. We use history to provide narrative and context, drawing on our book
Invisible on Everest: Innovation and the Gear Makers and our online publications
to illustrate such areas as the evolution of layering techniques by pioneers and the
development of the waterproof jacket.
9. Multi-activity. Most books are focused on a single activity, for instance alpinism,
backpacking or hill-walking. We cover our subject very broadly, including why and
how clothing works for activities on all seven continents: backpacking and hill-
walking, climbing, mountaineering, ski touring/ski mountaineering, mountain and
road biking, adventure racing and fell running. We don’t cover watersports or horse-
riding, but our basic science is still valid.

Our 3 min introductory video to the early chapters is available at:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PgZGyW4AXoA&rel=0

ix
Learning and teaching KD&SW
1. The need for this book.
2. Suggestions on how to use this book.
3. About our future training programs.

The 4 fold need for this book

1. Since the almost total disappearance of garment and textile manufacture from the
western world, there has been a subsequent loss of understanding of the related
words and even recognition of the basic textile types, which are so important in
order to understand function. Understanding of the language of textiles and their
attributes, has virtually vanished. We therefore selected 50 key generic words you
need in order to be able to read and understand garment hang tags and specifica-
tions.
2. Amongst western populations there has been a steadily decreasing experience of
playing, travelling and working outdoors; today we play, travel, live and work in
heated or air conditioned environments. That means layering skills for outdoors
have diminished. The fashion industry talks about layering, but that is totally differ-
ent and is often negative to outdoor performance. We have a short section cover-
ing fashion layering within the book. Layering skills contribute at least 50% of the
performance of the garment, despite marketing which implies the garment does it
all for you.
3. There has been an almost exponential increase in textiles, fabrics and the combina-
tions of them for outdoor and sports related garments, making the choice bewilder-
ing, and the performance uncertain in terms of what you really need.
4. Access to the world’s most extreme environments is an online click and credit card
for aspiring adventurers straight out of the indoor climbing wall. The traditional quasi
apprenticeship sequence of local, Scotland, Alps, Greater Ranges has almost gone.

Suggestions on how to use this book

If you are reading this in digital format,
then you will probably prefer to read it in
a sequential manner. We have not used
reflowable text (as used on basic Kindles);
it’s a fixed format so you get a better appre-
ciation of our custom graphics and pictures.
We will issue updates as and when needed:
look out for these because they are free
via Amazon but you have to look for them,
there are no reminder emails.
We have organised the contents care-
fully, to build your knowledge and under-
standing step by step, starting with ‘The
language of garments and textiles’ and
addressing common misunderstandings. Image 0.6 (Cartoonstock)

x
 We encourage you to highlight the words or sections which are most interesting or even
enlightening, as we will be able to see them in our own version. We will be updating the book
as and when necessary. It is possible to view when an update is available; go to ‘Manage my
Kindle’ on Amazon.
If you are reading this book in the paper version then we assume you will be using
this as a manual or handbook. Go ahead with plenty of micro post-it notes! However we
welcome any and all feedback and questions to either mike@outdoorgearcoach.co.uk or
mary@outdoorgearcoach.co.uk.
The book begins with the 50 key words; the language of garments. Followed by more in
depth about selected key words, e.g. the 4 types of waterproof garments and the oft quoted
measures of waterproofing and breathability. Followed by what every shop sales person and
indeed the customers need to know quickly, is the basics of what garments are about in terms
of sizing, fit, grading and tailoring/shaping for different outdoor activities.

Teaching and learning support

This book is part 1 and our part 2 is already well under way for 2020 or 21 publication.
As we publish part 2 we are looking to develop partnerships with interested parties
from colleges and universities to outdoor education to mountain skill training and of course
retail. This program will be accompanied by a range of teaching support materials. From
infographic posters (see examples here) to slide presentations, workbooks, short videos
and lecture support materials. Infographic posters which are designed for stores, outdoor
centres, lecture rooms.
During the long development pathway
of this book we have given talks to several
groups of people at different levels of
knowledge and skills, to gain an under-
standing of what potential readers did
and did not know, and to identify the
key misunderstandings. This was also
part of our intended ongoing training
programs. If you are a UK MTA ( Moun-
tain Training Association) member, then
look out for our CPD ( Continued Profes-
sional Development ) seminars. Contact
mike@outdoorgearcoach.co.uk for more
details. Our books are a pathway towards
our future projected Outdoor Gear Coach
accredited garment professional training
course. This will be aimed at a wide
range of people. Outdoor professionals,
whether guides, instructors or leaders
may enhance their guidance to clients
during activities or go further and take our
full training course to be able to train other
leaders and or retail staff in the off season.
Retail training one person per store might
be the way to go for some stores. Image 0.7 Polymer Maze (OGC)

xi
 0.8 Layering (OGC)

xii
Acknowledgements and thanks

About our research and writing and listening journey

Researching and writing this KD&SW, part 1 has been a long journey. It has been inter-
mittent, partly because our passion for outdoor activities – ski, climb, run, ride, walk, back-
pack – have a high priority. They are vital to keep the research and writing anchored to the
reality of cold and wet and condensation and, sometimes, unexpected heat.
However, there are two more reasons for the lengthy journey: to ensure we understand
what outdoor people of all types and performance levels currently know; and, even more
importantly, what they don’t know and the nature of their misunderstandings. We needed to
engage in dialogue with outdoor professionals and record their comments and anecdotes.
All this involved many face-to-face discussions and much reading and contributing to
online forums. We gave several short talks, often asking what are your problems, what
puzzles you? There were a number of courses and talks, a whole-day talk for outdoor profes-
sionals, guides, IML’s and AMI’s, which was accepted as CPD for outdoor instructors and
mountain guides, as well as short sessions with participants on outdoor courses. All this
feedback had a significant impact on the contents, structure and sequence of this book
which we refer to as part 1. There was a moment of realisation that the language of garments
was not everyday language to all, so we selected 53 key words with brief explanation to help
our readers become outdoor garment literate.
Some areas were brought forward from our future publication KD&SW, part 2. Gloves in
particular were high on the list of frequent questions and we had to bring forward some textile

0.9: Alan Hinkes on Helvellyn (Alan Hinkes)

xiii
basics to enable understanding. Part 2 isn’t simply a gleam in our eye; it is 80 per cent written
as at mid-2019 and goes in depth into the broader aspects of keeping warm and dry and also
staying cool. That means nutrition and hydration, human physiology, thermal conductivity,
delving deeper into insulation materials, and a chapter on textiles. We go further into layering
by introducing the concept of layering for camping and bivouacking and other activities.
First of all thanks from Mike Parsons and Mary Rose, founders of Outdoor Gear Coach,
to our principal and supporting authors.
Chris Townsend: from the beginning, when we asked, “Why do you want to do this with
us?” he said, “Because it’s needed.” He has shared his test results on many garment types
and commented or advised on simply everything we have written.
Chuck Kukla, again commenting on everything we have written. His in-depth scientific
knowledge helped keep our thinking sharp, and he related many enlightening retail experi-
ences with both customers and staff.
Marian Parsons. For sustaining several years of breakfast, lunch and dinner discussions
and being such a great editing support, triggering ideas, sorting out the commas, and always
brave enough to say when it didn’t make sense.
Alan Hinkes, for insights from his wealth of high mountain expeditions, into high-altitude
issues and layering skills.
Jane Turnbull, for her early enthusiasm and practical insights into shop staff and customer
needs. Sharing her textile PhD from Leeds entitled The Relationship Between the Design of
Outdoor Clothing and its Performance During Use. (2011)

Support
We had an extensive dialogue with about 50 people all told, amounting to some thou-
sands of emails, all of which were carefully curated from emails into G docs, so we have
a true record of what people took the trouble to say and advise us on. Thank you, they are
simply gold!
If we have missed recognising you, our humble apologies.

The journey
At the start up point, as we looked for confidence in our aspirations.
Tom Richardson for the first inspiration when, having read one of our online articles about
the history of waterproof jackets, signalled: “This would be good for staff-training purposes.”
Pete Boyd who, while leading Mike on a wet climb in the Lake District, UK, pushed him
(only mentally of course) into making the leap from our previous focus (running an annual
seminar, Innovation for Extremes) into Outdoor Gear Coach.

Academic support
George Havenith, Director of the Environmental Ergonomics Research Centre at Lough-
borough University and Chair in Environmental Ergonomics and Physiology. For testing our
Mallory garment replicas, responding to our key questions on many issues including evapo-
rative cooling, thermal conductivity, heat losses, and human physiology.

xiv
 Mike Berners-Lee, the author of ‘How Bad are Bananas’?, ‘The Burning Question’ and
‘There is No Plan B’ (2019) for his role in supporting our Innovex (Innovation for Extremes)
trade conferences at Lancaster University on Sustainability for Outdoor Companies. Addition-
ally for instilling into us the major principles of C02 emissions and sustainability.
Katie Beverley, of Huddersfield University, textiles, helped clarify key issues on surface tension.
Support from outdoor instructor and guiding professionals
Stuart Smith BAIML, for long and sustained input into several chapters, especially gloves.
Rob Pugh AMI for his faith in, and input to, our content and pulling together the first CPD
training day for IFMG/BMG guides, AMI, BAIML’s and ML’s.
Steve Long, president UIAA training, and formerly AMI development officer. For his detailed
responses to chapters, and his support and overview of UIAA and MTUK training systems.
Alan Halewood, Stuart Lade, Ben Manwaring, Heather Morning for interesting comments
and feedback.
Jackie Bryson, warden/principal Plas-y-Brenin for her enthusiasm for our project.
P-y-B stores staff, James Derry and Pete Edwards for interesting feedback on issues and
garment problems for both students and staff.

Support from individuals

Lorna Read, being a non outdoors activity person, gave us an insight into how readable
and understandable it was to someone new to the activity. This resulted in us compiling a
new type of glossary, which instead of being tucked away as reference, we decided would
be at the very start of this book as the introduction. Welcome to the language of garments.
Tony Westcott, quantity surveyor and climbing friend, for his perspectives on capillary action.
David Garner, architect and climbing friend, for insights into how buildings function like
garments in terms of breathability. ‘The condensation has to occur somewhere, and as archi-
tects we have to design accordingly’.
Susanne Williams, ski friend, for information on Inuit clothing and use of Senna Grass
in shoes.
Don Booth, Topline management training, running friend, for sharing his 25 years experi-
ence of selling sales training services.

Industry and garment brand support

• Robert Lomax of Baxenden Chemical Co. UK, for his personal insights into the
development of breathable hydrophilic PU coatings from the mid 1970s onwards.
• Mike Sweet of Polygiene, for deeper insight into how silver ions kill odours and the
processes involved in the manufacture of odour resist textiles.
• George Crawford-Smith of Bridgedale, who was very happy to extend lots of his
time because, “Normally, no one wishes to talk tech about socks.”
• Steve Laycock, Brand Director, Pertex Marketing and Design, for sparing time on
many occasions and sharing insights into innovations as they appeared in the
marketplace.
• Mountain Equipment, ME, Matt Fuller for sharing his PhD on Down and assessing
our ideas on a scale for windproofing, and Richard Talbot for his tacit support.

xv
 • Equip / Rab. Chris Harding, for his encouraging and supporting dialogue on size,
fit, grade and insulation waddings. Tim Jasper, head designer in that period, for the
discussion on eVENT. Chris Vanderhofen and Gemma Dyer for the helpful dialogue
on training for retailers.
• Berghaus; Dan Horsham, senior textile technician, for his clarification on issues of
the relationship between breathability and air exchange/air porosity. Also providing
key info about non migratory insulation fillings.
• Arcteryx, for feedback on our hood design chapter.
• Samantha Fernando, of Keela Clothing, and their associate company Ardmel Auto-
mation ( tape seam machinery) for advice on clothing and tape seam sealing and
seam bonding technology.
• SheWee, Sam Fountain for ideas about ‘layering for toileting’.
• Florian Stark, W. L. Gore & Associates Gmbh, Gloves & Accessories/Product Spe-
cialist for information on glove construction and pictures of inserts.
• Rohan, Sarah Howcroft, for enthusiastic support for a garment training program.
• Mammut, Mick Farnworth, reading and critiquing several chapters and garment
sourcing and sizing insights. And giving input as to how to proceed into the training
course phase.
• Vango, Glenn Andrews for clarifying industry accepted HH levels in tent ground-
sheets and outer.
Surface tension, DWR and capillary action was a difficult area to address. So little
has been written save the constant reference to wicking and beading in many garment texts,
other than esoteric textile technology papers on “wettability”. The need for clearer explana-
tions partly arises from the issue that the DWR finishes on all waterproof, water repellant,
windproof, and insulated garments were being phased out because these compounds were
getting into the food chain. Many innovations are ensuing but the implications for users are
more garment after care is needed.
We plied multiple sources with many questions, and all three principal proofing
compound companies, Stormproofings, Nikwax and Grangers gave help and time until
clarity emerged.
Most especially we thank Matt Greaves of Stormproofings, who gave us in-depth
answers to our many questions, read fully many of our draft versions about surface tension
and capillary flow and shared information from their key compound suppliers.
Nick Brown of Nikwax for early support of our initiative in writing this book, and sharing
his findings on sweat output, adding: “Not many people are interested in writing and under-
standing this area of surface tension nowadays and it’s a great pity that expertise in textiles
is ebbing away.” He commented that one of the problems was to put the information across
(even with his own staff) so that it’s interesting to the reader. We hope we got there Nick!
David Feeney at Grangers, responded with clear feedback and personal thoughts.
Phillippa Hill for sharing her Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) thesis in Textile Science Univer-
sity from Leeds 2019: ‘Liquid repellency in outdoor apparel: chemical management, envi-
ronmental concerns and performance testing’.

xvi
 Retailers
Paul Casey owner, Climbers Shop, Joe Brown; Ambleside, Llanberis, Capel Curig and
Stoney Stratford and Nick Cox (manager and buyer) for much reading of chapters and for
giving us free run of the store and access to staff.
Dick Turnbull, founder of Outside store, Hathersage, UK, for his typically cryptic comment:
“It’s needed.” And further: “You will need someone to look after the training and continuity.”
Andy Airey, manager of Fishers of Keswick UK, for early discussion as to how our book
and training would or would not fit into a retail scenario.
Ken Ledward of KLETS for his frank views about the state of training at the retail level.
Inevitably there will be some errors and omissions (we are only human), and these are
the sole responsibility of the 4 principal authors.
Please do let us know what you find, and direct any queries to either:
mike@outdoorgearcoach.co.uk or mary@outdoorgearcoach.co.uk

Appropriate acknowledgment for images is included in the caption for each image
in the text. Our own commissioned images and photographs are credited to Outdoor
Gear Coach (OGC). We employed two graphic artists for our technical drawings. Denis
Lee, garment designer, produced the diagrams included in Chapter 1.2 and 1.3. Ethan
Danielson provided commissioned diagrams for Chapter 2.1, Chapter 3.1 and Chapter
3.2. David Siddall produced additional textile diagrams in Chapter 2.1. Alan Hinkes
has been especially generous in allowing us to use his photo collection from his epic
ascents of all 8000m peaks. We are also grateful to Chris Townsend for making images
available. Gwen Ainsworth carried out photography on the Mallory Replicas. We are
also grateful to Graham Hoyland for providing an image of testing the replicas from
his book https://www.grahamhoyland.com/books/last-hours-on-everest/ Thanks to
Cold Avenger, who supplied us with an image of a facemask in use. We are grateful
to Berghaus for their image of a hydrostatic head machine. We have also used stock
images from Dreamstime, iStock and Cartoonstock. We have sought permissions for
all copyright images and would like to thank the Alpine Club and Pitt Rivers Museum,
University of Oxford for permission to use images from their collections. A few images
have been secured using Wikipedia Commons and Fair Use rules.

xvii
Who we are, the principal authors
Outdoor Gear Coach was founded in 2015 by Mike Parsons and Mary B Rose, subse-
quent to their collaborative and award winning teaching of ‘Innovation’ at Lancaster
University Management School and 10 years running an ‘Innovation’ conference for the
outdoor industry.
Mike Parsons has over 40 years of hands-on
gear making experience in the outdoor equipment
trade, from pattern making, sewing, and textile
testing to product design. He was formerly the CEO
and innovator at Karrimor International Ltd until
1996 and then founder of OMM Ltd, a specialist
in lightweight outdoor gear. He has wide ranging
mountain sport skills, with mountain activity on
all 7 continents including the ascent of 18 virgin
summits. Chair of BMC lakes area 2019 and a BMC
National Council member.
Mary Rose is a keen mountain walker and recently
amateur dry stone waller! She is a Professor Emer-
itus with 35 years experience as an academic Mike Parsons (Alan Hinkes)
historian and innovation specialist in Lancaster
University Management School (LUMS). She and
Mike Parsons have been collaborating since 2000,
beginning with their prize winning book Invisible on
Everest: Innovation and the Gear Makers (2003),
followed by the replication of the Mallory 1924
Everest Clothing on behalf of Mountain Heritage
Trust, 2005. Mike Parsons was made an Honorary
Fellow in the Institute for Entrepreneurship and
Enterprise Development in LUMS in 2003 and Inno-
vator in Residence 2010–13. Together they taught
highly successful innovation courses and ran the
annual Innovation for Extremes Conference for the
outdoor industry for 10 years. The full story of their Mary Rose (Tony Breakell)
collaboration is recorded here.
Chris Townsend is UK based and has been
Equipment Editor of TGO magazine since 1991,
contributing monthly gear reviews on almost
everything which has been produced since then.
He is the author of over 20 books, based on his
outstanding record of long distance in the USA and
Europe. Chris was awarded the Outdoor Writers’
Guild Award for Excellence for ‘The Backpacker’s
Handbook’ in 1993 and again in 1996, 1997 and
2008 for the many features including ‘Snow Place
Like Home’, and ‘The Man Who Walked Through
Time’, about Colin Fletcher, all of which appeared
in TGO magazine. Chris Townsend (Chris Townsend)

xviii
 Chuck Kukla is an avid mountaineer and instructor
in the Northeast USA and is currently employed by
REI, one of the leading retailers of outdoor gear in
the USA. A chemical engineer by training, he is a
researcher and collaborator at Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) in the USA. Chuck
developed and applied ethnographic and histor-
ical research to understand and model tasks in a
number of areas – air traffic control, emergency
medicine, disaster relief, control room operations,
and the use of products in the outdoors.

Chuck Kukla (Chuck Kukla)

Photo by Alan Hinkes

xix
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

Introduction to the Language of Garments

Understanding Garments: Bringing understanding and know-how

into your outdoor skill sets.
Keeping dry and staying warm or remaining cool in the outdoors relies on three inter-
relating factors. Writing this book has involved much technical research. However, to make
our writing, and indeed training courses effective, we needed to gain an understanding of
what outdoor people did and did not understand currently, through a series of basic talks
and lectures, to retailers and outdoor professionals/guides and instructors. We have also
watched and contributed to online forums and had one-on-one chats with friends.
See our Understanding Garments graphic below:

Understanding Outdoor Garments

The ‘battle of understanding’ is about breathability, warm
layer contribution to keeping dry, and the language of
garments. Understanding all three is vital.

1. OUTER LAYERS 2. BASE LAYER &

& BREATHABILITY MID LAYER CHOICES
No brand of fabic can Base and mid layers
release all the sweat are key to moisture
you pump out. management based
SKILLS & on wicking capability.
KNOW-HOW The key is directional
wicking.

The vital thing to take on the hill is your brain!

3. THE LANGUAGE OF GARMENTS

50 Keywords realating to textile and garments
are the pathway to product understanding.

Image 0.10: Understanding Garments Diagram (OGC)

xx
 The “battle of understanding” is about breathability, mid layer
contribution to keeping dry, and the language of garments.
Understanding all three is vital.
We have called the result of our findings a battle of understanding because there are
many misunderstandings. Firstly, marketing claims want to make you believe the garment
or fabric does it all for you – it doesn’t! Secondly, there is no generic and independent single
source reference. This book fills that gap.

The battle of understanding

1. Outer waterproof layer: There can be an over expectation of breathability perfor-
mance, leading to some personal dissatisfaction.
2. Inner layer selection: Few appreciate that a careful choice of inner layers is very
important for staying dry as well as warm: your waterproof jacket needs your help.
3. Understanding the language of the outdoor garment industry: To read swing
tickets/hang tags, websites and catalogues, technical specifications and market-
ing claims of the garment brands, a knowledge of this special language is vital.
We have therefore carefully selected 50 key words and terms and explained them
in interrelated functional technology groups for easy reading and better under-
standing and retention.
Combining the understanding of these three comprises the basic know-how and skill
set for garment understanding. However, these basic skills must be further enhanced.
Your clothing layers are your mobile environment, and you, the “active resident” have to
control that environment proactively and make yourself comfortable, without the use of dials,
knobs, physical controls or thermostats and even without any smartphone apps, save for
the weather forecast, that is. Combine the weather forecast and your knowledge of terrain/
topography/country to select each individual layer that, in combination with other layers, has
the best attributes to allow you to deal with rapidly changing weather conditions.
It’s really all about understanding how your garments work in the environment and in the
weather, and the interplay between this and your personal physiology.

First: Outer waterproof layer. There is an over expectation of breathability

performance, leading to some personal dissatisfaction.
There is no existing waterproof breathable fabric that will release all of the moisture you
release from your pores at maximum exertion. Regardless of the volume of your sweat
output, breathable waterproof layers release moisture only when there is a temperature/pres-
sure/humidity difference between the inside of your layers and the outside atmosphere. This
of course is not always the case.
Chuck K, USA editor comments: “Sometimes, a customer coming into our store will
say that their waterproof jacket does not work, saying, ‘On my last hike in the rain, I was
soaking wet.’ My further questions might clarify he was wet and warm and getting wet from
the inside and not from the outside. It is not easy to learn from experience alone. Experiential
learning is sometimes said to be the best (as long as you don’t die in the process). However,
without an understanding of key factors like basic human physiology and how evaporative
cooling works in this case, then the learner’s conclusion might be incorrect. Of course there
are instances where jackets really do leak.” See chapter 2.4, repair, reuse and recycle.

xxi
 Not overheating in cold weather is vital in terms of avoiding sweating, which creates
moisture build-up. This then condenses, giving the impression that your outer garment is
leaking. It’s one of several key factors in keeping dry.
Staying cool in hot weather needs a big change in layer types. In both cases a basic
understanding of the simple science of evaporative cooling helps a lot. We cover both these
key issues in chapter 3.
There are big differences in breathability between the different types and brands of textiles
so you must choose carefully according to your needs and your budget. You must also make
up the difference with your layering skills. We explain more later in these “50 words and
terms” and further through this book.

Second: Inner layer selection

There is low understanding that these are very important for keeping oneself dry and not
merely warm and that it’s not the waterproof outer that does everything.
Almost everyone has heard of wicking but few know what microfibres do to aid that.
Even fewer know how the textile technologists have created two different types of layer:
basic wicking, which will allow water backwards towards your skin as well as outwards, and
directional wicking, which works only outwards. A big difference. We explain later with our
custom diagrams.

Third: The 50 key words and terms

The language of the outdoor garment industry is not everyday language for most people.
It’s an important part of understanding garment function and indeed what you are about to
buy, as well as your ability to optimise performance.

Image 0.11: (OCG)

The extent and depth to which any one person needs to understand these words depends
on background and needs. You may be a regular outdoor person spending good money
on high-end garments, or a professional guide expected to provide feedback comments to

xxii
your sponsor. You could, on the other hand, be a retail salesperson, store buyer, product
manager for a garment brand or sourcing professional or even an offshore factory supplying
western brands. Outdoor product journalists and “pro” bloggers may also find that a full
understanding of these terms gives them an edge.
At best, what’s critical is not just knowing what each word means, but understanding the
context and interrelationship between them.
A whole new language indeed!
To make reading, understanding and retention easier, we have split the 50 words into
interrelated concepts or measures of performance. Where possible we have indicated where
in the book the full information is located. We hope this makes it easier when referencing
back to a word from your reading.
Garment types and their component fabrics determine their essential characteristics as
a functional layer in your layering system. From our consumer research, it emerges that an
understanding of each layer as having distinct characteristics as part of a total layering selec-
tion is less common than we thought.
Hands and gloves and mitts. What emerged from our talks with UK groups was how
difficult they found it to keep hands dry and warm. “Why aren’t waterproof gloves water-
proof?” is the most frequent question. Our responses are in chapter 3, layering for hands.
Yes, even for hands, the secret is often in layering.
Keeping feet warm appears to be much less of an issue than hands. Nevertheless, we
cover this issue, including technical information on socks, again in chapter 3.
Garment size and size variants: Being able to recognise garment construction details
tells you more about how they might perform and how durable and repairable they are. See
chapters 1 and 2.
Textile and fibre performance characteristics. Brands often compete on these meas-
ures that are advertised widely, such as waterproofing, breathability, wicking, insulation and
fill power. It’s within these performance measures that the biggest consumer misunderstand-
ings probably lie, and this is why we have created our LAYERING REALITY triangle to aid
understanding.
This short compact glossary is the first ever produced specifically for outdoor garments.
If you are puzzled about the exact meaning not being transparent to you, then there is prob-
ably a broader, deeper explanation in chapter 2.

Garment details and construction

This area is explored in full in chapters 1 and 2 and also includes methods and tools for
repairs.

Here are the 50 key words and terms.

1. Layer is of course a garment, so why call it a layer? To emphasise several things:
multiple layers are better than one single layer because warm air is trapped between
each layer – something for nothing, as it were. And each layer type has different
materials and related features and is designed to serve a different function. How-
ever, layers function best when they are working together and not in isolation, so
choosing the layers for a given day or trip is an ongoing user skill. Thus we have the
waterproof layer, insulation layer or base/wicking layer and more.

xxiii
 2. Layering is the art, science and skill of first buying, and then selecting on a daily
basis, the combination of layers you may need for that particular weather, (cold,
and or wet and or hot) day, activity and terrain. See Chapters 3.1 for principles of
layering, 3.2 for layering for hands, and 3.3 for layering for feet and legs.
3. Size and fit: gone are the days when M meant Medium! Gone are our slim waists!
Chapter 1 aids understanding of the difference between size and fit. For example,
some manufacturers offer two or three different fits within the same size, but this is
often not publicised.
4. Grade and grading means the incremental dimension change between sizes. Meas-
ured across the chest; a 50mm/2in grade will achieve a better fit than a 75mm/3in
grade. See chapter 1.
5. Lockstitch seam: This is the strongest seam for woven fabrics; upper and lower
threads lock together and the loop is hidden between the upper and lower fabrics.
See chapter 2 for all construction details and pictures and repair tips. All construc-
tion details are covered in chapter 2.3, Garment construction and chapter 2.4,
Repair reuse and recycling.
6. Overlock seam: Lockstitch cannot be used for knitted fabrics because it doesn’t
stretch (whereas knitted fabrics do). Overlocked seams do stretch.
7. Flat seam: Fabric is placed edge to edge (instead of overlapped), then stitched.
This is used for base layers to reduce abrasion in shoulder areas for added comfort.
8. Bartack. A lockstitch configuration of three short transverse rows and one zigzag
overlap. This is usually done on a special machine with either cam or digital con-
trols. It works like a textile rivet to reinforce key points.
9. Taped seam. All garments made from coated or laminated membrane fabrics must
have a tape, heat-bonded over the seam. A typical waterproof garment might have
12m of taped seams (with the exception of Páramo garments, which are made
from directional wicking fabrics and not waterproof fabrics. This is why they use the
words “waterproof analogy”.)
10. Bonded seam. Emerging technology bonds zips into pockets and even bonds some
main seams of non-waterproof garments. Repairability is as yet unclear.

Performance characteristics and measures: They are commonly quoted

in all garment specs, hang tags, websites, etc, and are also a competitive
aspect between brands. Chapter 2.1 has more detail, supported by our
custom graphics.
11. Waterproof is not an absolute term and means different levels for different prod-
ucts, tent, tent groundsheet or waterproof jacket. Measurement is the pressure
produced by the height of a column of water in metres/mm, called the hydrostatic
head.
12. Hydrostatic head, or HH for short. For example, tent groundsheets might be rated
at 3m HH, a tent outer only 2m HH and a good waterproof shell jacket, 25m HH
(because a jacket suffers lots of wear, abrasion and flexing). HH decreases with
time and wear.
13. Water repellent/DWR (durable water repellent) is a term used for any fabric/gar-
ment article that has only a DWR finish. This treatment does not make the fabric
waterproof but is used to increase capability, implying better breathability and that it

xxiv
 should shake dry easily. All waterproof and windproof shells and insulated garments
have a DWR finish in addition to any coating or membrane.
14. PFCs (also known as fluororesins,or PFOAs) are or were the compounds used to
create the DWR finish. But they are being phased out because of health hazards as
they leach into the environment. This DWR finish causes water landing on it to...
15. Bead, meaning form large rounded drops instead of…
16. Wetting out, meaning soaking into and covering the whole surface, which reduces
breathability.
17. Waterproofing processes. There are only four technologies in use today for achiev-
ing outer garment fabrics which prevent water ingress. All these four types have
a commonality of a DWR (durable water repellent) finish on the outermost fabric
surface, otherwise they are very different. 1. Laminated membranes such as Gore-
tex, eVENT, Sympatex. 2, Coatings, such as Pertex Shield. Neoshell is produced
using a newly emerging technology where the coating is multi-stranded rather
than a liquid which is spread like regular coatings. These first two are measured
by HH and MVTR (moisture vapour transmission rate – see 23 below). 3. Wax
impregnation, which is the original and ancient method and rarely measured in any
way, works only where fibres are wax-absorbent, as in polyester/cotton blend e.g
Fjallraven G1000. 4. Directional wicking fabrics work by capillary action alone and
so can’t be measured by HH. Páramo/Nikwax garments/fabrics are unique in that
all layers, including the outer, work in this way.
18. Coating (or coated fabric) are terms used for a fabric with a complete covering of
a polymer compound (applied as liquid and the solvent then evaporated away). For
garments, hydrophilic polyurethane (usually shortened to PU) is almost univer-
sal. It includes almost anything and everything that is not a laminated membrane.
Coatings offer lower cost and performance to laminated membranes. The lower
performance is mainly in terms of breathability. Coatings are not air permeable (see
#22 Hydrophilic PU).
19. Laminating is a process combining/bonding multiple sheets or plies of material
together, as with car windscreens and much wood furniture. In the case of water-
proof textiles, it is usual to laminate ePTFE (as in Gore-tex and eVENT) together with
the outer textile and inner, hence 2-, 2.5- and 3-ply laminates. The word laminate is
often used interchangeably with…
20. Membrane which is a film or sheet of material which has a filtering capability, and
is often microporous, e.g. ePTFE...
21. ePTFE (expanded Polytetrafluorethylene) PTFE is the same material used on non-
stick frying pans but when expanded/stretched, micropores appear in it, hence
ePTFE. However this is where confusion can occur because Gore-tex is not air
permeable while eVENT is (and was described as ‘direct venting’ when launched in
1998). See chapter 2 for more depth.
22. Hydrophilic PU. This PU type (there are others) used for garment fabric coatings is
water vapour permeable, (but is not air permeable) which creates the breathability,
as measured by MVTR. Water vapour is transmitted by diffusion at molecular level
through the solid coating.
23. Breathability is not about air but about moisture vapour (sweat and condensation)
transmission (MVT) and the two measures of this are MVTR (moisture vapour
transmission rate) and RET (resistance to evaporative heat loss). This probably
ranks as the most highly misunderstood characteristic because the word is now

xxv
 used even for lingerie and fashion clothes, and it has become a synonym for com-
fortable. But in outdoor garments…
…Breathable fabrics may or may not allow air to pass through. Gore-tex is not air
permeable while eVENT is. This should not be confused with MVTR, which is the
same for both these fabrics for equal weights of outer fabric.
24. Air permeability is about movement of air outwards through a textile and is essen-
tially another way of describing windproofing.
25. Windproof and measures of windproofing are usually in CFM, cubic feet per minute.
Like waterproof, this is not an absolute term and has become used in an increas-
ingly ambiguous way. The CFM measure of windproofing is rarely quoted. This
term is strongly cross-related to air permeability. However, many brand-related
marketing words have been created to describe windproofing when applied to next
generation garments and this can be quite confusing. See our windproof scale of
#1–#5 and methods of self-test in store in chapter 2.
Windproofing v. air permeability. Windproofing is usually measured in cfm (cubic
m of air per minute) but brands rarely quote this. So we introduce our new “test it
yourself” rating system, #1: 100 per cent windproof; #2: highly windproof; #3:
moderately windproof; #4: wind permeable; #5: no wind resistance.

Textiles, insulation and insulated jacket construction types.

This is covered briefly in Chapter 2 and more extensively as a core technology section
in part 2 of a series of books. There are thousands of textiles but only four different types,
knitted, woven, non-woven and braided. Each of these has unique characteristics, so recog-
nition is important to understand what you
are seeing and or buying.
26. Knitted fabric. Made by a series
of continuous loops, creating air
pockets, good for insulation and
making it warm to the touch, and
stretches easily to fit. But it has
poor wind resistance. It includes all
base layers and all fleece.
27. Woven fabric. Fibres go in two
directions, those along the length
are called the warp, and those
Image 0.12: Knitted fabric (iStock)
across the width are called weft or
fill. Used for all waterproof, wind-
proof and down insulated garments
because of the tightness of the
weave. Not normally as warm to the
touch as knitted fabric.
28. Non-woven fabric or insulation.
Usually invisible inside jackets and
normally referred to as…
29. Batting or Wadding. Made as large
sheets of aligned fibres that are then
cut to shape to go inside the gar-
ment. The thickness and weight are Image 0.13: Woven fabric (Dreamstime)

xxvi
 variable according to the insulation
needs of the garment. Examples
include Thinsulate and Primaloft.
30. Braid or braided. Used on the outer
surface of all climbing ropes (that is
Kernmantel ropes) and adjustment
cords in garments. Such as all laces
on boots and shoes.
31. Pile. Known technically as sliver
knitting, although not used so fre-
quently nowadays, it is nevertheless
Image 0.14: Wadding (Dreamstime)
still widely remembered and often
confused with knitted fleece. This
textile method comprises a base
fabric into which short fibre loops,
maybe 10-15mm long, are pushed.
These are held in place by a glue/
resin, which is then visible on the
outer surface. It is not so attractive
when left uncovered but it is now
usually used as a liner because
it’s thicker and less expensive than
fleece and so can be very effective
in some ways. It was used exten- Image 0.15: Braiding (iStock)
sively on clothing in the 1970s and
is still seen today, for instance in
Buffalo’s (UK Brand) range.
32. Channel. Jackets insulated with
down often have multiple trans-
verse stitching through two layers
of fabric, creating a channel into
which down, and sometimes now
synthetic fills, are blown/stuffed.
33. Baffle. Down expedition jackets are
much warmer than the very com-
mon “stitch-through” jackets with Image 0.16: Braided rope (Dreamstime)
a channel construction. To avoid
stitch-through, they have pieces of fabric called ‘baffles’ joining the outer to the
inner, creating a box-wall effect, to avoid heat losses. These construction methods
can be more important than the down fill power rating.
34. Fill power rating (FP). Is the measure of how much capacity (in cubic inches) a
given amount of down expands to. For example, 600 is basic, and 750/800 is the
normal top end. Above this is a diminishing return but some love to quote their
1,000 FP down jacket. Thus it is a sort of indirect measure of insulation, and indeed
some synthetic batting is now quoted in down FP equivalent. Note, there’s a differ-
ence between European and USA measures and we are quoting USA.
35. Down comes from both geese and ducks, which grow down close to their bodies,
inside their feathers, to insulate them from their water environment. A down pod is

xxvii
 roughly circular rather than being flat and quill-like. This is what makes it such a
good insulator, while feathers are not.
Ethically sourced down. This ensures that the birds are not subject to live plucking
or being force-fed for the foie gras market. Checking a supply chain is a long and
costly process, because geese and duck farming is done by thousands of small
farmers, in China especially. Poland is a major European source. These costs are
possibly driving innovation in synthetic insulation.

Textiles: Polymer and fibre types

Synthetic polymer textiles use approximately 3 per cent of the world’s oil output. Poly-
ester comprises 45 per cent of all textile fibres (including cotton) and has grown very fast
because of low price and its recyclability (from PET bottles) and, not least, its wicking prop-
erties. Cotton is in fact the least environmentally friendly, which explains the big shift to
polyester.
36. Polymer. Simply means “many pieces”. Organic compounds can be either synthetic
or natural polymers. Polyester is a synthetic polymer and cotton a natural polymer.
How fibres are measured:
37. Denier. Essentially a measure of synthetic fibre thickness, although for accuracy
it’s measured by weight, so 10 denier weighs 10g for 9,000m. In many Pertex
Quantum fabrics, 25 denier can be found. Fabrics using 10 denier or less are feasi-
ble for down insulation garments, but take care in other uses! Other examples, pack
and rope fibres might be as heavy as 840 and 1120 denier.
38. Microns. A one-denier polyester fibre has a diameter of about 10 microns, which is
0.01mm. For comparison, the thickness of human hair is 60-90 microns.
39. Wool, merino: As it’s not a synthetic it can’t be measured in denier, so it’s defined
as being less than 18 microns in thickness and in rare cases could be as low as 10
microns.
40. Microfibre. Microfibres are usually made from polyester (for knitted clothing) and
nylon (for woven fabrics) and are less than one denier. All base layers and some
mid layers are nowadays made from microfibres because of their wicking ability.
Best wicking power is achieved when gaps between fibre surfaces are very small,
as in microfibres. Wicking “volume” is provided by bundling many microfibres
together to form one thicker thread for knitting into the garment. Also used on
windshells and the shells of down garments. See also moisture management
49,50,51 below.

The Polymers
There are hundreds of polymers but these are the key ones you need to know for outdoor
garments.
41. Polyamide/nylon. Good balance between weight (but not the lightest) and strength/
abrasion resistance, so used on woven fabrics for waterproof, windproof and insu-
lated garments. Tents are almost 100% nylon but some cheaper/heavier tents and
packs use polyester. Recycling is in its infancy, beginning 2017.
42. Polypropylene. The lightest and lowest cost, but beware of the very low melting
point when washing or drying.

xxviii
 43. Polyester. The heaviest of all quoted here, 50 per cent heavier than nylon. Absorbs
least water and is low cost. Widely recycled from PET bottles.
44. Spandex (USA) or Elastane (EU). Best known under the Lycra brand. Mainly used
in knitted fabrics, socks, close-fitting cycling and running garments but much less
so in woven fabrics.
45. Regenerated (cellulosic) fibre. This is produced using an old 1920s dirty process
for rayon where trees are broken down into a chemical mulch and then extruded as
with all synthetic polymers. So-called beech and bamboo garments are made in this
way because these plants don’t produce fibres usable as textile fibres (and there is
no way to prove what they came from). Tencel (brand) is the same but is a newer
and more eco-friendly closed loop process.
46. Acrylic. Was originally developed as a low-cost fibre alternative for wool but can be
itchy against your skin, and not so abrasion-resistant. It is used in low-cost socks,
beanies, and as a mix with wool. In moulded form, it is used as an alternative for
glass, for example in car headlights.
47. Silver ion treatment. Not a polymer, of course, but it fits here. It is an antibacterial
treatment. For example Polygiene. Prior to penicillin, silver spoons or coins were
used to prevent bacterial growth in milk, water or even on wounds. This new treat-
ment is applied to textiles worn next to the skin to avoid bacterial growth in your
defoliated skin particles. It is these bacteria that cause garments to smell.

Moisture management: keeping rainwater out and driving sweat out.

Is about surface tension and capillary flow (usually known as wicking). Chapter 2.1 has
an overview, pictures and our custom graphics.
48. Wicking is the commonly used
term for the capillary flow of water,
upwards even against gravity,
inwards, along the gaps between
fibres. The narrower the gap,
the higher (against gravity) and
stronger the wicking effect, hence
the increasing use of non-water-
absorbent microfibres. Although
coatings, laminates and wax act to
block water from entering your lay-
ers, they work better for you when
used in conjunction with wicking/
directional inner layers, because of
the amount of perspiration you are
continuously emitting. Image 0.17: Capillary action in fibres (OGC)

49. Surface tension (ST). This is present in all liquids and solids. In layering, it is both
friend and enemy. Both wicking and beading are aspects of surface tension and
important in garment performance. The difference in ST value between rain water/
sweat and solid/fibre fabric, determines what happens. A big difference, (created
by a good DWR finish) and good beading is the result on your outer jacket, making
it easily shake dry. Only a small difference (when your DWR has worn off) and
it won’t shake dry, breathability is decreased and there is a risk of water wicking

xxix
 inwards. But wicking is positively needed for your base and mid layers. Both wick-
ing and beading need your help with aftercare to ensure a continued high level of
performance.
50. Difference between basic and directional wicking fabrics. Most base layers
will wick inwards, to most people’s surprise. Directional fabrics essentially wick
outwards and also help prevent water ingress. This includes Polartec PowerDry
and Powerstretch and almost all Páramo/Nikwax layers, from their base layers to
outerwear. Graphic explanations in Chapter 2.1
Summary
These 50 words are the key to understanding our book and also much of the litera-
ture, print and digital, produced by the outdoor industry and communities at large. However
the language of garments is by no means standardised, many companies using terms and
expressions unique to them. We hope our definitions and explanations will make a contribu-
tion towards unification of language to the benefit of all. 
If you have comments, or suggestions for improvement please contact Mike or Mary
at mike@outdoorgearcoach.co.uk or mary@outdoorgearcoach.co.uk

xxx
xxxi Image by iStock
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

1.1: Garment Size, Grade, and Fit

This chapter shows that sizing, grading and fit is much more complex than it seems on
the label. It explains the complexities of incremental size grading and how fit means ‘fitness
for purpose’ for technical outdoor garments. You will be able to look critically at a garment
and see from the way it is shaped and tailored which key activity it is best suited to.

What we are covering

1.1.1 SIze: Ensuring that the garment is the correct size and fit for a particular activity is
vital for the performance of the individual garment.
1.1.2 Size grading: The incremental steps between sizes have important implications for
the brand, the retailer and the eventual user.
1.1.3 Fit: The combination of the manufacturer’s skills and your careful choice and
fit strongly influences your garment’s function. Successful layering with other garments
depends on size, grading and fit.
1.1.4 Process sustainability: We explain the waste implications when cutting the garment
to pattern shapes and the implications for manufacturing sustainability.

1.1.1 Size
Ensuring that the garment is the correct
size and fit for a particular activity is vital to
the performance of the individual garment.
But what does sizing mean?
This section summarises the changes
in sizing that have occurred over the last 25
years and their implications.
It is normal for the designer to create all
prototypes and sales samples in the most
frequently sold size, usually medium or large
for men, 12 or 14 for women. The garment Image 1.1: (Dreamstime)
designer or pattern maker must also make
assumptions as to whether the garment is worn next to the skin or, if not, how many other
layers are assumed to be worn underneath. For a lightweight waterproof running shell that might
mean a base layer and maybe a thin mid layer. A mountain jacket would assume rather more
layers. (See later comments about expedition fit.) When it comes to softshell garments, however,
designers’ assumptions do not appear to be so clear. Finding a softshell jacket with a fit that
matches the warmth and apparent weather capability of the hood and cuffs can be perplexing.

1
 Determining exactly what is meant by
medium has become increasingly difficult
because of the changing physical height,
bulk and body shape of the population around
the world. And of course it is different again
between the different continents and ethnic
groups. Here is a link to an international
size comparison chart. Surprisingly, there
is also a degree of psychological flattery in
the naming of the size, (aka vanity sizing!)
because people don’t like to be perceived as
larger than they hope they are. Image 1.2: Changing Sizes (Dreamstime)
This has led manufacturers to shift
their sizing. Research by The Economist
published on April 7, 2012 says: “The
average British size 14 pair of women’s trou-
sers is more than four inches bigger at the
waist today than they were in the 1970s and
over three inches wider at the hips. A size
14 today fits like a former size 18, and a size
10 fits like an old size 14. The same ‘down-
sizing’ has happened in America where, to
confuse matters further, a size 10 is equiv-
alent to a British size 12 or 14, depending
Image 1.3: (Dreamstime)
on the manufacturer. see full story from the
Economist, April 2012 (http://www.economist.com/node/21552262).
The story starts a long way back with the influence of Marks & Spencer (in the UK only).
Traditionally, M&S stores did not have a fitting room, but sizing of the garments and indeed
of the physical population had been consistent for many years. Consequently, most people
knew what size they were, didn’t they? Well, not quite. An M&S size 32in waist was actually
33in or even 34in so, when people finally tried the garment on at home, they could always
get into it and rarely needed to exchange it for a larger size. This applied equally to tops. The
Economist adds: “Studies in America and Britain have found that some brands of men’s
trousers labelled ‘waist 36 inches’, say, are in fact up to five inches bigger.”
Seasonal shifts in size requirement by a sporting customer group can also occur. The
OMM two-day mountain marathon event
has taken place in the UK in late October
every year since 1968. Earlier in the year,
the median size sold was M, but for the
event itself, it shifted to L. Why? During the
season, sales were to the fitter competi-
tive runners, with lean body mass, who
were competing in other events, whereas
during the event late in the season, there
were many people who were really walkers,
whose body mass was not so lean. Body
size seems to be a sensitive subject and
the words fatty and skinny are off limits. A Image 1.4: Size perceptions (iStock)

2
perhaps more polite way of describing these body shapes is to talk about ectomorphs (thin)
and endomorphs (fat). Some brands use “slim” or “sport” for the lean body mass people and
“standard” or “relaxed” fit when referring to endomorphs. Expedition fit is another option rarely
offered but really useful and not related to body mass but to allowing more space for additional
layers, without lengthening the body, arms etc. Some brands offer up to five different fits over
their whole range, although maybe only two for one garment design, but this is quite rare.
When shopping for garments, it is useful to look online first to make yourself aware of what
size, fit and grade options manufacturers are offering before going into a store to try on and to
make a purchase.

1.1.2 Size grading

The Textile Institute definition for pattern grading is:
“The production of a range of differently
sized garment patterns from a master or
sample pattern”
Pattern grading (the incremental steps
between sizes) is the next step in the
design process. It comes after reviewing
the garment and is about making a set
of patterns to fit a range of people and
garment sizes. It follows clearly established
rules (originally based on anthropometric
measurements taken from the population
as a whole). Image 1.5: Shapes (iStock)

When the designer or pattern maker creates the size pattern for each layer over the base
layer, there is an assumption as to how many layers are being worn underneath. All being
well, the assumptions work a lot of the time until you are going on a cold expedition trip, then
maybe not. Some brands have an “expedition fit” to allow for these extra layers.

What are the implications of size grading for the brand and the retailer?
It affects the amount of stock needed to support each style. A three-inch grade jacket
needs only four sizes on the rail, whereas a two-inch grade needs six sizes. Quite a financial
impact. For the end user, it’s all positive. There is a much better chance of getting a good fit
when grading has smaller gaps.

How grading has evolved from manual to digital:

Formerly, pattern grading was a
completely manual drafting process, but
in the 1950s pattern-grade machines were
invented to increase the speed of grade-
drafting patterns. In the 1980s, as patterns
were captured digitally for purposes of
creating cutting layouts, computerised
grading followed naturally. The picture on
the right shows a graded pattern stack, Image 1.1: Grading chart (Public Domain)

3
making visible the varying degrees of incre-
mental adjustment in each dimension.
Grading rules set proportions for the
length of arms, shoulder widths etc and is
usually done by computer. The sizes go up
and down in increments from the sample
size. This is usually medium but some-
times large – it is always a debate in a
design office, based around who fits what
and where. This is influenced by the perfor-
mance requirements of a particular sport.
Image 1.7: Sizes (iStock)
Typically, outdoor outerwear grading is
a 3in/8cm grade for jackets. This means there is a 3in/8cm chest size gap between small,
medium, large, extra large. For garments that need a closer fit, such as cycling and running
gear, a 2in/5cm grade is more appropriate. That means producing the item in six or even
seven sizes, which significantly influences production and stockholding.
It’s probably true to say that women have always had higher expectations of the standard
of fit and sizing. Women’s clothing typically has always been a 2in/5cm grade between 8,
10, 12 etc.
But how different are athletic women and does it matter? There is a very big difference
in body shape between a truly athletic woman and the great majority of female customers
and this can result in unhappy buyers. Advice is to look for brands that offer both athletic and
relaxed fit in women’s sizes.

Image 1.8: Choices (iStock)

4
Image 1.9: OMM 2008 (Rob Howard, Sleepmonsters)

There is another issue – anthropometric measurements of the population don’t neces-

sarily represent the body shapes of the outdoor communities. To complicate things further,
the different outdoor sports communities can also vary from the general outdoor rambler,
hiker and dog-walker. For example, climbers and fell runners tend to be of lighter builds than
walkers and backpackers. Grading and sizing are brand specific, so trying to squeeze your-
self into your aspirational brand of choice may not be the right way to go until you understand
their sizing and fit approach.
A further complication is that patterns are fabric-specific. Fabric properties affect the
pattern drafting. For instance, fabrics with Lycra content have varying degrees of stretch,
two-way, four-way and so on. This changes the amount of “ease” required between body
size and pattern size, in addition to where it fits in layering. Always try it on first.

1.1.3 Fit
Fit is strongly related to function
This section explains the background and demonstrates why tailoring and fit still matter
today – they are not just related to some bygone era.
Fit can have a strong fashion influence, sometimes positive, sometimes negative. For
example, during the 1980s when baggy loose clothing was coming from snowboard clothing
into ski and also from the catwalk, it became difficult to persuade people that base layers
should be close-fitting. Yet that is indeed critical for their correct function. Once fashion
shifted to a closer fit, that helped the customer to accept base layers designed to be very
close-fitting for wicking sweat.

5
 Fit is also influenced by how many
layers (and of what type and thickness) are
worn underneath. A lightweight running or
cycle jacket would logically need to have a
lot less room underneath it than a mountain
or ski jacket, which will often be used over
more and thicker layers.
If the fit is too tight, then cold spots at
the shoulders and/or elbows might be the
result because less air is trapped. Gener-
ally speaking, inner layers should be quite
close-fitting because they are usually knitted
and the need to transport moisture requires Image 1.10: Layers (iStock)
a close fit. Outer garments might also benefit from being looser to aid ventilation.
Mallory and Irvine on the 1924 British Everest Expedition had six layers on their upper
bodies. Normally, this would have made a semi-rigid outfit, greatly constraining the users’
movements. But in this case, all layers were tailor made (which was normal in the 1920s)
and that, together with the alternate layering of silk over wool over silk, fabrics which slid
easily over each other, created an outfit even more flexible than today. See Mallory Myths
(http://www.outdoorgearcoach.co.uk/innovation-history/mallory-myths/#.VIWwLjGsXso).
Choosing layers that slide easily over each other is the key, aiding not only mobility but
being able to remove layers easily. Mallory’s woven silk over wool might equate today to
windshell over fleece. Watch out for softshells that have a knitted inner, which drags if the
layer underneath is also made of a knitted fabric.

1.1.4. Process Sustainability

Cutting waste which goes to landfill.
Ten per cent is about the absolute minimum
achievable, the larger the pattern pieces and
the fewer of them, the higher the waste.
Tents might have 25 per cent waste for
these reasons.
Most of this waste has to go to landfill
because these fabrics are mixtures of poly-
mers, ie coated fabrics, and therefore not
recyclable.
The key exception is fleece made from
polyester, which can be recycled, just as Image 1.12: Process Sustainability Source (iStock)
the PET bottles you sort in your household
waste. So look out for recycled fleece, which comes either from off-cutting waste or PET
bottles. (See section 1.10 on the broad aspects of sustainability.)
Recently the Arcteryx company initiated a project to do something with these waste
scraps, using volunteer labour who were also learning a new skill at the same time. Have a
look at this video (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wXllnzyt86s).

6
Chris Townsend on size and fit:
“I don’t carry spare clothing (except
spare socks) because my clothing
system is sized so that I can wear every-
thing at once if necessary, sometimes
as many as seven layers (albeit some
items are usually in my pack – mostly
long underwear pants and insulated
jacket, sometimes fleece top as well). My
clothing is also selected for versatility –
all the tops can be worn next to the skin
so, if my base layer is damp and I start to Image 1.11: Chris Townsend (Chris Townsend)
feel chilly when I make camp, I can strip it
off and have a down jacket or the fleece or insulated top next to the skin.”
He goes on: “The layers I use now bring greater versatility than the 1980s three-
layer system. In selecting, the layers need to relate and to slide over each other. I have
built an instinct as to where to place layers and what to use in particular conditions. In
wet, cold conditions, I would normally have a base layer, followed by a thin warm layer,
a wind shell, a waterproof and finally an insulated jacket.”

7
8 Photo by Alan Hinkes
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

1.2 Tailoring for Function

This chapter covers:

1.2.1 Overview of tailoring for function: The way in which garments are shaped and
tailored to enable better activity-related function is crucial from a user-choice point of view.
1.2.2 Fit and specific sports: Here we use diagrams and a video clip to show how fit of
garment varies between sports and examples of design faults.

1.2.1 Overview of tailoring

for function
In outdoor garments, there are signifi-
cant differences in the shape and design of
hood, sleeve, back lengths, front lengths,
cuffs, etc. for the different activities between
mountaineering, rock climbing, skiing, ski
touring, Nordic skiing, road cycling, MTB
and walking. What is more, the execution of
these differences in the pattern cutting, and
the communication of them to the customer, Image 1.13: Tailoring (iStock)
is a critical product and brand differentiation.
Arcteryx has this explanation for what they call ergonomic fit. They offer several different fits
to achieve this. The technique used to create this is, of course, tailoring.

Tailoring
Tailoring isn’t a word normally used in the context of outdoor garments, perhaps because
the word evokes images of expensive
bespoke tailors, smart suits, dinner jackets
and so on. The technique and skill required
to make outdoor garments, especially outer-
wear, fit well and move in the way the user
wishes, and hence function better according
to the specific activity they are doing, is
however called… tailoring.
Burberry’s patent of 1900 for a pivot
sleeve (see right) was well ahead of its time
in allowing full upwards or sideways move-
ment for the arm when shooting or climbing. Image 1.14: Burberry Pivot Sleeve (OGC)

9
 The cagoules and jackets of the 1960s and 1970s were more like tents with sleeves,
and patterns for outdoor garments remained relatively basic until the 1990s. From this point
onwards, outerwear became increasingly sport- and activity-specific. Here is an illustrated
overview of some of the activity tailored specific shapes to enable you to understand better
what you are buying or selling, and/or using personally.

1.2.2 Fit and specific sports

This video clip summarises how fit works for different sports (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=AE0MlXE3_ek)
1. Cycle jacket

( All images OGC)

Images 1.15/1.17: Cycle jacket front and side view Image 1.16: Cycle jacket side view – riding

Image 1.18: Cyclist arm movement – front view Image 1.19: Cyclist arm movement – side view

Image 1.15 Side view showing short front, exposing crotch but avoiding too much fabric
bunching in front of the rider. Image 1.16 and 1.17 side view showing very long back and
sleeves.
There is usually no hood but, to avoid rain leakage at the neck, there is usually a special
drawcord closure. The fit should be quite close to avoid wind drag or “chatter” (a flapping
noise) on a descent. This type of garment is excellent for cycling but has obvious shortcom-
ings for other uses. Sometimes manufacturers or brands will make a crossover garment,
which is a compromise between cycle and mountain or running garment.

10
 2. Mountain jacket
(All iamges OGC)

Images 1.20 / 21: Climbing jacket – front and side

Image 1.23: Climber arm movements – front view Image 1.22: Ice climber reach and lift requirement

Image 1.24: Climber arm movements – side view Image 1.25: Ski jacket – front view
The climber (in red) Image 1.20, Image 1.21, Image 1.22 needs the broadest range of
arm and body movement, without the jacket constraining actions, while leaving the wrists,
crotch and bum well protected. A pure ski jacket Image 1.25 (green), in contrast, has no
special arm lift or forward reach needs. Compare these with the cycle jacket (1) See Image
1.22 and 1.23 for arm movements
Now some examples of jackets that may be inadequate for some activities. Some
garments are quite adequate for general walking, but are a poor fit and thus give lesser
performance for climbing and mountaineering.
Image 1.26 (next page) shows the consequences of poor arm lift, so the climber’s wrist
and hip are exposed and, if a harness is worn, the jacket rucks up uncomfortably.

11
 In Image 1.27 the hood doesn’t move
with the wearer’s head, restricting vision and
making it unsuitable, especially for climbing.
Sometimes you may see people on the hill
with their hoods down. “I don’t like hoods,”
they say. This is sometimes because their
hoods fit badly and they cannot see well
enough.

Image 1.26: Poor arm lift (OGC) Image 1.27: Hood with limited movement (OGC)

12
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

1.3 Hoods

What’s in a hood?
Introducing hoods video clip: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jx9w7IVcPu0
A good hood is amazing; your head, brain
and eyes are encapsulated in your ‘mobile • A good hood keeps the rain out of
environment’ while the rain, hail or snow and your inner layers.
stormy winds swirl around. You can still see • In addition, it can give you the ability
what you are doing and where you are going. to move safely and comfortably in
So the hood design is a very important foul conditions. On a non-waterproof
factor determining fitness for purpose of the jacket it can add 10 per cent to the
jacket as a whole. This is almost the first warmth rating.
thing to check when buying a garment and, • The hood is the key feature which
after all, it’s also a considerable proportion of makes the jacket ‘fit for purpose’
the total cost of the garment. and can cost as much as 25 per cent
Few, if any, websites or catalogues actu- of the total, so choose wisely.
ally illustrate the hood, so we have created
our own custom generic drawings to illustrate the different types of hoods and principles
involved. They do not represent any one brand’s hood design and have been created to help
you think through your garment choice more carefully.

1. So what makes a good hood for an outer jacket?

2. A brief look at the Inuit origins of hoods and the origins of the words anorak
and parka.
3. The history of head and face protection from Mallory (on Everest) to the
present day.
4. Overview of eight generic hood types and what they are good for and
limitations.

1. So what makes a good hood for an outer jacket?

The hood must move freely as you turn your head and should not obstruct vision or the
field of view when cinched down.
It should have volume adjustability to whatever else you choose to wear on or around
your head (helmet, peaked cap, thick beanie, goggles, specs and so on).
Adjustability for wind direction, cross or head winds.
Cord ends captured in keepers to avoid an eyeful but able to be adjusted with cold or
gloved hands.

13
Image 1.28: Hood Rotation (OGC)
Wind protection – crosswind
The depth of the hood from front to back should be sufficient to shield the face from side
winds.
The front edge of the face aperture should fall just behind the eye so visibility is not
restricted.
Wind protection – headwinds
When the face aperture drawcord is secured, the hood should be tight around the face.
It is essential to have a stiffened peak to give protection in strong winds, and highly desir-
able to have a peak with a wire edge that can be moulded to the best shape to resist the wind
and protect the eyes.

Image 1.29: Hood headwind (OGC) Image 1.30: Hood Crosswind (OGC)

14
 Maybe you dream of having a hood like
this! But is it suitable for the temperatures
and humidity you will meet on your trip?
These lead user innovators, in the polar
regions, started it all and used the mate-
rials available in their area, so there are
many different designs. So it still is today
when modern designers have used the
wide range of materials available to them.
Modern researchers have measured and
shown what practice bears out, that fur
hoods dramatically reduce wind on the face
and eyes, a critical factor in low tempera-
tures and high winds. Image 1.31: Inuit: People of the Arctic (prm.ox.ac.uk)
Face masks were used before UV-resistant sun creams became available in the late 1940s.
Image 1.32 shows Mrs Lizzie Le Blond, a prominent woman alpinist of the late 19th century
in a face mask. Even by the 1920s there were no anti-UV creams and, on Everest, Irvine
lost most of the skin off his face. It was so bad that he said he almost “screamed aloud with
pain”. Face masks are used today in polar and high-wind or very cold areas. Image 1.33 is a
Komperdell neoprene mask. There are dozens of variants and the most serious, Image 1.34
Coldavenger, originates from oxygen equipment where users continued to wear the masks
after the oxygen ran out. Creates a warm humidified micro climate for the lungs. see next page.
The first recorded use we have of hooded garments were the cotton jackets made for the
British Navy 1875 Nares expedition, examples of which are in the museum at the Scott Polar

Image 1.32: Mrs Aubrey (Elizabeth) LeBlond, 1861-1934, English Climber, First President of the Ladies
Alpine Club, 1907-12 (also 1932-4), wearing face mask, self-portrait on Dumaastind, Norway c 1900
(Alpine Club Photo Library)

15
Research Institute, SPRI. Hooded garments
took much longer to enter the mountain world.
George Finch, the innovator of the down
jacket for the 1922 Everest expedition, was
the first recorded user of a hooded jacket.
Mallory and Irvine didn’t use hoods on
Everest in 1924. Why? Image 1.35 shows
Tony Breakell in full replica Mallory outfit
alongside Alan Hinkes in his full 8,000m
layers. Mallory didn’t climb in a tweed jacket
(a popular myth, but their photographs
were taken with them wearing their ‘Sunday Image 1.33: Neoprene-face-mask-for-men-and-
women (Komperdell)
best’!): he climbed in six layers, multiple
wool over silk over wool, and finally a Burb-
erry windproof outer.
We puzzled long and hard over hoods as
we pursued our Mallory garment replication
project for the MHT Mountain Heritage Trust
in 2005. We came to the conclusion that
hoods were not well designed in that period
and would have impeded vision. Favourite
headgear tended to be a balaclava, while
Irvine preferred his fur-lined leather flying
helmet with peak. Here is our story of the
Image 1.34: Face mask which creates a micro
findings from our Mallory research project: climate in front of nose and mouth, humidifying
http://www.outdoorgearcoach.co.uk/innova- incoming air. Good for asthmatics exercising in
tion-history/mallory-myths/#.VfaSiZ1Viko very low temperatures.(OGC)

Image 1.35: Tony Breakell in Mallory outfit with Alan Hinkes at Replica Launch (Clothing for Extremes)

16
No hoods?
Here is a Daily Telegraph article about the British Ministry of Defence who issued soldiers’
garments without hoods for use in the Middle East. But oops – now the boys are back
home in UK where it rains! http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/11381725/
Wet-soldiers-struggling-to-cope-in-jackets-with-no-hoods.html
No hoods – for cycling. Who decided that cycling garments don’t need a hood – and
why? This would appear to have originated with WL Gore in Germany, who set up their own
operation to supply the cycle market, which had been amazingly resistant in the 1980s to
innovating any better clothing. In order to distinguish themselves as not competing with their
existing mountain customers, WL Gore decided that bike jackets should not have hoods.
There is certainly some logic in cycle jackets not having hoods from the point of view of
peripheral vision in traffic and wind speeds making their use difficult. It also makes jackets
considerably cheaper to make. However, a foldaway hood is also a good cycling option,
preventing wind chatter when not in use.
Today, any of your layers – base, mid, outer warm jacket – can be purchased with a
hood. Base or mid layers with hoods can be good; pulling a hood up single-handedly can
avoid a stop or give you some vital protection when belaying at the top of a crag. However,
wearing too many hoods can be confusing, leaving you unsure if you’re pulling up the right
one. But some jackets are best without a hood, for instance cycle ones. Removable and
foldaway hoods were once common but are becoming less so. So read on and enjoy our
hood analysis, but remember that hood function needs to be in balance with not only the
jacket performance but what your intended use is.

OVERVIEW OF HOOD FUNCTION TYPES for every garment layer,

not only outer jackets
Note: We sometimes use the words “grown-on hood” or “integrated hood” as alternatives.
They are the same and but are quite different from the fold-into-collar or detachable hoods.

1. Basic fitted hood

Image 1.36
Elastic facehole, no adjustment
Best suited to:
Fleece hoodies and windproofs and even some thermal base layers.
Lightweight emergency waterproofs.

Comments
• Needs to fit head snugly.
• Poor protection in windy weather if too big.
• Some softshells have this sort of hood which may not be up
to the performance of the rest of the garment or for your needs.
• Can often be improved by using a peaked cap underneath.

17
2. Basic adjustable hood
Image 1.37
Elastic drawcord facehole
Best suited to:
Thermal garments, windproofs, waterproofs.
Casual wear or “street” waterproofs.

Comments
• Needs to fit head snugly to work satisfactorily.
• Poor face protection as there is no peak.
• No adjustment for head size or hats. You may struggle to see where you are going
under certain conditions. Users might typically say: “I don’t like hoods.”

3. Basic peaked adjustable hood

Image 1.38
Elastic drawcord hood.
Peak integrated into fabric design.
Best suited to:
Windproofs, waterproofs.

Comments
• Needs to fit head snugly to work satisfactorily.
• Peak needs stiffener to work in windy weather.
• No adjustment for head size or hats. You may struggle to see where you are going
under certain conditions. Users might typically say: “I don’t like hoods.”

4. Basic dual adjustable hood

Image 1.39
Rear adjust for volume (velcro or elastic cord)
Peak (with stiffener)
Best suited to:
Windproofs, waterproofs.

Comments
• Needs to fit head head correctly at eye level to give good
peripheral vision.
• Peak needs stiffener to work in windy weather.

18
5. Two-way fully adjustable hood
Image 1.40
Elastic drawcord facehole,
Side and head wind adjust
Peak (with stiffener and malleable wire edge)
Best suited to:
High-performance waterproofs and insulated gear, but occasionally
used on softshells, in which case you are getting very good value.
Comments
• Will fit with or without thermal headwear underneath.
• Side adjustment needs to fit correctly at eye level to give good peripheral vision.
Should adjust at base of skull at back.
• Might have limitations due to singe adjust for helmet volume and side winds.
• Peak has stiffener and/or wire edge to work well in severe conditions.
• Sophisticated construction, multiple seams +seam taping means high costs for fully
watertight performance.
• Brand comments: Chris Harding of RAB: “The face aperture drawcord is most effi-
cient if it is run through a separate tunnel or valance rather than through the body of
the actual hood. You can get a more secure closure and optimal weather resistance.”
Cheaper hoods often miss this feature (see inset drawing).

6. Three-way fully adjustable hood

Image 1.41
Inset elastic drawcord facehole, side-to-rear adjust, vertical
back adjust. Peak with stiffener and malleable wire edge.
Best suited to:
Waterproofs and down/insulated jackets for mountaineering
or alpine skiing/ski touring helmet wearers. Soft shells and
windshells vary considerably, some upper spec softshells/
windshells might have type 6, others type 1 only or even
stowaway hoods on some windshells.
Comments
• Will fit with or without thermal headwear or climber’s helmet underneath. Wearing
helmet under hood avoids ice debris down neck and easy to pull down when too warm.
• Improved over type 5 with separate adjustment for side vision from helmet volume.
• Side adjustment needs to be at eye level to give good peripheral vision.
• Vertical back adjustment highly desirable to cope with the size difference with and
without helmet.
• Peak has stiffener and/or wire edge to work well in severe conditions.
• Sophisticated construction, multiple seams plus seam taping means high costs for fully
watertight performance.
• Brand comments; Chris Harding, RAB: “The face aperture drawcord is most efficient if
it is run through a separate tunnel or sleeve rather than through the body of the actual
hood. You can get a more secure closure and optimal weather resistance.” Cheaper
hoods often miss this feature (see inset drawing to illustrate this point).

19
Detachable and/or stowable hoods
The performance of these types is very much lower than the integrated hood types 1-6 and
they do not cost less. So why are they there? Perhaps so the jacket becomes neater and
more street-like for the collar-and-tie types or people not wanting the explorer mountaineer
look?

7. Stowable hood
Image 1.43
Packs into collar
Best suited to:
Windproofs, waterproofs, general-purpose garments such as
streetwear. Cycle jackets where hoods are required only occa-
sionally. Hood design could be as Nos 1, 2, 3 or 4, depending
on garment style and function. There is too much bulk to have a
type 5 or 6 hood. Double layer outer collar creates pocket to hold
folded hood. Hood sides are normally straight and the collar front
is used to protect the neck and chin.

Comments
• Adds extra cost to the garment.
• Often difficult to pack neatly into collar.
• Protection at lower front not usually as good as a standard face-aperture hood.
• Useful for a cycling garment to avoid wind chatter.

8. Detachable hood
Image 1.42
Attaches to collar
Best suited to:
Waterproofs where versatility is required for multisport and
or street style use. Hood design could be as Nos 2, 3, 4, 5,
depending on garment style and function. Hood is attached to
collar with an open-ended zip (the prefered method; it could be
snap fasteners or Velcro in lower-cost garments).
Fastening should be concealed inside hood and collar
constructed to prevent any leak points. The hood’s lower front is
longer and overlaps at centre with fastening method. This should be adjustable. Velcro is
the normal method but snap fasteners may be used in lower-cost garments.

Comments
• Difficult to attach hood when wearing garment.
• Possible to misplace or forget hood.
• Possible for partial detachment to happen.
• Extra bulk around lower face.
• Adds cost to garment.
• Adds small amount of weight.

20
Word origins: Anorak, parka and cagoule
Anorak was the Greenlandic Inuit word for “against the wind” and referred to a hooded
jacket. The word came into the English language via Denmark in the 1920s.
Parka is the equivalent word used by North American Inuit, which is why this is the
prevailing word in USA and Canada.
The word cagoule is French for cowling or cover and is how Pierre Allain (who invented
the first rock boot) described his waterproof hooded overgarment, which came down to the
knees to cover the down jacket and overlap the short sleeping bag (“pied d’éléphant”) for
Alpine bivouacs. This word is used mainly in the UK. The full story of PA’s cagoule innovation
is told on our website.

Outdoor professionals’ comments

Rob Pugh: “I spend a lot of time wearing a hood over a helmet (Lakes UK-based, lots of
rain…); it’s important that the hood doesn’t lift the rest of the jacket up or pull the chin
piece up over your mouth, and that it stays in place whether I’m bending over to talk
to a client on a cliff edge, or stretching up for a handhold on a climb or scramble. It’s
also important that the hood fits well when I’m not wearing a helmet and doesn’t have
excessive flappy material on top of my head. I sometimes use a waterproof peaked hat
when working with a group because the hood blocks out both wind and words.”
Steve Long: “Even the best hoods cut out a lot of sound (along with the wind, of
course). Maybe a hood with waterproof wind baffle but minimal filtering of sounds
would aid communication and also spatial awareness? Which is why I use a water-
resistant cap quite often, too.”
Mike P: “What about willingness to wear hoods?”
Rob Pugh: “There’s definitely a ‘lack of cool’ associated with hoods for many of my
younger adult groups – difficult to get across to them the importance of hood up in
the mountains, especially if it’s early in the day… They’d rather get soaked than look
‘nerdy’. !t’s all well and good until they start getting hypothermic. It’s a bit like being in
a nice warm car on a rainy day but purposely leaving the sun roof wide open!”
Chuck Kukla, our USA editor, adds: “I sometimes use a US Army-designed hood
with synthetic fur. It’s heavy but the fur-lined portion has a wire I can use to form a
small opening, keeping my glasses from fogging up and protecting my eyes from
dehydrating winds so I do not need side shields for my glasses or goggles. There is
no peripheral vision but I can walk directly into the wind without a face mask. When
a face mask is needed, I use a full-face leather type – better than synthetics – and I
never use partial face masks as it is hard to align the face-mask with goggles.”
Chris T: “Fjallraven do a range of jackets with synthetic fur-lined hoods.”

21
“Mom, are we waterproof or just water-resistant?”
(Cartoonstock)

22
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

2.1 The battles of understanding. Waterproofs,

breathability, windproofing and the importance
of best choices of base and mid layers
In earlier chapters we talked about the “battle of understanding” (an expression we
borrowed from Dave Brooks, formerly of the School of Textiles at the University of Leeds
(UK), when he talked to his Phd students about waterproof garments), outer layers and
breathability and the importance of base and mid-layer choices in the whole issue of keeping
dry and staying warm.

Image 2.1: (OGC)

Further, we gave you a short concise explanation of the 50 commonest and most impor-
tant words and terms found on hang tags, labels, logos, catalogues and websites.
We know from feedback from friends, collaborators, and outdoor professionals that
some of these explanations were a little too concise and further explanation would be useful.
We have divided this additional information into three sections.
1. Waterproofing methods, proofings and breathability issues.
2. Moisture management, inwards and outwards.
3. Warmth. Remember garments don’t provide heat, you do. Garments reduce the heat
losses that occur by convection (think wind and windproofing), conduction (think
water as sweat trapped in your layers and whatever you touch sit, stand or lie on),
and perspiration (which includes insensible perspiration, better known as breathing).

23
 Help? We close this chapter by suggesting how best to give or to request advice. Among
the myriad garment versions available, many are very highly specialised to an extent that
many potential buyers would never anticipate. This means giving much clearer information
about what activity you are intending to do, where and in which season.

1 Waterproofing methods, proofings and breathability issues.

There are essentially only four methods of waterproofing a garment’s outer textile shell
(which will probably be woven: knitted textiles are rare for outer shells). Each method differs
in performance, breathability, durability and cost. 1. Wax proofing, 2. Coated fabrics, 3.
Laminated membranes and 4. Directional wicking fabrics. However, the outer layer should
not be perceived as the one and only answer to keeping dry. Layering is a system approach
and it is the combination that counts, base and mid layers being much more important than
most would imagine.
1. Wax proofing (impregnation). A tightly woven cotton or poly/cotton fabric with a
wax proofing. This is the very oldest method, perhaps dating back to the very begin-
nings of textiles. It does not provide the level of either waterproofing or breathability
generally sought after nowadays, although it is very long lasting. This is a traditional
product approach evolving from the 1880s. Nostalgia plays a part here when the
words Burberry, Grenfell or Ventile are mentioned. Fjallraven G1000 fabric is current
example, using a mixture of beeswax and mineral wax. Then there is of course
Barbour country wear. A DWR finish is usually applied to wax proofings.
2. Coated fabrics. Applied as a thick solvent-based hydrophilic PU liquid.
Coating

Fabric

Image 2.2 is a cross section of the coating applied to the inside of the fabric. Note the varying
thickness of the coating because fabric surface is not flat.
3. Laminating membranes to the outer textile. A membrane is laminated to the
underside of the fabric (ePTFE in the cases of Gore-Tex and eVENT and hydrophilic
polyester by Sympatex),
Laminate
Air Gap
Fabric

Image 2.3 is a cross section of a membrane applied to the inner side (the upper side here) of the
textile face fabric. Further plies can be added to create 2-, 2.5-, or 3-ply fabric for best results.
4. Directional wicking fabrics. Not merely an outer shell as those above, but a multi-
layered system based wholly on directional wicking fabrics and launched in 1999.
Páramo of the UK, using Nikwax fabrics (companies with common ownership), is
more or less alone here. As yet, there are no successful copiers of this technology

24
 in totality but there are two small UK licensees of Páramo, Cioch and Hilltrek. Other
manufacturers produce directional base and mid layers but promote them poorly
and sometimes don’t even refer to them in this way. Good examples are Powerdry
and Powerstretch by Polartec.
Mike P: “When using waterproof shell garments, those who understand DIRECTIONAL
can achieve better drier days, as indeed I have done for years.”
See our complete history of waterproofs on our website from the 1840s: https://www.
outdoorgearcoach.co.uk/tools-resources/waterproof-jacket-evolution-part-1/
Each has its own advantages and disadvantages, positives and negatives, fans and
detractors. Results differ according to the type of activity, terrain and season. These are the
source of much confusion and debate in forums. Our on-the-hill observations are that people
using a Páramo directional wicking system achieve very good results as long as all layers
used are directional. The uncoated or non-membrane outer jacket of the Páramo outer has
an integrated liner, which is directional, but is called a “pump” liner in consumer speak. It is
very effective but much heavier than coated or laminate outer jackets.

More about these four types

1. Wax proofing (impregnation). Unlike a coating or membrane, which is attached to
the fabric surface, wax proofing is strictly speaking an impregnation, because the
fibres absorb the wax. This is the oldest waterproofing process of all, probably used
for several thousand years, oiled silk having been used for garments and umbrellas
in China from ancient times. These were vegetable oils, of course and, as such, were
sticky. A new type of wax appeared in the late 1800s that was produced from oil
and called mineral wax. This opened up several new businesses in waxed clothing,
including Helly Hansen and Barbour. Burberry used a slightly different process. Their
yarn was dyed and then wax proofed before it was woven. This created a less waxy
feel but a very effective garment. The wax prevents too much absorption of water by
cotton fibres, yet the effectiveness of a cotton fabric to be waterproof is when the
fibres absorb water and expand in thickness, so shortening the length and closing
the gaps between the warp and weft fibres, hence increasing resistance to further
penetration. These sorts of fabrics are not sold on their technical performance in
terms of HH or MVTR. An example right now is Fjallraven G1000, where a polyester/
cotton mix is proofed with a mixture of beeswax and mineral wax and also Barbour
country wear.
This is of course the method used for proofing cotton tents and a DWR finish is
often added.
2. Fabric coating is a process like painting a wall but applied by machines/rollers. The
compounds are solvent-based and are spread over the fabric between rollers. The
solvent is then evaporated (see emerging technology box).
This process was invented in the 1840s by MacIntosh in Manchester UK, using a
rubber coating. Hydrophilic PU was invented in the late 1970s in the UK with Ministry
of Defence funding (In parallel with the discovery of ePTFE by WL Gore) and enables
the fabric/garment to transmit the user’s sweat to the outside, the word “breathable”
being used, though there is no air permeability. Coatings for outdoor garments made
from synthetic polymers are usually made from hydrophilic PU (polyurethane) and are
usually lower in cost, HH and MVTR. But they are usually more flexible and stretchy,
and getting steadily closer to laminates. It is difficult to control exact thickness with a
coating and even more difficult to make a microporous version, so that’s very rare.

25
 Coated fabrics are not usually combined as laminates with multiple plies but Pertex
Shield is an exception with 3-, 2.5- and 2-ply versions. The function of the inner plies
is both to provide protection for the coating or membrane itself and also to absorb
condensation slightly, making it more comfortable to touch and giving the coating or
membrane more time to enable the moisture to pass through to the outside.
3. Laminating is a process of combining sheets or plies of different materials together
to form a higher-performing composite. An example is the laminated car wind-
screen that doesn’t disintegrate as plain glass would. Plywoods are stronger than
pure wood and have a choice of outer surface: plastic, hardwood etc.
Most garment laminates combine the outer woven face fabric with an inner
membrane to other light fabrics on the inner surface for comfort and condensation
absorption. Hence 3-ply, 2,5- and 2-ply laminates.

So what’s a membrane?
A membrane is a microporous selective barrier
which can filter out some things and not others,
depending on the pore size of the membrane. See
Image 2.4. In the case of ePFTE membranes, they allow
water vapour to pass outwards but do not allow larger
raindrops to penetrate inwards.
An ePTFE laminate is a thin, extruded microporous
membrane that is then laminated to the fabric, (with
dots of adhesive instead of a total cover so as not to
cover the micropores). This is usually more durable,
enables higher MVTR ratings, has better performance
(and higher cost) than a coating, but is a little stiffer and Image 2.4: A microporous (filtering)
with less stretch. membrane (OGC)

Quick overview of comparative breathability and waterproof ratings

• ePTFE laminates Gore-Tex and eVENT exceed 25,000 HH and breathability less
than 6 RET.
• Coated fabrics and solid non-microporous membranes do not usually reach
these levels of HH or RET and are often less durable.
• Directional fabrics cannot have an HH but have a good MVTR. But the numbers
are not offered by Páramo/Nikwax or others.
• Wax fabrics don’t usually have a quoted MVTR or HH rating, and when they do
condense, tend to remain somewhat comfortable, especially for legwear.
Quick on-the-hill observation of people not enjoying best results.
• Users of the Páramo directional system can be disappointed, largely we think
because they are not using directional wicking garments under the outer and
or washing and reproofing is not being done. This is an issue with all types of
outerwear.
• Users of coated or laminated outer jackets are also sometimes disappointed,
often because they assume their outer jacket does everything. It doesn’t. Use of
directional wicking layers and avoiding cotton shirts and polycotton pants under
waterproofs is all part of layering know-how.

26
 The first polyester laminate/membrane was invented in 1986 by Akzo Nobel using the
Sympatex brand name. (It is now owned exclusively by the fabric processor and Munich
based.) This is not microporous and relies on its hydrophilic nature to transmit sweat
outwards. Laminated to a polyester face fabric, and without a PFC DWR finish, it meets new
standards of sustainability because the whole garment is recyclable. (Except for the zips and
pullers, of course!)
The DWR (durable water repellent)
finish is common to the outer surface of all
four types of waterproof fabrics (and almost
all outer garments, whether windshells,
insulated or down, also have this).
This finish causes water landing on it
to form rounded beads (see Image 2.5).
Beading is important because it’s the first
line of defence against rain to ensure water
forms beads on outer surfaces, so that it
covers the surface only partially, and does
not soak in (wet out). All, yes all, waterproof Image 2.5: Beading (iStock)
and water-repellent garments and footwear
have a surface treatment to create this beading effect. This is not only the first line of defence
against ingress of rainwater but also ensures that the breathability (known as MVTR) of your
garment is maintained.
If the fabric does wet out, that will prevent your sweat from escaping, however “breath-
able” the garment is meant to be. This wetting out may be because either the DWR finish
has worn away or the surface of your jacket has become contaminated or soiled (think
greasy hands, suntan cream, sandwiches, dusty wardrobes, mud, gritty rock, sweets and
seawater). This is why it is so important to keep your waterproofs clean and reproofed.
Not only that, the contamination may reach the laminate or coating underneath, resulting
in leakage into your jacket. The surface finish that creates both this beading and contamina-
tion and soiling-resistant property is called DWR – durable water repellency.
All currently known DWR textile technologies, which are really effective against dirt, oil
and greasy liquids, use chemicals known as fluoro-resins or more commonly, PFCs. PFCs
are harmful to us and to all other animals and are in the process of being banned. (Some 90
per cent of their use is for food packaging, home furnishings, car seating and a broad range
of industry uses.) It is obviously good news that they are to be taken out of the environment
but there are consequences that we need to understand. The alternative DWR finishes are
less effective and have a shorter life so your aftercare will need to be more frequent, even
monthly in some cases.

Waterproofing measures for fabric.

The “waterproof” claim is always backed up by a measure, representing the downward
pressure created by the height of a given column of water, for example 25,000mm, usually
stated as the hydrostatic head, HH for short. (In reality, measuring waterproofness of fabrics
in the laboratory is impossible with a water column 25m high, so the test machines create a
pressure by a hydraulic pump which is calibrated to the mythical column of water.) A 15cm
square of fabric is clamped over a small enclosed trough of water, the pump switched on
and when a bubble of water appears through the fabric, the HH reading is on the scale (see
Image 2.6 overleaf).

27
 Test measures are essentially designed
for and used by the textile manufacturer for
quality-control purposes, ensuring consist-
ency of performance within each batch and
between subsequent ones. So how relevant
in this case is HH?
It measures the fabric only and not the
garment performance – see below. It meas-
ures only the HH at the first appearance of
the bubble, not how long it takes for that to
happen. It measures new fabric, of course,
and not used fabric. High HH measures
mean also greater length of life potentially. Image 2.6: Hydrostatic Head Machine (Berghaus)
But the key factor is that it’s not a measure of the waterproofness of your garment, which
depends on many other things.
See this outdoor-gear video from USA based Prolite about HH testing and its meaningful-
ness or otherwise. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1DByNml8hNA
Fabrics are considered “technically” waterproof when they have a minimum of only 1m HH.
So this very high figure for garment fabrics is greater than needed to be simply waterproof,
to allow for degradation in use over time. Elbows, knees and shoulders go through a huge
amount of flexing and abrasion. However, the weakest point of a garment is usually the taping
over the seams (because of delamination, see chapter 2.4 Repair, reuse and recycle) and
this taped area of the garment is also tested, especially where the tape crosses over itself.
The waterproofing laminate or coatings also need protection from contamination to
prevent water from penetrating and so-called second-generation Gore-Tex, from approxi-
mately 1982, had this. Only several years later was it revealed to be a hydrophilic PU. At this
point Gore-Tex ceased to be air permeable. Rivals eVENT exploited this when they launched
in 1998, calling their ePTFE membrane “direct venting”. EVENT also had an anti-contamina-
tion treatment, referred to as “oleophobic” but its nature has never been revealed. Paradoxi-
cally, the MVTR measures of the competitive membranes are similar for the same weights
and thicknesses of fabric and membrane.

Waterproof testing for the garment itself

Gore-Tex garments using ePTFE fabrics were introduced in the late 1970s. Controlling
the processes of fabric choice, lamination, consistency and dependability took around a
decade. Towards the end of the 80s, what was happening was that the construction was
very variable, producing mixed results in terms of waterproofing because of widely differing
garment-construction methods. WL Gore therefore took the bold move of introducing new
test methods which included a water tower in which the water was sprayed horizontally onto
a rotating jacket. See Image 2.7 Gore-Tex garment manufacturers had to make dramatic
improvements in construction in order to pass this test. Once this was complete, WL Gore
introduced their “guaranteed to keep you dry” promise. This was accompanied by some
considerable emphasis on the garment layers which should be used underneath the outer
shell and in combination. But this emphasis seems to have faded away and users are less
conscious today than in 1990 of the fact that your waterproof breathable garment is only as
good as the layers you use underneath.

28
Image 2.7: Gtex rainroom (WL Gore Inc)
Image 2.7 (courtesy WL Gore Inc) shows rain testing both vertically and horizontally,
with the garment rotating through 360°.

Waterproof garments regulations for UK-based mountain events

In UK events, such as KIMM/OMM/LAMM/ mountain marathons, and events run under the
UK’s FRA (Fell Runners Association) rules and in all “Ultra” and “Sky” long-distance events, the
regulation is that jacket and pants must have taped seams. This helps the event kit checkers to
recognise a taped seam on the garment quickly and give approval. (The kit checkers’ dilemma
is Páramo, which is not taped, of course; and Salomon introduced a very highly breathable
running jacket some three years ago with some welded seams plus partial taping.)
The response to the ruling from some runners is to say: “What’s the point? I’m going
to get wet anyway.” The reply? Of itself, the wetness doesn’t matter, provided there is not a
steady flow of water through the garments that will leach heat out of your body. Body energy
and heat is of course being fuelled by food and if or when this has been consumed, and/or
there is an injury causing stoppage or delay, or even, dare we say it, some navigation error,
that’s when a serious problem can arise.
Breathability is strongly associated with whether a garment layer gets rid of your sweat
output. Chuck K, our USA editor, says: “When I talk about this in-store I often use the phrase:
‘The water does not always make it out of your layers.’ When I say that, it takes people by
surprise. But it also explains their experience to some extent. They read the ads, which do
not match their experience, so something must be broken or not working. Then I explain
that breathability and MVTR are useful parameters but it’s an incomplete picture. Personal
layering choices and garment adjustment skills are an important part of this.”

29
 Chris T: “Chuck’s comment reminds me of someone complaining their waterproof
wasn’t breathable enough because their base layer was wet, even though their midlayer
was dry! They wouldn’t accept that the moisture had never made it as far as the waterproof.
Expectations are high!” (Ed: “This is all part of the battle of understanding.”)
“Breathable” Is perhaps the most overused and maybe the least well-understood word.
It’s even used in the fashion world to describe almost any garment, even lingerie!
So we asked Berghaus for their technical input here.
Dan Horsham, senior textile technician at Berghaus says: “When we talk about breathability,
we refer to the ability of the insulation system to move moisture vapour through it ( Editor:
‘Which is measured as MVTR.’ ) – there is a relationship between breathability and air exchange
(air exchange can increase levels of moisture vapour transmission and therefore breathability).
However, the material does not need to have air exchange for it to be breathable.”
(Note: We cover air exchange or air permeability, and other words used for the same
concept, further below in section 3.)
But breathability seems to be used in a very vague way, so that almost every kind of
garment produced today is labelled breathable.
Many people assume that breathable means that air can pass through the fabric but, as
we can see from Dan’s comments above, this is true in some cases, not others. Paradoxi-
cally, the MVTR rating can be the same for fabrics that do and do not allow air to pass. For
instance, Gore-Tex does not allow direct passage of air but eVENT does, but the MVTR is the
same for each equivalent weight/type. The lack (in the case of Gore-Tex) or presence (in the
case of eVENT) of air permeability presents advantages and disadvantages for both these
ePTFE-based waterproofs. For example, a climber belaying a partner on a winter stance
will feel warmer in Gore-Tex because of the complete lack of wind penetration. For warmer
conditions, the air permeability of eVENT enables some evaporative cooling to take place,
particularly when helped by wind.
Chris T: “I think of eVENT as being more breathable!”
Mike P: “It isn’t by MVTR measurements, of course, but its air permeability means that
wind removes heat because of its evaporative cooling effect.”
Marian P: “I prefer Gore-Tex for winter and eVENT for summer.”

How breathable coated and or laminated fabrics work

There are two different mechanisms (sometimes combined together), which transmit
moisture vapour (we are talking about your sweat here) through fabrics.
• Physical: Microporous laminations made of ePTFE have pores that are so small that
liquid water cannot go through from the outside, especially when there is a DWR
finish on the outer fabric, causing beading. However, water vapour molecules are
many times smaller than the liquid state and can pass through these micropores.
• Chemical: Hydrophilic (water loving) laminates or coatings move moisture by chemi-
cal diffusion, which allows the water through the intra-molecular gaps of the PU.

Here are the three key points of the battle of understanding

When doing talks and workshops, we are sometimes asked: “Is this breathability a
marketing con?” A quick response is: “Maybe you should try one of the old pre-Gore-Tex,

30
non-hydrophilic PU-coated garments. But it’s also about overexpectation, which is why we
talk about the battle of understanding.”
The longer technical answer is:
• There is probably no waterproof/breathable fabric that can release all of the mois-
ture that you are sweating out when exercising at your maximum.
• Poor garment cleaning and maintenance causes the outer to wet out, lowering
breathability.
• Weather: External weather conditions play a big role. Both of the two sweat-release
mechanisms above depend on temperature, pressure and humidity differences
between inside your layers and the outside. Moisture vapour is just like water,
(which always flows downhill, not uphill). So there must always be a higher tem-
perature, humidity, and air pressure inside your garments compared with outside if
your sweat is to move outwards.
• But sometimes there simply isn’t enough difference as the weather gets increas-
ingly warm and humid.

About the measures of breathability

Test measures are designed for and used by the textile manufacturer for quality-control
purposes, ensuring consistency of performance within each batch and between subsequent
ones. However, using these numbers for consumer marketing comparisons is sometimes a
problem, because there are three different measures and they have differing climatic (wind
speed and temperature) assumptions.
The most frequent measure is known as the moisture vapour transmission rate or MVTR
for short, and there are two different test methods, giving a value for the amount of water
transmitted over 24 hours.
The third measure is “RET” which measures water vapour transmitted as a numerical
scale, 1 to 30+ representing user comfort. The lower the number the better. Numbers within
a six-digit bracket, for example RET 1-6, are not distinguishable to testers, only to machines.
Most of the better higher-priced waterproof fabrics and garments made from laminates are
in the range RET 1-6. Coated fabrics have higher numbers, meaning lower performance.

The implications of fabric weight and thickness for breathability of water-

proof garments
The hydrostatic head and MVTR of a fabric usually vary according to the thickness
and weight of the fabric laminate. So, when choosing a garment with a laminated ePTFE
membrane, which means only Gore-Tex and eVENT, there is a choice of 2 performance levels.
The thicker/heavier (and therefore more durable) the fabric, the higher the hydrostatic
head and the lower the MVTR. Heavier-weight fabrics are best suited for continuous (profes-
sional) use. Brand names are Gore-Tex Pro and eVENT Expedition.
The thinner or lighter (and therefore less durable) the fabric, the lower the hydrostatic
head and the higher the MVTR. These are best suited for mountain athletes doing high-
energy-level or high-sweat-rate activities and certainly for lightweight backpacking. Brand
names are Gore-Tex Active and eVENT Storm.
Gore Std and eVENT Alpine fall in between these upper and lower levels.

31
Summary
Fabric HH in ,ooo/mm Mvtr or RET Windproofing/ Air
permeability
Gore-Tex Pro 28 <6 Zero
Gore-Tex Std ? ? Zero
Gore-Tex Active 18 <3 Zero
eVENT Expedition 30 10 0.06
eVENT Alpine 20 20 0.1
eVENt Storm 10 30 0.2
Polartec Neoshell 10 Claimed 5 x more 0.5 cfm or quote
than leading brand “Blocks 99 per cent
of wind”
Pertex Shield 10

2 Moisture management. Inwards and outwards

Key point: Before you even start sweating, insensible perspiration from your body
happens 24/7.
• Moisture moves outwards in two ways:
• Wicking or capillary flow from skin outwards. But where to then?
• Your microclimate inside your layers means that moisture vapour moves out as long as
there is a higher temperature, humidity and pressure inside your layers than outside.

Emerging technologies
An emerging technology is a new development that will take time to be well understood
by the market as it establishes its place, regarding the balance of positive and negative
characteristics and of course the performance consistency, batch by production batch,
season in, season out. Emerging technologies are sometimes low profile but sometimes
overhyped. Early adopter types often buy these because they are willing to experiment
and want to be seen with the latest thing. We need them!
Coatings and laminates are mature technologies that are subject to regular incremental
improvement. For the first time in decades an entirely new coating process emerged in
2011 called “electrospinning”, which was first used on knitted fleece by Polartec, and
later on hard-shell waterproofs that they called Neoshell.
Neoshell has a far higher MVTR but lower HH and had some bumps/variability in
process control as far as HH is concerned, which are maybe now sorted out (2018).
DWR alternatives: WL Gore and Patagonia, to name just two companies, are spending
millions of dollars on research and development and new plant installations to solve
the problem of DWR finish materials (PFCs) being banned. Look out for the very light
Gore-tex Shakedry for running and cycling, where the outer fabric is removed, exposing
the ePTFE membrane and eliminating PFCs and also Columbia OutDry has an external
coating or laminate.

32
Wicking or capillary action
Wicking is the everyday word for capil-
lary flow or action, which is cross-related to
beading produced by DWR finishes. Wicking
does not occur by absorption into the fibre,
but by capillary flow along the fibre surface
and the adjoining fibres. Wicking is a very
important function not only of base layers but
also mid and outer layers, to try to ensure that
water is moved outwards.
Why? Is it simply because your base layer
feels wet? No, water conducts heat away 24
times faster than the air in your base layer so Image 2.8: Capillary action, usually known as
getting rid of it is vital. But the second reason wicking (OGC)
is to prevent evaporation of sweat directly from your skin, which causes cooling. Evolution gave
us this big advantage and humans and horses are among the very few mammals to have it.
Some base fabrics make claims about being cooler but the difference is marginal. The best way
to cool off is simply to roll up your sleeves, fully open your neck zip (if you have one) and expose
as much skin as possible, including taking your hat and gloves off if you are wearing them.
Surface tension is a key factor in wicking but in the opposite way to a DWR finish on outer-
wear. The most frequently used base layer fibres, polyester and polypropylene, are completely
hydrophobic (water hating), which means that the surface has to be specially treated so that it
will not allow beading and will easily “wet out”, thus allowing water to move along the surface.
Wicking is not about absorption into the fibre but movement along the surface. The use of very
fine microfibres enhances this when they are spun together and capillary action works best
between the fibres as if it is in a narrow tube. See diagram.

Membranes: Emerging onto the market through 2020/21/22 is a new membrane

called Intrepid, which is made from polypropylene and manufactured in Taiwan https://
www.trenchanttextiles.com/fabrics-1/ Possibilities for Trenchant include higher MVTR
values without loss of waterproofing in HH terms, a higher proportion of recyclable
materials (PTFE is not readily recyclable) and lighter fabrics.
Nanofibres are much thinner still than microfibres. Until now, nanofibres have been
too expensive to produce commercially. TNF launched a waterproof jacket made from
nanofibres at the ISPO Munich trade fair in January 2019. This is unusual for several
reasons, one being that garment brands don’t usually lead textile innovation. But
sometimes the textile people themselves look for a lead garment maker bold enough to
start the expensive process of launching world-wide. TNF is part of VF Corporation, a
publicly quoted company.
Sustainability issues: Textile processes are frankly very dirty when measured in terms
of emissions (think C02 and its effect on the climate), and effluents (think dirty and or
dangerous chemicals going into rivers and the water table). Several brands have gone
the extra mile, including Berghaus with its Madekind range, which eliminates some of
the wet-dyeing processes and dyes the fibres as they are extruded (extrusion dyed).
Non-solvent-based coatings (ie water-based) are starting to be used, avoiding venting
solvents to the atmosphere or the cost of recycling them.

33
 Nylon fibres also enable wicking but, as they absorb a little water, they are used less
often. Wool does not enable wicking, the surface remaining dry (and keeping us comfort-
able) but absorbs water within the fibre, just like cotton. See later note on wool.
Wicking performance is sometimes enhanced by fibre extruders making a U-shaped
configuration to increase surface area, but the improvements are marginal. However the
37.5 fibre (formerly Cocona) has noticeable gains in speed of wicking because the carbon
particles increase the surface area very considerably, it is claimed by 800 per cent.
An example in a base layer is Rab, Merino+. (Formerly called ‘Meco’.)
There are essentially two types of construction of knitted synthetic base layer fabric.
The simple or basic kind will wick in both directions, inwards as well as outwards. Ask a
friend if they realise that and there will always be a surprised reaction.
The second type of fabric is directional.
The two different sides of the fabric look different – the water is wicked outwards, and,
as it goes into the outer surface, it spreads horizontally, covering a larger area and enabling
faster evaporation either to the atmosphere if you have no over garment, or into your next
layers. (With Páramo garments, all layers work entirely on the directional wicking principle.
There are no coatings or laminates but it’s critical to wash and reproof frequently.)
Merino wool is very often used for base layers. But it does not wick; instead it absorbs
60 per cent of its own weight in water. However, the garment still feels good because the
outer surface of the wool remains dry. It is often claimed that it is naturally antibacterial, but
that is not correct. Wool just takes more time for the bacteria to build up because of the dry
surface. Because wool lacks wicking capability (it can’t possibly wick because it retains a
dry surface), it is often mixed with polyester (which will be used on the outside surface of the
garment). This combination serves to reduce the overall cost as well as improving function.
Wicking is not dependent on PFC compounds, as is beading, so base layer wicking is not
impaired by PFC removal.

3. Warmth: Remember garments don’t provide heat; you and your food do
Garments reduce the heat losses that occur by convection (think wind and windproofing),
conduction, (think sweat trapped in your layers, whatever you touch sit, stand or lie on) and
perspiration (which includes breathing) and evaporative cooling. Radiation can occur too,
but is relatively unimportant as a heat loss but quite important as a source of heat at -10°C
on a glacier with no wind and strong sunshine.)
Part 2, a later publication in our series, gives in-depth information about the five mecha-
nisms of heat loss or gain: Evaporation, conduction, convection, radiation, and respiration.)
Windproof. Like waterproof, this is not an absolute term and has become used in an
increasingly ambiguous way and the measures of windproofing, cubic feet of air per minute
(CFM) are rarely quoted. This term is strongly cross-related to air permeability. However,
many brand-marketing words have been created to describe this feature in garments, which
can be confusing. See our windproof scale of #1 - #5; and methods to self-test in-store.
Measures of windproofing: As manufacturers rarely quote the CFM rating of garments,
we introduce our new “test it yourself” rating system: #1 100% windproof, #2 highly wind-
proof, #3 moderately windproof, # 4 wind permeable, #5 no wind resistance.
Windproofing of outer shells: Waterproof, down and synthetic insulated garments.
Loss of heat by convection caused by wind is considerable. Insulating materials such as

34
Image 2.9 and 2.9a Double benefits of Directional Wicking Fabrics, (OGC)

down and non-woven synthetic filling (such as Primaloft and Thinsulate) have little or no
wind resistance themselves; that must be provided by a tightly woven, windproof face or the
outer fabric and the inner liner as well, if it exists.
However, down and many synthetic fillings have a habit of leaking out through the inter-
stices of the fabric, so that the fabric has to be extremely tightly woven and calendared
(meaning hot rollered to help close gaps between the fibres). The CFM of these types of
fabrics is always less than 1 CFM.

35
 But knitted insulation materials (such as Polartec Alpha and Alpha Direct, and pile) do
not leak in this way. Like down, they have no wind resistance of themselves, but they do not
migrate or leak. So the designer has broad options of the windproof levels of face fabric to
use. Polartec Alpha usually has an inner and outer face fabric, (so it’s sandwiched between
two layers) but the sequel, Alpha Direct is unlined, and thus lower in cost. Initially Polartec
specified garments using Alpha had to use face fabrics of less than 1 CFM. Subsequently
this standard was removed and so garments of this period do vary. That means there are
garments in use, all using Alpha, that vary a lot in wind resistance.

The OutdoorGearCoach/KDSW windproof rating table

We have created new windproof descriptions as our contribution to making garments
more understandable. Each of five levels has our estimated CFM, wind mph and Beau-
fort scale measures. Beaufort is still quoted daily on the 6am BBC shipping forecast. It
is the original mariners’ visual scale, using observations of tree and sea movements,
and needs no instruments, so it is useful at times)
#1 100 per cent windproof = zero CFM
#2 Highly windproof = less than 1 CFM
#3 Moderately windproof = 2-8 CFM
#4 Wind permeable = 9-40 CFM
#5 No wind resistance

Fabric or garment type KDSW CFM CFM as The visual

Windproof measure estimated Beaufort
rating wind resist- scale
ance in mph
Gore-tex™ and all PU #1 “100% zero N/A N/A
coated waterproofs windproof”
eVENT: all types #2 “Highly Less than 1 50 mph Beaufort 9
Polartec Neoshell windproof” CFM (strong gale)
Polartec Powershield
Pertex Quantum (eg Rab
Alpha jacket)
Gore Windstopper
Pertex Equilibrium such #3 2-8 CFM 12-18 mph Beaufort 4
as Rab Vapour Rise “Moderately (moderate
jacket 5 CFM windproof” breeze)
Patagonia Nano air, #4 “Wind 9-40 CFM 5-10 mph Beaufort 2
Berghaus Hydroloft. Use permeable” (light breeze)
as mid layers or running
layers, if little wind.
Fleece (unless lami- #5 No wind
nated) and base layers resistance

36
How to measure or judge windproofing when
it’s not quoted on the garment?
Simply pull the fabric around your mouth,
(H&S: take care to use a tissue or cloth to
clean lips if you are in a retail store) and BLOW!
Compare using known garments as bench-
mark. Our benchmarks are:
A polybag = zero.
Pertex Microlight (now known as Pertex
Quantum)
Image 2.10: (iStock)
= less than 1 CFM.
Pertex Equilibrium fabric
(as used in Rab Vapour Rise jacket). 5 CFM.
Berghaus Hydroloft jacket. 20 CFM.
Patagonia Nano Air jacket. 40 CFM.

Windproofing v air permeability – is there a difference?

The difference is simply how we experience it. But it’s the same fabric we are using or
talking about and essentially the same test measures, which relate to windproofing. When
we think about air permeability we think about how well the fabric or garment ventilates itself
and helps our comfort. When we think of windproofing, we tend to think of how well we are
protected from the cold winds which are stripping away the warm air from inside our garments.
This measure is the CFM rating of the amount of air in cubic feet per minute which will
pass through the fabric. (Some brands use metric ratings which are not convertible because
of a different test methodology.)
What this means is that a “moderately windproof” fabric will also be moderately air
permeable to the user. You can’t have one without the other, but how the user expresses that
is another thing.
In practical terms, there is no effective difference between windproofing and air perme-
ability in single-ply woven fabrics, (that is fabrics without a coating or a membrane such as
used on windshells, and insulated or down garments).
Air permeability is a very slow movement outwards, but inward wind velocities can be
very high. A fabric that has low air permeability has high wind resistance, a fabric with high
permeability has low wind resistance.
Air permeability and new marketing words. The first use of a new term was by eVENT
when they launched in 1999 and referred to their waterproof breathable fabric as “direct
venting”. There are now several manufacturers who have each created their own word(s)
including “dynamic air exchange”, “air exchange”, “air interchange” and “active insulation”
but they are all non-waterproof garments. (Looking back, Burberry was using the expres-
sion self-ventilating in the 1890s). These words are marketing attempts to try to explain user
comfort or how well a fabric allows warm and often moisture-laden air to escape outwards.
The breathability measures of MVTR moisture vapour transmission don’t work here and so
are not used in this context. What is measured (but not quoted very often) is the wind resist-
ance measured as CFM, as already noted.

37
 What has caused the big increase in the introduction of these words since 2014 is the
growth in new types of non-woven insulation fillings (fillings are so called because they
fill spaces between the essential inner and outer fabrics. They are sometimes known as
waddings) and also knitted fabrics, which sometimes have both outer and inner fabrics to
the garment (eg Polartec Alpha) or only an outer face fabric (eg Polartec Alpha Direct). These
new fillings do not need a so-called downproof fabric around them to prevent leakage of
fibres through the fabric interstices. Many brands now have garments using this new tech-
nology. Designers now have a wide choice of the type of woven fabric they use, which have
a variety of performance levels, when measured by wind resistance in terms of the amount
of air they allowed to pass through in CFM. Formerly all insulated garments had to be made
with a fabric of much less than 1.0 CFM. So now many jackets are appearing in the shops
that which look like outerwear but are in effect mid layers because of the low level of wind
resistance. Windproofing can be as low as 40 CFM, which as a comparison with fleece fabric
(without any lamination or face fabric) might be greater than 60 CFM.
Chris T comments: “There’s no clear-cut distinction between softshell and fleece any
more (if there ever was).Some garments are obviously one or the other, of course, but
overall I think it’s more useful to think of both as mid layers that add warmth but that need
to be worn under a shell in really wet or stormy weather. When choosing a garment, what
it’s called is unimportant. The question to ask is: ‘Where does it fit in my layering system?’”
Mike P: “And to decide that is becoming increasingly complex to understand.”
Mike P: “A good point you make, Chris, about its name being unimportant. However,
what it looks like is very important because some next-generation garments look like outer
jackets but are in essence mid layers. This could lead to confusion or some rather cold
people.”
Andy Kirkpatrick also described it in an interesting way when talking about softshell (as
which these garments may or may not be identified). He states in his own inimitable style
that “it’s the way the user uses it which determines whether it’s a softshell”.

Why warm garments don’t have ratings like bed quilts

Maybe strangely, there is no measure of warmth for outdoor garments, unlike bed quilts,
which are measured in TOG and “R” values that are used for sleeping mats. This is mainly
because a garment is much more complex than a bed quilt. A great deal of warmth is lost
through the garment openings as you move. So, if you are comparing two warm garments
of the same construction and filling weight, then deciding which is the warmer depends on
the fit and adjustability at the cuffs, neck, hood and lower hem to avoid loss of warm air.
Also remember that overheating often precedes getting cold so ventilation through cuffs and
hoods is important. Remaining cool is important even in warm garments and not merely in
light summer ones.
Warmth usually equates to thickness because that means more air, the best insulator.
As an example, knitted fleece garments by Polartec have three nominal weights, 100, 200
and 300. The higher the number, the thicker the fleece. These are usually used as a mid layer
when conditions are cold, windy or wet. Fleece garments were an innovation of the outdoor
industry in the early 1980s to replace heavier wool and enable a wider range of garment
features such as pockets, zips, collars and cuffs.
But there is a limit as to how thick you can make a fleece jacket because it becomes too
heavy or too bulky. So the next step or layer is an insulated jacket. What the outdoor industry

38
designers and textile manufacturers excel at is providing garments that have not only a high
warmth-to-weight ratio, yet are highly compressible, (squeezing the air out) and able to
recover quickly from this compression, allowing the vital insulating air back in again.
Low weight and bulk are important to ensure that you have room enough in your pack at
the outset or to be carried when you have stripped to your base layer.
Mike P says: “As the English Lake District fills with less-experienced walkers during
popular holiday periods, we see many with either too small a pack or too bulky a jacket,
resulting in wearing garments wrapped around the waist. Or departing without adequate
warm layers for the temperature changes high up the mountain.”
Jackets filled with synthetic or down insulation have a much higher warmth/weight ratio
than fleece, down being the highest, while synthetic fillings are currently in a constant state of
innovation, becoming technically more like down, and even using down the fill power ratings
as equivalent. For example the current (2019) best performing synthetic is equivalent to 600
fill power, which is lower end of down performance, the highest usually being 900.

Finally, here is our KD&SW complete overview of the battle of understanding

1. First of all, there is no waterproof/breathable fabric that can release all of the moisture
that you are sweating out when exercising at your maximum. Of course, even when
not using a waterproof outer garment your layers can become damp.
2. Moisture vapour moves from high pressure to low pressure. So there must always
be differential of temperature, air pressure and relative humidity between the inside
of your garments and the outside atmosphere to enable moisture vapour to move
outwards. When there is a wind that means lower pressure outside than inside your
garment (still air) and it works. If there is no wind then no fabric brand or garment
system is likely to work or will be much less effective. If the air outside is very humid,
similar to inside, then it won’t flow outwards.
3. Beading and wicking/capillary action are vital parts of KD&SW so care needs to be
taken not only in garment selection but in after care.
4. Dew point is rather more technical. We are all aware of dew forming on grass or
rocks. The same phenomenon applies in our layering systems. Dew point is the tem-
perature at which the air is 100 per cent humid, totally water-laden. When air is cooled
to dew point, or the air touches a nearby cooler surface it will drop out as condensa-
tion. This cooler surface could be the inside of your jacket or bivi bag or tent.
5. High-performance garments are good but they still don’t think for you. Personal layer-
ing techniques and skills are most important. We explain the basics in chapter 3.
6. Breathability and windproofing, finally, are all about personal comfort and what is
comfort to one person might be a nightmare to another. Each one of us is a unique
individual, after all.

Help? Guidance on asking for or giving advice

At this point you may be either in need of help or asking for guidance or ready to help others
or even be ready to buy. Here are our hints on this.
• Outdoor garments have become so highly specialised to end usage that getting the
wrong one is too easy.
• If asking for advice about a specific type of garment, always clarify what activity you
are doing, and what season, and where.

39
 • Give some idea of speed or exertion level. Try to advise what other layers it will be
used with, under and over,
• If giving advice, saying, “I use this brand ‘X’ garment,” isn’t necessarily helpful
because the person receiving the advice will probably not know the garment speci-
fication, and because there are sometimes several different versions of the garment
under the same name. Try to give some indicators of the materials and how, where
and in which season you use it.
• Buying? Buying online is very convenient, especially if you simply want a good-
looking garment rather than a specific functional layer. However its better to go into
the store to get your choice really right. It’s not simply that sizes vary so much but
checking overlayering is vital. This means how easily one layer slides over the other,
which makes your movements easier. Layers that slide on easily are likely to become
your favorite go-to garment.
• A check of magazine comparative garment tests can be very useful indeed and worth
the cost of a few pounds, dollars or Euros.
• We suggest you arrive at the store with your other intended layers.
• For a serious purchase, you might, if you are a really careful techie, take:
–– an eye dropper (Boots UK sell them for £2) with some water in it to check whether
base layers are basic or directional.
–– A lightweight digital weighing scale. The garment might be perfect in all ways but,
if you are backpacking, alpine climbing, hut-to-hutting or ski touring, then weight
and bulk is the crunch deciding factor. Most hang tags don’t quote weight, which
is on their website but that is not necessarily easily accessible when you’re in the
store.
–– Lips must be clean and dry to ensure that, when you do our blow test to check
windproofing, you don’t soil the retailer’s garment.
–– Go armed maybe, with a copy of this book and a print out of our KD&SW generic
garment description and talk to your retailer.

Emerging technologies:
Synthetic insulation fillings (non-woven fabrics that are referred to as batting or
waddings) for warm garments are maybe the area of highest innovation activity in the
period 2017/18/19. The quest to improve the insulation ratings of synthetics to bring it
closer and closer to down means that they are becoming closer in looks and function.
Waddings are always linear sheets of material but the innovations are making the material
as small “pods”.
These can be blown into the garment compartments baffles, using the same equip-
ment as used for down.
Look out for Plumafill by Patagonia which, instead of being in pods, is a continuous
strand inserted into a new discontinuous quilting construction, which prevents the insula-
tion from shifting around,
Aerogel. This material is produced by removing the air from a gel by a special process.
So it is air and thus its thermal conductivity is the same as air. The marketing publicity is
rather overdone. It cannot be used without a sealed waterproof covering so its uses are
limited. The company Outdoor Research (OR) is using it in gloves and Elite bike bottles is
using it in plastic feeding bottles.

40
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

2.2: What drives outdoor garment innovation?

Perhaps you are taking a closer look at outdoor garments for the first time? You arrive
at the outdoor retail store, maybe as a potential customer or as a new shop sales recruit,
and you face a confusing sea of multicoloured garments and a profusion of fibre, textile, and
treatment names, and branded textile “ingredients”.
Alternatively, you could be a seasoned professional, who has seen most garment types
around between Zermatt and Chamonix, Ambleside and Kathmandu, Anchorage and Boston
and you need to be sure you are advising friends or clients correctly. There was a day when
everything was so simple, a waterproof was a waterproof, was a… but it’s rather more
complex nowadays.
A waterproof?
A softshell?
A windshell?
A down jacket?
An insulated jacket?
A fleece?
A base layer? All these are very easy to
recognise and understand. Or are they?
Are the textile brand names on the hang
tags ones you are familiar with and do they
give you confidence or make your eyes
Image 2.11: Garment choice (iStock)
glaze over?
In this chapter, we look at what drives outdoor-garment innovation.
Who are the innovators and what are their brand names – another 25 words to be added
to the 50 generic words!
What are the innovative “ingredients”, meaning the branded fibres and textiles, that are on
hang tags, websites and catalogues? How useful is it to understand their function?
We show you how to recognise the type of garment you are seeing in the sea of garments
presented in a retail store. We have analysed the key garment types in a clear and fresh way.
We take the unusual step of challenging your existing preconceptions of what each type of
garment is and is not, and how to recognise its potential uses and limitations.
This will be the next step to enhancing your ability to pick up any garment, look at the
inside and outside, and have a basic understanding of what it is or is not, and if it will perform
as you wish.
“Where does it best fit in my layers?” is the key question to ask yourself.

41
 Chuck K says: “I noticed many customers in our store were buying a garment and not
a layer. In other words, they liked the garment but didn’t know exactly, and had perhaps not
even thought about, how it would contribute to their layering system. Good for our sales,
maybe, but not if the customer is dissatisfied and brings it back. As sales people, we need
to ask very clear and positive questions of customers.”
1. What drives outdoor-garment innovation?
2. Who are the innovators?
3. The branded textile ingredients of garments.
4. Sustainability, and the names you should know that are process control checks.

1. What drives outdoor-garment innovation?

There is a seemingly endless stream of innovations in the next season’s garments.
Are they technology-driven or are they aimed to meet your needs, even your dreams?
Textile technology is the means to achieving the characteristics, of course, but unless
the product meets your needs, which includes value for money and reliability, then it will fail
in the long term.
In some chapters we have a boxed section called “emerging technologies”, which we
describe as: “New products or processes that are sometimes highly promoted, look possibly
a world beater, but may stumble then recover confidence, or might fade away and die.”
The final deciders are you as individual members of the so-called marketplace.
Here is a list of seven key characteristics that are the effective drivers and that we can
recognise as usually present, year in, year out and are potentially good improvements on
your existing gear.
1. Weight reduction. Lighter gear is important but does it have an impact on reliability
and does that matter for the activities you do? Weight reduction often goes hand-in-
hand with:
2. Reduced bulk. This is sometimes achieved by better compressibility of warm insu-
lated garments. See the many ideas emerging in the next section, 3. The innovators
and the branded ingredients from which your garments are made.
3. Insulation. Even though down comes from birds, it has continued to be improved
with better purification processes, lighter fabrics to accompany it and water repel-
lency. Synthetic wadding was first used on camping-style sleeping bags and cloth-
ing in the 60s and moved step by step into lighter and more technical products.
Down performance is measured by the space in cubic inches occupied by 1oz of
down. Much more innovation is taking place in synthetic insulation as the suppli-
ers strive to get ever closer to the fill-power (Fp) equivalent ratings of down, and
its compressibility. Synthetic filling innovation is probably currently second only to
sustainability as the driving force for research. The complexities and cost of source-
tracing down to ensure good animal care is also encouraging it, as are animal
welfare issues, also now for wool with issues about management of sheep.
4. As at 2019, synthetic is probably arriving above the 600 Fp rating mark. It’s also
getting closer physically, in becoming biomimetic by creating small pods of syn-
thetic fibres that can be blown into the garment compartments, just as down is.
This is more compressible than the usual non-woven linear or sheet insulation.
5. Improved breathability in terms of MVTR (Moisture Vapour Transmission Rate) and

42
 levels of waterproofing measured in HH (Hydrostatic Head). Usually the heavier and
stronger the fabric, the higher the HH and the lower the breathability. The opposite is
obviously true so very light waterproof garments have a higher MVTR but are more
fragile. So it’s a balancing act the fabric makers have to make, and one that you
should be aware of when choosing a waterproof.
6. Wicking (capillary action) enhancement. Claims are often made around bet-
ter wicking or faster cooling, for instance Coolmax and 37.5 (formerly known as
Cocona) as used in Rab base layers as a combination with wool This mix was
previously called MeCo, meaning merino wool and Cocona combined but was
renamed Merino+.
7. Garment construction methods, for example, improved fit by tailoring techniques
and/or elastic fibres, seam and stitch types, seam taping, seam bonding instead of
stitching. Some of these might give better water resistance but what about repair-
ability? See chapters 2.3 Garment construction methods and 2.4 RRR (repair, reuse
and recycle).
8. Sustainability has become the largest single driving force of innovation. It is most
often defined as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the abil-
ity of future generations to meet theirs”. We are moving along a pathway towards
the circular economy. It’s a long slow journey, but we are moving.
The outdoor industry often sets the standards for sustainability, and street garment
brands are starting to follow. This leadership is partly because outdoor consumers
have higher levels of concern and partly because campaign groups such as Green-
peace sometimes target high-profile outdoor company brands rather than industrial
producers of the same materials, as with DWR finishes. This has resulted in a gradual
shift away from cotton to polyester recycled from PET drink bottles. As far as brand
claims are concerned, this area is the most difficult to judge. We include comments
in many chapters about these issues. The list of brand names below includes several
new fibres and textiles that are moving in this direction, including dealing with the new
issues of microplastic pollution.
Chuck K comments: “What I see in the marketplace is lots of variation that is touted as
an innovation. The benefits are always displayed without any information about reliability, or
what it does that is not intended, or what it does not do and what was removed or eliminated
from the previous version. I also see lots of variations that are called innovations and that
make no practical difference in the field, that is, differences without distinction.”
Mike P says: “The word ‘innovation’ tends to be sprinkled around like the word ‘breatha-
bility’. Whether it is or not doesn’t matter. What counts is, does this new product meet your
needs? As a former brand owner, I think that outdoor brands put a huge effort into making
better products, and what our industry needs is discerning customers, which is what we
hope readers of this book will become.”

3. The innovators and the branded ingredients from which your garments
are made
There are many thousands of textile producers around the world whose products may go
into your garment. Only a handful actually put a brand name on their product and get close to
us outdoor people, to understand our needs, gain our trust and create a brand we can recog-
nise and understand. These key promoted brands owned by the major textile and industrial
companies number about 30, as listed below.

43
 Garment brands are usually licensed, selectively, by these well-known fabric brands to
use their fabrics and brand names. This comes with guidance for best results and maybe
some constraints on how they are used. The stronger garment brands are the preferred
launch channels for new fabric types by WL Gore, Pertex and Polartec, and are often exclu-
sive for a year or so, in exchange for the cost and effort of introducing a new product.
Examples: Malden Mills, now Polartec, partnered with Patagonia in the early 1980s
to produce a fleece that Patagonia named Synchilla. This was eventually launched to the
marketplace under Malden’s own name, Polar fleece, later becoming Polartec and the
company was renamed likewise. Recently Primaloft partnered with TNF in developing and
launching a “blown-in” type synthetic filling that TNF called Thermoball. In due course, this
was available to other garment brands under the Primaloft name. Patagonia partnered with
Toray of Japan around 2013 to produce Fullrange insulation used on the Patagonia NanoAir
jacket. This stretch insulation is now becoming available to other brands as Toray DeFX+.

Image 2.12: QuadFusion™ Mimic insulation, by Image 2.13: Haglofs E mimic jacket
Haglöfs
Haglöfs own brand, QuadFusion Mimic. These fibre balls are blown into the garment
cavities like down. These garments look almost exactly like down garments with long trans-
verse channels.
No one has attempted to list all the fabrics that have been named and therefore owned
by garment brands, as far as we know. Certainly we don’t intend to try, either. They could
amount to many hundreds. However a very small number are listed below where they were
innovative front-runners. Patagonia stands out in this respect.
If you ever wish to check who owns the brand, then do a search online and if the name
only comes up in one garment-brand website, that’s probably the owner. These products are
sometimes lower in cost than the major multinational branded textiles and can be a good
cost-effective product.
Fibre and textile brand names you should be aware of, not in order of market strength
or relevance
• 3M USA: Insulating materials, Thinsulate, from 1979, is mainly used in gloves and
Thinsulate Featherless in 2015, which is becoming used in garments. Rab were
maybe the first to introduce this and did so under their own name, Cirrus.
• Aquafil, Italy and worldwide: A nylon producer, Aquafil has recently created the first-
ever recycled nylon called Econyl, 100 per cent recycled from used fishing nets.
It is certainly a technological breakthrough and an emerging technology. Polyester
has been recycled since the 1990s.

44
• Dupont, USA: Possibly the most famous name in the world of fibres. Biodegrad-
able and plant-based fibres are their current focus. Some of these brands are now
owned by Invista, which split off from Dupont.
–– Lycra (generic name elastane) is an elastic fibre. Technically, it’s a modified
polyester, used on knitted and form-fitting cycle and running wear and increas-
ingly on wovens for outerwear.
–– Apexa is a biodegradable polyester and an eventual replacement for Lycra. This
decomposes through industrial composting without causing harm to the soil or
environment.
–– Sorona is partially bio-based (37 per cent), partially oil-based, reducing
dependency on oil. The eco story is that it uses up to 30 per cent less energy,
and reduces greenhouse gas emissions up to 63 per cent when compared with
nylon. However, it is not biodegradable.
–– Quallofil and Holofill are both polyester insulation fibres with hollow cores along
their length. They are used in non-woven fabrics as insulation in clothing and
sleeping bags.
–– Coolmax, a polyester fibre with a U-shaped cross section to enable improved
wicking. Used in base layers.
–– Tyvek and Teflon are not used in garments and Kevlar is very rare, but is
well known in climbing for runners, extenders and slings. Teflon is PTFE, the
same base polymer as used by WL Gore and eVENT, but is used for coating
kitchen utensils and non-stick pans. Gore-Tex and eVENT of course use ePTFE,
expanded to create the micropores.
• eVENT, USA: A waterproof ePTFE membrane-based fabric introduced in the late
1990s, with the strap line “direct venting”, meaning that it is air-porous.
–– WL Gore, USA: All Gore-Tex technologies are based on ePTFE membranes,
which are laminated to outer, face fabrics and sometimes inner fabrics. Hence
3-ply and 2-ply.
–– Gore-Tex: The original waterproof breathable fabric since the late 70s, now avail-
able in several types including Gore-tex Pro and Gore-tex Active.
–– Gore-TTex Infinium: Used in water-resistant and lightweight jackets, shoes, and
form-fitting gloves for easy smartphone usage.
–– Gore-Tex Windstopper: Longstanding product, seams usually not taped.
–– Gore-Tex Thermium: An outer fabric for insulated garments, where full-on total
waterproofing is not needed and weather resistance is enough.
–– Gore-Tex Shakedry: This has no outer face fabric, so the beading effect is
almost permanent and doesn’t need DWR treatment. Jackets are super-light,
extremely breathable and again, because of lack of outer face fabric, more
breathable in MVTR terms. They are used only in cycling and running garments
because it’s quite fragile.
• Lenzing, Austria: Tencel is their branded regenerated fibre. This is a fibre produced
by the third-generation production method of producing rayon, invented in the
1990s, called lyocell, and sold under the brand name Tencel. It’s a closed loop
process (meaning cleaner and less effluents). It is offered as a cotton alternative by
some outdoor brands such as Patagonia.
–– About regenerated fibres: these are produced from trees or plants and using sev-
eral different generic names: rayon, modal and lyocell with brand names overlaid.

45
 –– Rayon was invented in the 1890s and first produced commercially in the 1920s.
It is produced from plant fibres by a chemical process, and then extruded as a
fibre just like a synthetic polymer. The production process is rather dirty. Modal
was the second generation rayon, lyocell being the third. These fibres are now
usually offered as cotton alternatives, since rayon is a cellulosic fibre and is bio-
degradable. However, they absorb much more water than cotton does, limiting
their function for outdoors use.
–– Bamboo and beech. Garments offered as “bamboo” or “beech” sound rather
green and eco-friendly but are simply second-generation old-type rayon or
modal. There are no fibres in bamboo or beech that can be used for textile
production, so it’s chemically processed and extruded.
• Nikwax, UK: All Páramo garments use their own brand of Nikwax, Parameta fabrics
that don’t use any coatings or laminates. The “waterproof analogy” effect is pro-
duced by a directional wicking liner to the woven outer. (What it really means is that
the fabrics aren’t waterproof in the sense of having a measurable hydrostatic head;
however, your skin should stay dry due to the built-in outwardly-wicking effects.)
• Polartec, USA: Working with Patagonia, in the early 1980s they developed the first
fleece, which became an important part of the good-looking outdoor garment revo-
lution. Their core technology is knitting, which can be made into a garment without
additional fabrics, such as fleece, or assembled with other non-Polartec fabrics by
the garment maker. Some fabrics are coated or laminated to make them windproof
and/or waterproof.
–– Power Dry: A base layer fabric that is directional (but they don’t use this
expression).
–– Powergrid: Fibres are removed by creating channels to decrease weight, aid
compressibility and hold more air for warmth. Probably directional type wicking
as Power Dry.
–– Delta: For moisture release and keeping cool. Used for mid layers.
–– Alpha: Knitted, insulating lining for three-ply jackets but needs a woven inner
liner.
–– Alpha Direct: Same as above but can be used without an inner liner, so it’s a
lower-cost garment and maybe less windproof because of the lack of liner.
–– Polartec fleece: Their breakthrough product from 1981. Many copies.
–– Powerstretch: Most versions are directional and have added elastane.
–– Neoshell: A waterproof breathable fabric, still an emerging technology.
–– Powershield: Highly windproof because of sandwich construction.
–– Powershield Pro: This has an “electro-spun” membrane. See emerging technol-
ogy box later in chapter.
–– Windbloc: Similar to above but a lower-cost PU film laminate.
–– Power Air: The latest release, a knitted insulation fabric that “reduces microfibre
shedding”. The inside is smooth, enhancing layering capability.
• Patagonia. USA:
–– Created the first fleece jacket in 1981, calling it Synchilla. It was produced by
Malden Mills, USA, who subsequently launched other garment brands under the
brand name Polartec.

46
 –– Created Capilene in 1985, the first base layer with durable wicking capabilities.
Its name derives from its capillary action.
–– They were the first company to realise that cotton was much worse for the
environment than oil-based polymers and to take action. Shifted to 100 per cent
organic cotton by 1996, creating a trend.
–– PlumaFill, introduced in 2017, takes a different pathway from all other synthetic
fill innovations. Instead of balls of fibre, this is linear, string-like, and needs a
new type of garment quilting construction. Only time will tell if this is a better
route than fibre balls.
• Pertex: Pertex was UK owned, now Japanese, with UK-based brand management.
Famous for their very tightly woven and highly windproof fabrics, much favoured
by manufacturers of down and synthetic insulated garments. These fabrics are now
split into three different categories as below, according to the degree of windproof-
ing or air permeability and with additional waterproof breathable fabrics.
–– Pertex Quantum. The original Pertex, as used on sleeping bags, down jackets
and windshells. Level #2 “Highly windproof” – only waterproof fabrics have
a higher wind resistance. They refer to this as “stable downproof construc-
tion”, meaning it prevents down from migrating through the fabric due to being
extremely tightly woven and then calendared between hot rollers.
–– Pertex Quantum Air. Less windproof than the original Pertex, it is used for insu-
lated garments where the synthetic insulation is non-migratory.
–– Pertex Quantum Pro. A tightly woven face fabric with a very light microporous
coating. Soft enough for some sleeping bags or down jackets where extra
weather resistance is required but with a high MVTR.
–– Pertex Equilibrium. A very rare example of a woven fabric with directional wicking.
–– Pertex Shield. A coated waterproof, high-MVTR fabric.
–– Pertex Shield pro. A laminated microporous membrane for higher performance.
• Primaloft, USA: The original PrimaLoft patent was filed in 1986. Company and
product name for non woven insulation with many varieties, usually colour-named,
Gold, Silver, etc.
–– Thermoball was developed collaboratively by The North Face and Primaloft.
Rather than sheets of insulation, it consists of small clumps of fibre that
resemble down clusters and needs the same sort of compartments as a down
garment to prevent these moving about. This is now known as Gold Luxe in the
Primaloft range.
–– Primaloft Bio is 100 per cent recycled and also biodegradable. This is the
epitome of the circular economy.
• Pontetorto, Italy: A knitting company well known to garment makers.
–– Biopile has been developed together with German Outdoor Brand…..
• VAUDE: Biopile is the world’s first fleece fabric with a brushed back, whose
microfibres are biodegradable, even in marine water. The inner, brushed side of the
fabric does not consist of polyester (as with convention­al fleece), but 100 per cent
of Lenzing’s cellulosic fibre Tencel. This prevents microfibres entering the rivers and
oceans.
• Repreve: Repreve branding in essence certifies the polyester fabric is recycled.
However, lots of major fabric and outdoor garment brands don’t use this branding.

47
 • Sympatex, Germany: A 100 per cent recyclable polyester membrane, which
releases sweat by diffusion of moisture vapour through the membrane.
• Toray of Japan: Possibly the second most well-known textile company in the world,
with strong collaborative technology links to Dupont.
–– Field Sensor was the first directional wicking fabric, as long ago as 1984.
–– ENTRANT: Moisture-permeable waterproof woven fabric with microporous
polyurethane membrane, Used
to be quite well known when
used by key garment brands.
–– 3DeFX+. This stretch insula-
tion was first introduced by
Patagonia. It has stretch woven
fabrics designed to be used as
the outer fabrics with it, and
even sewing technology that
also stretches. There are four
types of coil-shaped, spiraling
yarns to enable the stretch. The
secret behind this unique stretch
insulation is thicker, hollow-core
yarns that keep a high loft, trap-
ping air to help retain warmth. Image 2.14: Toray 3DeFX+

Construction methods of insulated garments are very important and they can be even
more crucial than the insulation material itself.
This graphic shows the two key methods, with arrows from left to right indicating less
or more warm.

Image 2.15: Down Garment Construction methods (OGC)

48
4. Sustainability and the names you should know that give you confidence
that the environmental checks on manufacturing processes are being made
Polymers used. Of the four major polymers used on outdoor garments, only polyester
has been able to be recycled, and in the early days, during the 1990s, this made fleece
garments 20 per cent more expensive. As the prices have dropped, there has been a signifi-
cant increase in its use, becoming almost universal in outdoor garments at the same time
as there has been a major shift away from cotton. A small proportion of cotton production
has shifted to organic cotton, a trend led by Patagonia. Nylon, because of its lower weight
and higher strength, is used almost universally for woven outerwear, tents, luggage and so
on. But only in the last two years has the recycling process for nylon been invented, using
old fishing nets.
Certification of the garment-manufacturing processes
In addition to the fibre and fabric brands, there are companies that certify the processes
and products of the garment manufacturers. These companies become brands in their own
right in the sense that they appear on the hang tags, common websites and so on.
To show their sustainability credibility (in terms of factory emissions and effluents),
sourcing credibility (fair wages and conditions) and safety issues (around fabrics that touch
the skin), there are several companies now quoted frequently: Bluesign, Oekotex and Fair-
wear.
Garment brands are also increasingly being expected to show their sourcing chain logis-
tics, especially where animal welfare is concerned, especially down and, to a lesser extent,
merino wool. It’s a complex world and many of those signs and accreditations are appearing
on hang tags, websites etc.
Down of course is an animal by-product. With the exception of harvesting micro-amounts
from the nests of eider ducks, duck or goose down is extracted from the feathers taken from
the birds after they have been killed. Over the last 10 years, concerns have arisen when
feathers and down were being harvested from live birds. After these issues were raised,
source tracing was put in place and some manufacturers insert a “down codex” label into
the garment, which you can then scan and track the exact origin.
Here is the website: http://www.thedowncodex.co.uk/
These process control brands may be one of several types, to assure you that:
• There are no harmful emissions going into the atmosphere or rivers. Swiss-based
Bluesign acts as an independent verifier to secure trust and transparency.
• There are no chemicals left on the fibres that could cause you skin problems. Oeko-
tex will be quoted here.
• That the garments are made in factories that have acceptable conditions and pay for
the people working there. Fairwear and others are the relevant control here.

So are all these innovations proven?

We are not trying to be the judge and jury – you and the whole of the outdoor community
are. However, it’s much clearer if we signal which are the emerging technologies so you can
watch out and either be an early adopter or hold on and wait.

49
Emerging technologies:
An emerging technology is something that might be totally new to the world or, as
is very often the case, it’s been around in some other industry for a while and there is
further innovation going on to make it applicable for outdoors use. It might look as though
it’s going to succeed and be all-conquering or may stall and fade or be corrected after a
thorough airing in product forums around the world.
Insulation
The most important insulation material is not XYZ-supaloft or goose down, but simply
air. Most garments, except your outer shell comprising water- or windproof layers, have
some air-holding capacity. All of the three key materials we use, whether they be knitted,
non-woven or such animal by-products as down, are simply methods of capturing small
amounts of air, so that it doesn’t move around and lose heat by convection. Some are
much more effective than others. The warmth/weight ratio and cost of these materials are
also vital factors. Air will continue to be the key insulator until someone invents a partial
vacuum that is flexible, which is unlikely for the foreseeable future. Read on now about
emerging technologies, now that you have the basic facts.
Down and synthetic fillings were always migratory, meaning leaking, not merely
through the seams as we still see today, but through the fabric pores, known as inter-
stices. The way to prevent this is to treat the fabric by a process known as calendering,
which compresses the woven fabric using hot rollers.
From about 2013 onwards, non-migratory fillings have been introduced and they have
had a quiet impact on the types of garment which can be offered. But while these might look
like outer garments, because of their low wind resistance, they serve best as a mid layer.
Examples:
Patagonia: Nano-Air Hoody. Its CFM is quoted as 40.
Berghaus: The filling is called Hypertherm and the garment VapourLight Hypertherm
Hoody: This garment is very much focused on high-energy activities such as running
and adventure racing. The CFM is about 20.
But how do you check on how windproof they are if it is not quoted? Simply use our
recommendations to blow on to or through the fabric.
Aerogel (generic, not a brand name) is the word for an insulation produced by
extracting all the liquid out of a gel. So it consists essentially of air. But, because it readily
absorbs water back again, it has to be wrapped in a totally waterproof casing. It cannot
therefore be used for garments, (waterproof pocket bags for keeping phones warm are an
exception) and gloves, footwear and feeding bottles are using it. There is a tendency to
over-hype this material, but it is only air, after all.
Seamless garments
The word “seamless” is appearing more and more frequently in descriptions for
close-fitting next-to-skin garments. There are now even seamless jeans. Prices are very
often considerably higher, so does the absence of a few seams seem like a good deal? Of
course there are advantages in some areas of friction for distance athletes.
The bigger long-term story is about sustainability and that is an issue no one has yet
bothered to address. When the multiple pieces to make a garment are cut from linear
fabric, there is inevitably some waste – a very minimum of 10 per cent of the total fabric
used. Larger products such as tents might have a waste of about 20 per cent. This
waste normally goes to landfill, with the exception of a small amount of polyester, which

50
 can be recycled. Seamless garments are produced by new knitting technology called
warp knitting seamless or WKS. In this process, the garment is made almost completely
without seams and zero waste goes to landfill. Bear this in mind when you make your
next purchase.
Nano membranes and electrospun membranes.
Textile coating and membrane laminating technology is long-standing and mature but
subject to some steady improvements. However, several new technologies are emerging,
among which is electrospinning, which is able to create extremely fine membranes
composed of fibres, sometimes nanofibres. Early examples of these are:
Powershield Pro, a fleece product from Polartec; and also Neoshell, a waterproof
fabric. TNF Futurelight was announced in 2019 as “the world’s most advanced breath-
able-waterproof outerwear technology”.
Microfibres leaking into oceans
When washed, textiles shed some of their fibres, which eventually get into rivers and
the sea. The textile Industries have been working very hard on this for the last few years.
Filtering bags are available, such as the Guppy bag, which holds garments while in the
washing machine, preventing fibre loss from them. The bag is emptied into solid waste
when enough has been captured. See also the new fleece developed by Pontetorto and
VAUDE and also the Power Air fabric by Polartec which they claim sheds 5 times less than
other knitted insulation textiles.

Summary
The four key historical breakthroughs for down-insulated clothing which started the
revolution.
1895 Alfred Mummery, a British climber who died on Nanga Parbat in 1895, was the first
known user of a down sleeping bag.
1922 George Finch, a British climber who devIsed and used the first down jacket on
Everest expedition.
1935 Frenchman Pierre Allain devised a combination of a down jacket and half-length
sleeping bag for survival on alpine bivouacs. The short bag was known by its
French name as a pied d’éléphant. The waterproof garment going over the down
jacket became known in the UK as a cagoule, from the French word for a cowl.
1936 Eddie Bauer from the USA designed and later manufactured down clothing which
was box quilted. This was for outdoors people and later for aircrew in the Second
World War.
Today the combined efforts of the textile, garment and footwear industries focused on
outdoor and sporting products have produced a wide variety of products, each researched
and engineered to suit almost every different niche outdoor and sporting activity.
Our listing above has added another 30 or so words, or rather brand names, in addition
to the generic 50 key words that are used frequently on hang tags. This chapter is designed
to give you a helpful and quick overview of what the company is about and what their fabrics
do. If there is a branded fabric name on a hang tag, then you can find something out about
it. Even if there isn’t, then it’s probably still good, but more is left to your own judgement.
Sometimes hang tags have a QR code to scan with your smartphone while in the store.

51
 Sometimes a brand name may cloud issues rather than helping. Just look carefully inside
the garment where, by international law, there is a small ticket giving the generic names of
the fibres used and their percentage of the total. Known branded fabrics can make a differ-
ence but remember, it’s all about which combinations of layers work best together.

52
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

2.3: Garment construction methods: seams

and machine stitching types, seam taping and
bonding

Technical explanation of seam construction and machine stitch types

Understanding how garments function and perform is easier with some knowledge of
stitching and seams. You might say: “I don’t care a darn about this detail.” However in the
next chapter 2.4 we discuss examining your gear pre trip to try to ensure there is nothing
close to failure which could cause problems in an awkward place.
This sub-chapter gives a very brief introduction to what to look out for.
There are, perhaps surprisingly, maybe 100 different stitch configurations that can be
used to join together the cut pieces needed to make the garment. This does not include seam
types, just stitch types. There are also four main seam types (a seam is a method of joining
two pieces of fabric).
• Plain seams.
• French seams.
• Flat or abutted seams.
• Lapped seams.
Finally, depending on both stitch type and seam type, there may be a need to neaten and/
or further enhance the exposed seam. Examples are taping (on a waterproof garment), and
binding (particularly on rucksack seams).
So garments depend on both the seam and stitch type and their suitability for their
performance, integrity and longevity. Of course the textile type they are being used for is crit-
ical. Low-cost garments do not usually last long enough for “RRR” (repair, reuse, recycle).
They might possibly get recycled but usually just go to landfill.
There are only a limited number of construction methods that give the performance
required for outdoor garments. Stitch types are divided into six classes, most of which have
many variations, known as sub-classes. Each of the main classes needs a different machine
type.
Class 100: Chain stitch, not usually suitable for outdoor garments.
Class 200: Hand stitching, not applicable unless you have to do a repair on a trip or
expedition.
Class 300: Lockstitch, strongest of all and used on all woven fabrics. Bartacking is a
lockstitch but the pattern of the stitches is controlled, either by a cam or
digitally.
Class 400: Locked chain stitches, used on knitted fabrics or fleece.

53
Class 500: Overedging or overlocking,
Class 600: Flatlocking, Used on base layers to lessen the seam thickness and thus
reduce friction on the wearer’s skin, especially in the shoulder harness area.
Taped seams (on waterproof garments) are not a sewing stitch type but a
bonding process over the top of sewn seams. Sometimes the stitching can be
eliminated entirely but that is not common.
In addition, we have emerging technologies coming into regular use: bonded seams,
used for zips and pockets but gradually evolving into main seams, and also seamless knitted
garments, currently used mainly on base layers. This is an emerging technology, sometimes
referred to as WKS, warp knitted seamless.

Class 300 Lockstitch

The upper thread is crossed over the lower thread (contained in the small spool under the
base plate) around which the upper thread must pass. See videos. This stitch is very impor-
tant in performance textiles but can be used only where the textile itself is stable, that is non-
stretchy, and is therefore almost exclusively used on woven textiles and not knitted ones. It’s
the strongest of all and, if the upper thread wears away, the seam will hold for a while.
Lockstitch videos
This shows a sewing machine in operation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9UwKXSX0wTM
This wikipedia entry shows what is happening underneath.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockstitch
The next video shows an animation of just how a lockstitch machine functions, passing the
top thread around the lower thread.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8EJDdSj4OS0
Martyn Hurn of Lowe Alpine adds: “Although bartacks give the impression of strength,
they can actually make some fabrics weaker. Bar tacks, by their nature create many holes,
sometimes too many. We often use bar tacks which increase stitch length, so reducing the
number of needle penetration holes.”
For knitted textiles (base layers and fleece), an overlock-type stitch configuration is most
often used, which may also wrap around the otherwise exposed textile edges and sometimes
a knife is integrated into the machine function to trim off the surplus at the same time.
Overlocking is also referred to as “overedging”, “merrowing” or “serging”. Though
“serging” technically refers to overlocking with cutters, in practice the four terms are used
interchangeably.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overlock
Overlocking covers many different
configurations, but essentially it is a seam
type for knitted fabrics where the stitched
seam must be able to elongate with the
fabric. Also the threads in this particular
stitch /seam configuration covers the edges
of the knitted fabric, preventing threads
becoming loose.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
qTKTMTFv2QY Image 2.16: Overlocking (Dreamstime)

54
Class 600 Flat seam or flatlocking
This is a garment seam type essentially
used for base layers that are subject to all
the pressure from your pack load through
the shoulder harness. Any unevenness in
your base layer can therefore cause discom-
fort.
This seam is mainly used on base layers.
Unlike an overlock or lockstitch, there are no
layers to the underside, the seam is butted
together edge to edge. So in other words this
seam is the flattest possible, barely thicker Image 2.17: A flatlock-seam (OGC)
than a single ply of the fabric itself. This should ensure you don’t suffer abrasion from pack
shoulder harness.

Bar tacks
The stitch equivalent of a rivet, making
your gear tougher, and reinforcing critical
stitch areas. Always lockstitch.
Tackers are sewing machines that make
these reinforcements and the stitch pattern
is usually cam or computer controlled.
Where the stitch pattern is short, it’s referred
to a bar tack. You will find bar tacks in many
places, at the end of zips or pocket open-
ings to prolong length of life. A bar tack is in Image 2.18: Bartack (OGC)
essence the textile equivalent of a rivet.
Bar tacks are used throughout garments, packs, luggage and tents, and also in climbing
equipment, harness and slings. They are critically important to the performance of the whole
structure; your life literally can depend on them. A visual inspection from time to time is
important.
Reinforcing a regular lock stitch seam with a tack: a cam- or computer-controlled stitch
configuration. Left is a bar tacker, making the design as below – a very short length of
stitching with three straight rows.
They are used on clothing, footwear and very frequently on packs.
Tackers can even be used on climbing ropes; see video. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=lPmDZTZOy_k

1 2 3 4

Image 2.19: Bar Tack diagram (OGC)

© inconditelegrand.blogspot.com

55
Taped seams. Making garments and seams waterproof
How to stop water coming through the seams of your jacket or pants?
Taping is the usual answer. The tape has hot melt adhesive applied to the reverse side
and is applied by a type of sewing machine ( without needle and threads ) with rollers and
with a hot air jet directed on the tape. Strict temperature controls and machine speed must
be maintained.
Here is a video of a taping machine in use, made by Ardmel Glasgow UK, the original tape
machine innovator. http://www.ardmel-group.co.uk/mk501-seam-sealer.html
The tape has a layer of heat activated adhesive on it and it passes through a taping
machine with rollers and a continuous hot-air jet. It looks very fast and simple but needs very
precise temperature control and co-ordinated roller speed. Plus a skilled operator.
Taping of seams is not new but the machinery and processes are. Our section on ethnic
clothing shows that it’s been done for many generations using animal skins and natural
glues from bones. Manufacturing of taped seams began in the 1890s when Macintosh
rubber-coated garments were hand-taped. During the late 60s and early 70s, PU-coated
nylon garments were given rudimentary seam treatment. The next real advance was in the
late 1970s and early 80s, when machinery was developed in the UK to bond tape to garment
seams. Ardmel, Glasgow UK, founded in 1973, were the early innovators and, when WL
Gore and Berghaus were collaborating on Gore-Tex in the late 70s, they were able to provide
the technologies to do the job. After a short number of years, taped seams for waterproof
garments became the norm for garments of all price levels.
The next problem to be solved was preventing leakage at the crossover points of the
tape. These points needed individual heat and compression: here is a video of an Ardmel
“crossover stamp”. http://www.ardmel-group.co.uk/high-pressure-hot-stamp.html

Bonded seams
In the last decade or so, the use of
bonding technologies has increased signifi-
cantly. Bonding is an extension of water-
proof seam taping. It is used in many places
on all types of garments, not merely water-
proofs. Bonding is not only eliminating
sewing but helpful in making zip and pocket
details more waterproof. However, repair
companies are not yet clear just how repair-
able some of these processes are.
Here is a picture courtesy of Bemis
showing all the areas on a jacket you might
be able to see bonding being used. The
squiggles on the sleeves show how bonding
can be applied as a patch to a pocket. Image 2.20: Bonded seams (Bemis)
http://www.bemisworldwide.com/products/sewfree

56
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

2.4: Repair, reuse and recycle

Product failures are rare and faults due to design/production will often begin to show in
the first day or so. So be sure to give it a trial run.
Sometimes it’s not about product failure but a problem with the fit, or lack of compatibility
between different items.
Wear-and-tear failures take much longer to emerge, so pre-trip examination is important
and this is where experience counts. Yes, continue using your favourite well-used piece of
gear, but how near is it to potential failure?
Do you know how to improvise and have you got a useful repair kit?

Repairing and fixing problems on the go

Keeping it simple, here are the essentials of a good repair kit:
• Sugru: Plasticine-like stuff that is an air-curing silicone rubber. Use it to patch or
customise almost anything; it is smearable so can even waterproof a seam. But it is
not an adhesive. Steve Long com-
ments: “Sugru is awesome! It should
be better known and available in
outdoor shops.”
• Gaffer or duct tape: wrap a length
round your ski or trekking pole so you
always have it handy. Good for any-
thing from tents to broken goggles.
• For lightweight garments such as
down jackets, Tenacious tape (comes
in a small tube) has a better grip and
is thinner and less obvious a mend. Image 2.21: (Cartoonstock)
• Shoo Goo is a tacky, rubber-like
adhesive that remains completely flexible after drying. It’s very useful for mending
shoes and anything textile.
• Bostik Sew Simple. This product is similar to Shoo Goo and Copydex. It’s a water-
based latex adhesive best for hemming fabrics. Slipping pack harness web? Just
smear into the web fibres, and no more slip for sure.
• A spare length of cord or shoelace.
• Needle and thread. Possibly use dental floss as thread as it is thin but strong.
• Cable ties: Good for broken zips and pullers and buckle and pack repairs. Even for
holding a boot sole on which is detaching at the toe, along with a bit of Shoo Goo.
• And of course something with which to cut, trim and shape.

57
Reduce, repair, reuse and recycle
Repairing items instead of buying new is good for both your pocket and the planet. But
better products, i.e. often higher-priced ones, are usually worth repairing.
Here is the Patagonia initiative https://www.ifixit.com/patagonia and they have a quick-fix
guide for “in field” fixes, https://www.ifixit.com/c/In_The_Field_Fixes
They even make an expedition repair kit: http://www.patagonia.com/us/product/expedi-
tion-sewing-kit?p=12000-0
The Patagonia worn wear program is interesting where they send a repair truck on tour to
repair any of their garments free of charge. There is even an app so you read it on the go and
it enables you to share what you know about fixing stuff. Using your camera phone and the
inbuilt system, it can go public. It’s about any gear, bikes, iphones and not just outdoor gear.
https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.dozuki.ifixit&hl=en

Outdoor pro’s observation

Re-use: Steve Long: “In certain scenarios, you may anticipate that serious damage
may occur to your expensive garments. Sometimes, a better option might be to trash a
low-cost jacket rather than a high-cost one! This keeps a good garment going longer and
the old one can be kept for a next occasion”.

Waterproofing: This video spells out how to check when your need to treat your jacket.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P9jCS7iU8YE
Repairing tip from Alan H: “Where I have a through hole in a waterproof shell, I’ll duct
tape the outside, put a blob of Aquaseal (a rubber-based sealant) on the hole on the inside
and leave it to dry and, once it’s cured, I’ll remove the duct tape and finish with Tenacious
Tape inside”.
Hand sewing: A rare thing nowadays, but just in case you need to know how to hand
sew a very strong seam, here is a diagram showing how two needles are used, each
passing alternately from top to bottom. Unlike machine sewing, the hand-sewn thread alter-
nates between top and bottom. With machine sewing, the top and bottom threads always
remain top or bottom. Hand sewing may not sound solid but in fact can be stronger if done
well. Machine sewn stitching has some shortcomings as explained here when threads are
snagged. source http://www.wrtcleather.com/1-ckd/tutorials/_leatherstitch.html

Image 2.22: Lockstitch (OGC)

58
 Taped seams on jackets are made using a tape with a hot-melt adhesive. The
combined tape and adhesive is not microporous as was the original used by the garment
maker, so no worry on that score. Have a look at: http://www.profabrics.co.uk/products/
any/seam-sealing-tape/0001107.html
and this tape for 3 ply fabric.
http://www.profabrics.co.uk/products/any/seam-sealing-tape-for-3-layer-
fabrics/0001108.html
or Pennine Outdoor.
http://www.pennineoutdoor.co.uk/seamseal-tape-gortex
Take care with the ironing!

Brand observations from Sam Fernando, Ardmel of Scotland (the leading manu-
facturers of tapes and the taping machinery as well): “If tape is delaminated, you can
sometimes reactivate it but it probably won’t work for long. It should be removed and a
new tape reapplied. Supplies of DIY tape are available. However, a professional repair at
the factory premises would probably always be better.”

Downcycling is the recycling of waste where the recycled material is of lower quality and
functionality than the original. An example of this is is post-industrial cycling of the very short
cotton fibres, almost dust, created during the weaving process. Its very short fibres produce
a low-quality woven fabric, which was often used for cleaning rags but not for clothing. In
other instances, this lowering of performance is due to the accumulation of metals where,
for example, cars or electric appliances are scrapped. When steel is contaminated with
secondary metals, it may exclude the latter from high-quality applications. Contaminated
scrap yields a secondary steel that does not meet the specifications for automotive steel
and therefore downcycled. This principle very much applies to outdoor garment waterproof
outerwear, which is usually made of a mixture of polymers.

Sustainability
Remember the advice: reduce, repair, reuse and recycle.
Can’t repair or you’re upgrading? Many tough products made by the outdoor industry are
not easily recycled in a chemical or process sense, so make sure that someone else gets
a shot at using them after you have done with them. Several brands now offer to take back
your old product and even give a discount against a new product. If there is one piece of gear
which outdoor people love to keep on repairing as long as possible, that’s a pack. Packs are
seen as almost a trip companion or a faithful servant and outdoors people want to repair
rather than buy a new one. Several companies are offering garment recycling services, such
as http://giftyourgear.com/ by Rohan in UK, while Páramo have set up an ebay shop http://
stores.ebay.co.uk/ParamoRecycled. Another is Patagonia in the USA http://www.patagonia.
com/us/reuse-recycle.

Recycling is an age-old practice yet it is a newly emerging industry

From the very earliest days of our civilisation, there is evidence that many materials were
produced in low volume and so were relatively quite precious. This meant that recycling was
important. Many materials such as iron, glass, natural fibres, woven and knitted textiles were
recycled. In ancient times, labour costs were not usually an issue, depending on the nature
of the society and the country where the practices were carried out.

59
 In the UK and Europe the common practice was for there to be a local collection. Older
readers may recall the rag-and-bone man in the UK in particular. This trade was immortalised
by the UK television comedy series Steptoe and Son.
As the textile Industrial Revolution got under way from the mid-18th century, new types of
waste materials started to emerge.
In the cotton textile industry, the high-volume processes created a lot of cotton waste,
sometimes called lint, which was very difficult to spin, being of very short fibre lengths, so the
fibre wasn’t long enough to create a strong thread. New processes were developed that would
use this short staple fibre. However it was not terribly strong and was usually used for cleaning
rags and, as discussed above, called shoddy. This was known as post-industrial recycling.
In the woollen industry, it was discarded woollen clothing that was collected by the rag-
and-bone man. This is technically known as post-consumer recycling. At this point it is neces-
sary to point out that recycled materials rarely retain the same performance as the original and
indeed there is often a higher cost either in labour or energy in producing them. These materials
however were quite often mixed with higher grade materials to improve performance and were
given the name shoddy, a word we recognise today as meaning anything of lower grade.
Enter synthetic polymers. Surprising as it may sound, very few synthetic polymers can be
melted down and recycled after consumer use. Three principal synthetic polymers are used in
clothing: polyester, polyamide (nylon), and polypropylene. However, PET drinks bottles have
been recycled successfully since the early 1990s. At that time the processing and energy costs
created an on cost of about 20 per cent premium on the cost of the polyester fleece jacket. This
has now been almost eliminated. It is only recently at the time of writing (2019) that nylon is
beginning to be recycled in a similar way. See Patagonia’s explanation. The delay is not reluc-
tance on anyone’s part, simply a case of the more complex chemistry involved.
Cotton, as a natural fibre, is the subject of much mythology Image 2.23. The assumption
is that it is natural so must be eco-friendly but this is not necessarily the case. Cotton, despite
using only three per cent of all arable land, uses 25 per cent of all insecticides, 10 per cent of all
herbicides, is the fourth most heavily fertilised crop, ( all three of which are oil derivatives) and
relies for 70 per cent of its water on irrigation, 30 per cent on rainwater. In addition, it is highly
subsidised in many countries.
Cotton is, however, carbon neutral. So does that mean it is “sustainable”? A Cotton USA
advertising campaign of 2008, using the word “sustainable” was refuted by the DTI/ASA in the
UK and so their claim was changed to “renewable”.
(Source: lecture by Robert Lomax at Innovex 2009.)
The outdoor and sporting goods industry began the process around 10 years ago to iden-
tify the real sustainability aspects of many
raw materials. It was during this period that
polyester was identified as having many
advantages in terms of sustainability. Hence
there was a significant shift towards the use
of polyester and away from cotton.
Recycling of garments that we have
finished using is now an increasingly large
business. Some of this is dealt with by the
charity shops who extract what is sale-
able in their shop and what isn’t saleable
is then passed to the next level processor
– the modern version of the rag-and-bone Image 2.23: Cotton (iStock)

60
man. This process is extensively described in the book The Travels of a T-shirt in the Global
Economy. Since the fall of communism, used American clothing has found an eager market in
the so-called “second world” and large quantities are shipped to Poland, Ukraine and Russia.
But most of the clothing is destined for Africa. As the volume of clothing increased significantly,
the prices that the recyclers can obtain fell.
The recycling process has evolved from simply sorting into what will become cleaning
rags or fibres for recycling, to a process of “mining” for higher-value items. Some of this
clothing, with special commemoration marks, is quite valuable in certain markets, as is vintage
clothing. Most of the clothing is baled according to the customer specification, that is to say
the type of clothing, pants or shirts and so on, and then sold by the pound. One US company,
Transamerica, sorts clothing into 400 different categories. Approximately 30% of the clothing
is destined to become cleaning rags and some of this goes through a shredding machine to
become, as you might have guessed, a woven fabric called a shoddy.

Sustainability aspects of fibres, coatings and laminate and garments

It is very important to remember that sustainability is a journey, not a destination. What
we mean by this is that the many different phases of production that cause potentially harmful
emissions and effluents and create landfill are the subject of continuous improvement. And of
course energy usage, which usually creates emissions of some type, is subject to the same
improvement.
Sustainability and assessing products prior to purchase. How do we as consumers make
preference decisions?
Many chapters of our book contain small practical comments about sustainability aspects
related to that chapter. We also note some of these sustainability processes under emerging
technologies.
Swiss company GreenroomVoice (www.greenroomvoice.com) is a very useful inde-
pendent source of information and ratings of brands.
GreenroomVoice is an independent third-party organization for communication on sustain-
ability practice. “Our goal is to foster clear, meaningful and trustworthy communication about
CSR brand activities and their products, focused on making the environmental and social
performances of outdoor and boardsports brands more transparent.”
Their “Transparency Tool” (developed with the University of Chur, as Science partner “Hoch-
schule für Technik und Wirtschaft” meaning the university of applied science for technology
and economics: http://www.htwchur.ch/en.html) has been developed to allow responsible
communication and a better understanding
of the sustainability movement within the
industry. It includes all labels, certificates and
standards (social and environmental) that are
used by the industry and gives an overview
of this best practice. Therefore it helps people
to identify a responsible product. Greenroom-
Voice wishes to value brands that are respon-
sible and enable the consumer to make an
educated choice.

Image 2.24: Emission free (CartoonStock)

61
You need to look after your hands and feet...

62 Photo by Alan Hinkes

 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

3.1: Garment layering basics, principles and

practice
Introduction: Your clothing layers are your
mobile environment. Within this mobile envi-
ronment, there is a microclimate which you
“the active resident” have to control proac-
tively. To do this, you need to select layers
carefully, taking into consideration your work
rate and the likely weather and wind changes,
given your planned route and altitude gain. All
this without the use of dials, buttons, physical
controls, or thermostats and even without any
smartphone apps!
Layering should be regarded as a complex
skill best learned from others, but based on a
sound understanding of the underlying basic Image 3.1: Mike Ice Climbing (Alan Hinkes)
science of human physiology, and how heat losses can occur, together with the core tech-
nologies used in garment components. Today, people live in thermostatically controlled envi-
ronments in their home, car or office and yet aspire to polar and high-altitude trips soon after
starting outdoor activity. In times gone by, when climbing and mountaineering clubs played an
important part, new entrants learned almost in an apprenticeship way. Inuit society worked on
the principle of apprenticeship; the garment makers were also the users, and elders with lots
of personal anecdotes and stories conveyed the volatility of weather conditions and how they
survived in extreme polar conditions with limited resources. This often called for improvisation
where learning by experience is key.
Writing this chapter served to
confirm our growing feeling that
the so-called three-layer system
was often inadequate and simplistic
these days, considering the vast
improvements in modern clothing
technology that has led to a much
greater choice of possible layers.
So we have explored four-, five-,
six- and even seven-layer systems.
Who thinks layers? Our USA
Editor Chuck Kukla made us think
Image 3.2: Eskimo Family (National Geographic Magazine,
when he said: “I notice customers
Volume 31 (1917), page 564, Public Domain) coming into our store and buying a

63
 garment instead of a layer.” So, after much
thought, we realised what he meant. Most
of us are guilty in a sense of buying a good-
looking garment, or one that just happens
to be our favourite colour, without properly
considering what layer it will function as!
Layering. The “grab ‘n‘ go” technique
is fine for a few hours or for day outings.
Haven’t you noticed how casual, even care-
less, you can be, knowing you are going to
be returning from the great outdoors to a hot
shower and somewhere you can dry your
wet clothing?
But comes the point when you are multi-
day backpacking, climbing or ski touring:
Image 3.3: Mike improvising layers
that’s a different ball game. Getting it wrong
(Mike Parsons) can be serious, even life-threatening!
Then it means having to carry everything
you had to take off (when you were overheating) but there are no clothes-drying options
other than your own body heat; plus you must have enough to survive a night out if really
pushed, but still be going light! These are indeed complex skills, and this chapter, Layering
Basics, is the first of several intended to help with techniques and best practice.
The commercial origins of the three-layer system and specific layering for most of the key
outdoor activities, from rock climbing to high-altitude mountaineering, both Nordic and alpine
ski and touring disciplines and both MTB and road cycling are explained in later chapters.

Image 3.4: Human Heat Balance (OGC)

64
 There are 5 key actions, both passive and active, taking place in this diagram. All 5
require skills based on an understanding of fitness and human physiology, nutrition, 24 hour
temperature and weather fluctuations, clothing choice and most critically, how to use the
layers of your choice. Carrying out all aspects well is a high skill requirement.
Fundamentally, when out in the real wilds and without sun, the only source of warmth is
food! Your metabolism (marked ‘M’ in diagram) is the mechanism whereby food and drink
are converted to heat. Activity work rate determines how well this heat is moved around
your body by blood circulation. Garments provide the means of controlling heat loss. Our
graphic shows the many different types and areas and contact points of heat loss or gain you
have to deal with to be able to make your ‘mobile environment’ a comfortable place, almost
regardless of external conditions.
Heat losses occur by conduction, where surfaces touch. By convection, when garments
move around you but mainly by wind. (The weather forecasters take wind speeds into
account when giving temperatures, by saying ‘feels like’ which is technically known as wind
chill factor.) By respiration through your mouth and nose. By sweating which causes evapo-
rative cooling.
In this chapter:
1. How insulation works.
2. Why are multiple layers better than fewer layers?
3. The importance of how your garment fits.
4. The battle of understanding and how moisture-management works.
5. ‘Windproof’, and wind-resistance of garments.
6. The four-, five- or six-layer principle.
7. The big picture about keeping warm and your physiology.
8. Layering practice on the move; regulating your mobile environment.
9. Layering for hot conditions.
10. Layering for looks and how fashion sometimes impairs function.
NB: Layering for hands and feet is dealt with in the next chapter, 3.2.

1. How insulation works

1. Air is the best insulator we have: not wool, not down, not “xyz high-tech” fabric. We
must control this air so that it is trapped in small pockets and not free to move, just
as in a double-glazed window unit. We could go one better and have a vacuum but,
until someone designs a flexible fabric that can do the same job as your vacuum
flask, trapped air is best.
2. All the insulation materials we use and read about, natural or synthetic, are methods
of capturing air with varying levels of volume-to-weight ratio. Down still has the
highest ratio attainable.
3. Water is the enemy of insulation, regardless of whether it’s the insensible perspira-
tion emerging from your pores at a rate of about 400ml per day even when sitting,
and additionally of course sweat, where the quantity produced will vary enormously
according to temperatures, fitness, health and so on. Then there’s rain. of course,
which may penetrate around and through hoods, cuffs or zips. Water conducts heat
24 times faster than air. Also, it is a “heat sink”. In other words, it absorbs the heat
in addition to transmitting it.

65
 4. Knitted fabrics are the best at
trapping small amounts of air at a
low cost and are even better with a
windshell “sealing layer” over them.
5. Each garment we use traps its
own layer of air underneath it and
between it and the next layer, adding
warmth, almost something for noth-
ing, in effect.
6. Some layers that don’t hold air of
themselves, such as windshells/
windshirts, act as a very good seal Image 3.5: Knitted fabric (iStock)
to hold this warm air in and prevent wind taking the warm air away.
7. Loss of warm air in your layers. Section 8 in this chapter gives practical ideas for
losing heat when you are getting too warm. However, when it’s cold, ensuring the
wind doesn’t steal your precious warmth is a case of selecting a combination of
layers that have the correct balance of wind protection and sweat permeability in
the weather conditions and for your body work rate. There are essentially three
levels of wind protection.
–– Most waterproof jackets are totally windblocking.
–– Down and synthetic-filled jackets include fabrics that are extremely tightly
woven, then calendered (to prevent the down or fibre leaking) so they are highly
windproof. These jackets are best used as an outer layer but often tailored
nowadays as mid layers, for example stitched-through down garments.
–– There is a new generation of insulation (made by many different processes)
that has appeared in the last four years or so. This does not need fabric that is
tightly woven and ‘down proof’. These garments look like outerwear but have
a wind resistance similar to or a little better than fleece. They are sometimes
exclusive to a garment brand such as Patagonia Nano Air, Berghaus Hyperther-
mand any jacket with Polartec Alpha. Please note that the level of windproofing
is controlled by the outer woven fabrics and not by the insulation itself. There-
fore statements like, “Polartec Alpha is the most...” are erroneous because each
garment brand specifies its own outer fabrics, which is the factor that controls
windproofing capability and MVTR.

2. Why are multiple layers

“It may look funny, but at least I’m warm”
Image 3.6: (Cartoontock)
better than fewer layers?
Multiple layers and layering are
often accepted without question as is
the three-layer system or even one or
two layers in summer. Our research
through 35 books and online indicates
that nothing much new has been said
since the promotion of the three-layer
system in the early 1980s. One, two,
three wasn’t intended as a “layering
primer” but should be considered

66
partly as a marketing message, “Here are the three garments you need for starters,”
designed to help new outdoors people. There was a small amount of technical info about
capillary action and function in the base layer, and the so called breathability (we prefer to
use MVTR) of the new generation of waterproofs.
Here are the principles (perhaps for the first time ever).
1. Each and every layer we use traps its own air layer underneath it and between it and
the next layer, adding warmth, so that, in effect, you get something for nothing.
2. Each layer varies in capability: some are wicking, some warm, some slightly wind-
proof, others very windproof, some waterproof. Careful selection builds a success-
ful mobile environment.
3. Each layer has its own features, such as type of hood or no hood, and style of
cuffs. The positioning and size of various pockets, and having these in the right
layer at the right time can have a big impact on your efficiency on the hill.
4. Having multiple layers gives us the greatest possible flexibility to deal with rapidly
changing weather conditions (particularly important for British and climatically
similar hill conditions).
The so-called softshell trend now includes garments which are trending towards multiple
plies. The simpler each layer is, the easier it is to understand its capabilities. Complex multi-
layer fabric constructions used frequently nowadays in softshell garments are more difficult
to understand.
Chris Townsend comments: “Nothing beats the versatility of separate single-ply
garments that you can combine differently according to conditions.” Better, easier and finer
adjustment to changes in the weather, time of day and physical location and how much
energy you are using.
Chuck Kukla our USA editor adds: “This quote of Chris T’s is the very definition of
‘options’ that allows users to improvise and adapt. This idea is not well understood, in my
view, by the designers/marketeers/buyers who drive or influence product design. Maybe
having different hood, cuff, pocket options for essentially the same garment would be a way
to go. But not all garments. I do work in retail, after all!”

3. The importance of how your garment fits

When you buy a garment try to think of it as a layer to combine with others. Chapter 1
covers size, grade and fit and tailoring for function in detail.
As a quick recap relevant to this chapter:
Understand also there is no such thing as standard sizing. Brands vary widely and also
have two or three different fits within their range, such as athletic, standard and expedition,
but the names used for these fits are often specific to the brand. It must be said, there are
also errors in sizing of a garment type even within the same brand.
There is nothing better than trying garments on in the store, having taken with you any
other layers you wish to wear in combination. If you are going on a cold trip, with a variety
of layers and planning a range of different activities, then it’s vital to experiment in advance
and sort out how best to adjust your layers. The more layers, and the thicker, the more diffi-
cult movement is. Elastane content helps (look at the inside label for percentage) but will be
slightly heavier, more expensive and slower to dry.

67
Now a look at the ‘Mallory system’:
Alternating air-holding fleece or knitted
fabric with windproof/windshells is a very
effective warm system and can also help
layers slide over each other, making move-
ment with many layers easier. Mallory and
Irvine wore six layers in 1924, silk over wool
over silk and so on and our replica garments,
tested to 22,000 feet (6,700 metres), gave an
amazing freedom of movement. Today, the
steadily rising percentage of elastane stretch
fibres in fabrics helps a lot. But selecting
layers that slide over each is still very useful.
Conversely, it might be a mistake to layer
rough-surfaced fabrics on top of each other,
as they will restrict your movement by clinging
instead of sliding and also hinder delayering.
Our Chapter 1 outline notes the special fit,
usually called expedition fit by some brands,
whereby there is more room left inside for
extra insulation while arm and sleeve lengths
remain normal for the size.

4. The battle of understanding and

how moisture-management works
Jane Turnbull PhD, Leeds University UK,
supporting editor says: “The battle of under-
standing, as it has become known, is to
persuade users that the performance of the
waterproof outer layer is closely linked to what Image 3.7: Graham Hoyland in Mallory Replicas
is worn underneath and that no waterproof in 2006 on slopes below the North Col on the
fabric in existence can transmit all the sweat East Rongbuk glacier. The altitude was 22,000
feet, 6,700 meters (Hoyland, 2013, https://
our bodies push out when working hard.”
www.grahamhoyland.com/books/last-hours-on-
Our debate everest/)
CK USA editor says: “It’s maybe a ques-
tion that new entrants listen to the marketeers,
but experienced people know the score?”
Mike P: “What is often not taken into
account is that waterproofs are as useful as
a chocolate teapot if they are not fully water-
Image 3.8: (Dreamstime)

proof. Maintaining a jacket to its original (as

new) level of waterproofing performance
is very difficult. Using a windproof when
possible rather than a waterproof is an aid to
maintaining this level of performance because
then the waterproof is safe in your pack a lot of

68
the time. Many other activities such as, bike,
Nordic ski, run, are too high an activity level
for waterproofs to be used as a windshell and
will sometimes inhibit personal performance,
which the user often can’t perceive but others
around them can observe.”
How moisture-management works
One of the key problems of discussing
moisture-management is that the word
breathability is used very often as a shorter
term for either moisture vapour transmission
through the fabric interstices or pores, or for
air permeability. The two are not the same.
Moisture vapour is another word for the
insensible perspiration and or sweat which Image 3.9: Chris Townsend in rain
(Chris Townsend)
has been wicked off your skin to avoid evap-
orative cooling, and has been turned into vapour by your body heat within your layers. Air
permeability may not necessarily change MVTR. The key science and practice of moisture-
management is covered in Chapter 7, Moisture Management.

5. ‘Windproof’, and wind resistance of garments

Years ago the most frequent question asked at point of sale of a waterproof was: “Is it
breathable?” Now, after many years of promotion the assumption appears to be that water-
proofs are totally breathable and are good to wear at almost all times. However, we find a
consensus among experienced outdoor people that a windproof (not waterproof) shell, with
its much higher level of “air exchange”, is an equally vital part of their layering system. That
holds true for all types of activity – backpacking, rock climbing or running and so on. Wind-
proofing is often taken as an absolute, but in reality a wide range of air permeability exists.
This range is getting wider now with the introduction of the next generation of non-migratory
synthetic fillings. Until recently, insulation materials, both down and synthetic, leaked or
migrated through the containing fabrics.
These new fillings allow much greater variations of windproofing, giving this new genera-
tion the more open feel of a fleece. Garment brands don’t use breathability in this context.
But take care that you understand what you are buying, otherwise the wind resistance may
not be suitable for your needs.

6. The four-, five- or six-layer principle

There are a number of garments that are critically missing from the three-layer principle
because they either didn’t exist in the 1980s or were ignored for simplicity at the time this
principle was created.
Four-layer system: Base layer, fleece, windproof, waterproof. What we observe very
frequently is that in windy or colder conditions (apart from rain), hillgoers frequently use their
waterproof jacket. They overheat as a result because, despite all the claims of waterproofs
being “breathable”, there is no way that they can release the amounts of moisture that we
humans sweat out. It’s better to use a specific windproof garment and keep your water-
proof in your pack until really needed. Waterproofs are one of the most expensive pieces of

69
Image 3.10: Winter backpacking (Chris Townsend)
kit that we have, and they are getting lighter and more fragile, so keeping them in your pack
extends their life and maintains performance because they are not getting dirty, greasy, worn
or abraded.
Five-layer system: Base layer, fleece, windproof, waterproof, insulated outer shell. The
second missing garment is what mountaineers tend to call a “belay jacket”, which we might
better recognise as just a warm overjacket. Or it might double as both an under- or overgar-
ment if size and fit are very carefully selected. Others might call it a “top thermal”, “mother-
ship belay jacket”, insulated outer shell or reinforcement layer. A good practice is to keep
yourself as lightly dressed as possible going uphill, but when you stop, take this extra layer
out of your bag and put it over everything (even over your waterproof if it’s raining).
Six-layer system: Add in a sleeveless jacket (gilet) sized to go almost anywhere.
A seven-layer system!Chris Townsend’s seven-layer system, as noted in his Backpacker’s
Handbook:
“‘If three layers are all you have, then you are very limited. I use up to seven layers, according
to the trip and season. I don’t carry spare clothing (except socks) because my clothing system
is sized/graded so that I can wear everything at once if necessary, sometimes as many as
seven layers (albeit some items are usually in my pack – mostly long underwear pants and
insulated jacket, sometimes fleece top as well). My clothing is also selected for versatility – all
the tops can be worn next to the skin so if my base layer is damp and I start to feel chilly when
I make camp I can strip it off and don the fleece or insulated top next to the skin.
For wet zones, I like uncoated/untaped type outerwear like Páramo but I don’t use it if
the ambient temperature is such that I will end up carrying it. It’s essentially a colder-months
garment.”

70
 Finally: Best layering choices might well
be strikingly different for single-day outings
(where softshell does well) compared to a
multi-day outing (when single-ply garments
are often best) where most layers have often
to be carried in your pack at some point during
the daily weather and temperature changes.
That’s what refines your choices dramat-
ically.
Is layering only for your body and not
head, hands, legs and feet?
Certainly not, it applies equally to head,
hands, legs and feet. It’s just that you may
not need so many layers and there are many
other considerations. (See next chapters 3.2
and 3.3)
Image 3.11: Crew neck base layer (OGC)

7. The big picture about keeping warm and your physiology. How our bodies
react to heat and cold.
There are some things that an area of your brain does for you whether you wish it or not, so
it’s best to be aware of this and team up, as it were. In periods of intense cold, your brain will
prioritise the core of your body, which includes your brain as your main “computing centre” and
so cuts off the blood circulation (the main means of heat transport around the body) to your
hands and feet. When your brain decides, for reasons often unknown to you that everything is
OK again, your hands and/or feet warm up in an agonising way, often called the “hot aches”.
There is sometimes a strange effect
called the “hunting reaction” when
dilation and constriction alternate.
So let’s look at best advice for
keeping hands and feet warm before
we review gloves, mitts and socks
and gaiters.
Keep well hydrated and ensure
you are eating enough. The food we
eat is converted 75% into heat and
25 % into muscle glycogen.
Protect your core, (which
includes your head) otherwise your
body will do it for you and vasocon-
striction will kick in.
So Granny’s advice still holds
good: “If your feet or hands are
Image: 3.12 (Credit)

cold, put your hat on.”

Key message: You cannot keep

your hands and feet warm if
your core is cold.

71
 There is a very wide variation in the blood circulation to hands and feet among outdoor
activists. While many complain about cold hands and or feet, some complain about hands
getting too hot and sweaty (caused by vasodilation). Additionally blood circulation decreases
with age, while so-called “white finger” or Raynaud’s syndrome can afflict a person of
almost any age. Raynaud’s syndrome, also known as Raynaud’s phenomenon, is a medical
condition in which spasm of arteries cause episodes of reduced blood flow. Typically the
fingers, and less commonly the toes, are involved. Rarely, the nose, ears, or lips are affected.
Raynaud’s is very difficult to combat.
Mike P: “I have Raynaud’s! It acts quite independently from vasoconstriction. I find that
it’s worse when I have been sitting around at home and I go outside in temperatures of
about 12-14°C with high humidity. I can also get it at the bottom of a crag (when am ready
to climb) when temperatures are quite high but there is a slight wind. Wearing a windshell
and keeping my arms warm is a help. Strangely, I have much less trouble when I am skiing
or winter climbing in quite low temperatures. Taking much more care with glove layering and
using thin stretchy waterproof mitts OR overmitts to keep the wind off is helpful.” (See also:
How to keep hands warm in cold and wet – layering for hands, Ch 3.2.)

8. Layering practice on the move; regulating your mobile environment.

What we have written so far is about choice of layer types. Now let’s look at the equally
important practice of adjusting layers on the move, either by taking on and off or avoiding
garment addition or removal by a number of venting techniques. Venting is a technique which is
helped by choice of garment features such as base layer zips, pit zips, front zips and cuff types.
Efficiency on the move is a critical skill for people in the outdoors. This includes quite
a few things including foot care, but in this case we are simply focusing on adjustment of
your clothing layers from an efficiency point of view. Even if you’re alone, you can’t always
just saunter to adjust your body heat output – there are often specific wilderness campsites
to reach before dark, or the climbing hut before dinner. However, in the case of a group it’s
even more critical that skills are similar, otherwise the efficiency of the whole group will be
impaired and there will be frustrations. Some UK-based instructors use the advice, “Be bold,
start cold,” which can be a help to make a group more cohesive.
We are not simply talking about one type of outdoor activity here but all the major ones,
each of which has unique problems.
Ventilation and cooling off tips.
So when adding or removing a layer, especially an inner layer, there is usually going to be
a need to stop. How can you avoid stopping? Teaching these simple skills can make a group
more cohesive by avoiding holding back the others?
1. Remove hat or neck buff and stuff in pocket.
2. Drop your hood. Keep your hood up if it’s still raining, otherwise water goes down
your neck.
3. Main jacket zips, and any inner layer neck zips. Pull them down; inner layers espe-
cially can be done even in rain.
4. Jacket pocket zips. If they are not fully lined and have only mesh behind then open-
ing the zips ventilates your body area.

72
 Image 3.13: Layering the big picture (OGC)

73
 5. Underarm pit zips. Have always been popular with North Americans, who consider
them essential, but they have not yet taken off in Europe. They work very well for
snowboarders because riders face side on to their direction, forcing wind directly
through the zip opening.
6. Cuffs. Both elasticated cuffs or velcro tabbed can be pushed up providing they are
large enough in circumference. That’s a next purchase check if you can’t do it now.
7. Jacket sleeves. By taking each arm alternately out of each (loosened) pack shoulder
strap you can roll your jacket down to your waist without removing the pack. Tie
sleeves around waist.
8. Legs. Open side trouser zips. A good pair of trousers will have a ventilation zip in
the upper leg. (sometimes with mesh behind to prevent too much gaping and stop
insect or debris ingress. Beware the mesh catching in the zip). Other trousers might
have removable legs, or if not and conditions allow, then simply roll them up.
Finally, see Chris Townsend’s blog (http://www.christownsendoutdoors.com/2016/07/
outdoor-clothing-layering.html). Here he summarises the limitations of the traditional three-
layer system and looks at the complexities of getting it right when increasing the number of
layers. What types of garments will layer together successfully is the key issue.

9. Layering for hot conditions

Avoiding overheating even in cold and temperate conditions is important to ensure that
you are not driving a lot of moisture into your layers in the hope that it will escape to the
outside environment.
However, it is becoming increasingly important to be able to deal with very hot condi-
tions, not only because of climate change but because there are more people taking part in
athletic and competitive activities in the hills and mountains. In addition, adventure travel to
hot dry areas is becoming more frequent.
Layers for hot conditions, say above 25°C, are significantly different of course from those
for temperate and or cold climates, which is perhaps not obvious. However, the underlying
principles are about human physiology and the way evolution has given us the ability to
sweat, which enables evaporative cooling to take place. Just what is evaporative cooling?
A reduction in temperature resulting from the evaporation of a liquid, which removes heat
from the surface from which evaporation takes place. This process is used in industrial and
domestic cooling systems, such as fridges and air conditioners but nature invented it first:
it’s the physical basis of how sweating cools us all. We have noted blog writers assuming
that sweat is evaporated by the heat of your body (which it may be at times), but even if your
body and skin surface is cold, sweat evaporation by wind and sun will remove more heat.
See the technical and historical information in the box below.

74
Looking back in history, lessons from original cultures.
The Bedouin and Inuit
Cooling methods of old. It is perhaps surprising to realise that ancient peoples were
able to keep their water cool by storing it in semi-porous skin bags and exposing them to
hot sunshine. The surface evaporation kept the contents cool. The ancient Egyptians were
cleverer still and could create ice overnight using the same principles.
The scientific principles involved were not identified until the long Age of Enlighten-
ment of the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1795, Professor Black at Glasgow University in
Britain established the principles of latent heat and evaporative cooling. Black also helped
James Watt on his way to develop the steam engines.
The same principle occurs in reverse in that heat is released when a vapour condenses
back to water. A very small invisible example of this: when our wool garments absorb
sweat vapour, there is a very tiny warming effect together with the fact that the surface of
the wool remains dry even though it has absorbed lots of water.

Is white clothing in hot sunshine the obvious choice?

Why do some Bedouin (who live in the desert areas of the Asian middle-east) wear
black?
A study was carried out and published in 1980 in Nature, Vol 283, Jan 1980. This was
reported in the Observer newspaper and our USA editor Chuck K referenced the original
to ensure we have a full picture.
Scientists set up an experiment with a non-Bedouin as a volunteer. He wore: 1) a
black Bedouin robe; then 2) a similar white robe, then other non-Bedouin garments, in
temperatures of 35°C and 46°C. The basic conclusions were: “The amount of heat gained
by a Bedouin exposed to the hot desert is the same whether he wears a black or a white
robe. The additional heat absorbed by the black robe was lost before it reached the skin.”
“Bedouin robes,” the scientists noted, “are worn loose. Inside, the cooling happens
by convection – either through a bellows action, as the robes flow in the wind, or by a
chimney sort of effect, as air rises between robe and skin.”
Chuck K also noted: “The article in Nature also added that the increased rate of air
movement (convective effects) improved the rate of evaporative cooling in the dark robe.”
Thus it was conclusively demonstrated that, at least for Bedouin robes, black is as
cool as any other colour.
The report recognises that black absorbs more heat but it is dissipated only by the
very looseness of the garment fit.
It is worth noting that the Bedouin don’t wear backpacks. Such luggage clamps our
modern clothing closely and prevents these same conditions applying. See tips below.
Chuck K, USA editor: “Interestingly, this is not dissimilar to the Inuit techniques, where
often the bottoms of their parkas are open or loose to allow dry air to displace humid
air from their bodies, to avoid water build-up in their clothing. Air is warmed as it rises
and exits the top”.

75
Use of base layers in your (temperate and cold weather) clothing system
These are designed to absorb your sweat and prevent evaporation, which causes cooling.
This sweat is then taken away from your skin by capillary action into your mid layers and we
hope through to the outside air.
Here some basic guidelines.
Rule #1 Dispense with base layers in hot conditions.
Rule #2 Use a loose woven garment, which will still allow the sweat to evaporate
from your skin. Woven fabrics are slightly stiffer than knitted and then enable
you to create a gap between your body and the fabric. This will help enable
an airflow around your skin.
Rule #3 Do not use knitted garments because they are too close-fitting and the air
pockets within the knit loops keep you warmer).
Rule #4 Cotton is good for a woven layer but polyester and poly cotton blends are
more frequent and have good UV resistance. This garment is most often
available as a trekking shirt, which, if you are doing something athletic is not
necessarily how you wish to look. But keeping cool regardless is foremost.
We also suggest not fastening chest straps to allow more freedom to the
layers. However, leaving the hip belt loose would depend on load being
carried but short periods of loosening might help.
In these hot conditions vasodilation in your hands and feet should automatically occur. Your
body allows more blood to flow closer to the cool skin surface of your hands and feet.
Blood is the means by which heat is transported around the body so evolution has cleverly
reversed the process to cool your blood. In some people, there is even a slight visible
swelling of the hands. Your hands of course will be completely free and exposed to the air
but you may have to change your footwear to lighter footwear or open sandals if the terrain
and conditions allow.

What you need to know about sun protection by garments

Textiles have sun protection ratings, just as in sun creams for skin. In fabrics, the ultra-
violet protection factor (UPF) indicates how much UV radiation (both UVB and UVA) a fabric
allows to reach your skin. For example, a UPF 50 fabric blocks 98 percent of the sun’s rays
and allows two percent (one fiftieth) to penetrate, thus reducing your exposure risk signifi-
cantly. A fabric must have a UPF of 30 to qualify for The Skin Cancer Foundation’s seal of

Modern textile science has tried to replicate the latent heat effect in what are called
“phase change materials”. An example of this is called PCM by Schoeller of Switzerland,
quote: “In order to physically incorporate Phase Change Materials in textiles, they are
enclosed in a protective wrapping (a microcapsule with a diameter of just a few microns).
This is to prevent leakage during the liquid phase and to ensure that the garment can stand
the effects of washing and cleaning.” In other words, the capsules change from solid
to liquid and back, releasing or absorbing heat. The capsules are integrated into many
different fabrics including fleece. Team Sky used Rapha fleece jackets made from this,
to be handed out to riders who had finished a long pull at the front. However, take-up of
this technology by makers and the public has been low, which may reflect the practical
effectiveness.

76
Recommendation. A UPF of 30 to 49 offers very good protection, while UPF 50+ rates as
excellent. These treatments generally last for maybe two years of use and washing but, if
the garment becomes badly worn and threadbare, it will lose some of its protective ability.

Keeping a cool head and headgear selection

Hard safety hats for cycling
The new UCI ( International Cycling Union) rules were introduced on 5 May 2003, and
the 2003 Giro d’Italia was the first major race affected. The 2003 rules allowed helmets to
be discarded during final climbs of at least five kilometres but subsequent revisions made
helmet use mandatory at all times.
This was probably enabled by improvements in cycle helmets, where much more ventila-
tion was introduced by having the moulding cores of the inner shock-absorbing in two direc-
tions; upwards of course and horizontally to allow complete air flow in the direction of the
rider. But be aware it is only the higher-cost helmets that have this feature.
Climbing helmets, of course, have to provide protection in a completely different way, for
example against rockfall, so therefore cannot be as open as cycle helmets and are therefore
hotter. It is possible however to select a helmet with a light-coloured outer to reflect sunlight.
Soft hats
Because knitted fabrics are close-fitting and are good at providing warmth (which you
wish to avoid) then avoid them. Most hats available today are the peaked variety which do not
give any protection for the ears. Broad-brimmed hats are becoming harder to find. Choose
one in cotton so that you can soak it with water. This enables evaporative cooling to continue
for longer than if it were in a synthetic polymer which doesn’t hold so much water. There are
times when you may have to choose between drinking your water or pouring it over your hat
and head.
Hydration and use of electrolytes
Increase your liquid intake. Sweat includes salts of various types and depletion causes
a variety of issues, so consider introducing electrolytes into your liquid. Electrolytes do not
have any caloric or nutritional attributes but they do have a positive effect.

10. Layering for looks and how fashion sometimes impairs function
We were surprised when this subject was specifically requested by an outdoor profes-
sional we are working with. Clothing has always been a personal statement by the wearer,
who will usually opt to wear something that positions them among their peers or society at
large. That applies to mountaineers and bike riders alike.
Clothing is a reflection of status or how you want to be seen. Wearing particular clothing,
whether fashion or outdoor gear, means you fit into a tribe or group.
Clothing choices are about more than keeping dry and staying warm, because what you
wear reflects where you belong or how you want to be perceived by your peers or by wider
society. Rebelling against parental norms transformed what teenagers in Western Europe
and the United States wore from the 1960s onwards. After the Second World War “scruffi-
ness” was a crucial way to fit into an emerging climbing community whose values and
norms could not be more different from the majority of pre-war and 19th-century climbers
and explorers.

77
 Alex McIntyre, Image 3.14 (see John
Porter’s book, One Day as a Tiger) in the late
70s was the epitome of climbing scruffiness
in his fibre pile gear and torn breeches. But
by the early 80s, he was starting to chal-
lenge himself and others and comment that
scruffiness and torn gear was not only inef-
ficient but, in some cases, dangerous. This
was the beginning of the shift in safety and
performance logic, plus the next generation
of clothing layers. Fleece changed the whole
nature of the outdoor clothing business. In
fact, some people when presented with
fleece, said: “That’s too good for climbing.
We’ll use it for the office or the pub until it’s
a bit more ragged!” Image 3.14: Alex Macintyre, Bivi Nevado (John Porter)
Chuck K, our USA editor, comments: “Here, in 2016 still, the more pieces of duct tape
you have pasted on your clothes, the cooler you are, so to speak.”
Respectability and tradition lay at the heart of dress choice among 19th-century naval
polar explorers. Even when British naval expeditions used Eskimo clothing, they went to
great lengths to disguise any reliance on “native” clothing. Traditional naval standards were
maintained at all costs. Polar expeditions by John and James Clark Ross sourced Inuit
fur clothing, sealskin jackets, boots and gloves because their expeditions lasted longer
than intended. All official paintings of the expedition showed the men in full naval uniform

Image 3.15: Fashion and Function in Snow boarding (Dreamstime)

78
conversing with “primitive” Eskimos with spears. On the majority of British expeditions in
search of the Franklin expedition, rigid dress codes were imposed and publicly maintained
and function was often eclipsed by the need to maintain appearances.
High-street fashion trends over the last 20 or 30 years have often been detrimental to the
correct performance of outdoor clothing. Here are a few examples.
• During the 80s, the fashion was for very loose clothing. Snowboard wear was also
very loose, fitting this trend. But as there was almost no “tailoring for function” and
boarding has a wider range of leg movement than skiing, the looseness coincided
with function for legs and arms but not base layers. Base layers are designed to
wick the moisture from the body to avoid evaporative cooling and, when clothing is
a loose fit, it’s not touching the total surface of your skin so this doesn’t wick and
the insulation also drops.
• Low-rise pants. One of the most important areas of the body is the lower back,
where there is a sort of nerve relay centre that enables your lower body to respond
more quickly than if the messages went to your brain. This area is also a critically
important source of back pain. Keeping the back well covered is rather important.
But it’s quite surprising that outdoor brands still feel that they have to make low-rise
trousers to fit consumer demand. Case study: Mike P: “A mountain leader friend
of mine agreed to take an overseas-based group up Scafell in the Lake District. To
ensure all were correctly equipped, he had them sign that they had the essentials
and were wearing everything on his list. ‘I got it all right except I forgot the belts,’
he said. ‘Pardon?’ Reply: ‘They were all wearing low-rise, bum-nick-showing pants
with low crotches as well, and also without belts. Progress was slow! Despite an
early start, we didn’t get back to the pub until after closing time.’”
• A long middle layer and a shorter
overlayering. This is a current street
fashion look but can be quite detri-
mental if you try to replicate it with
outdoor clothing because the rain
being shed on to your mid layer by
your waterproof outer will be wicked
upwards by the mid layers, wetting
your whole body. Yes, wicking works
in all directions. See more on this in
chapter 6, Keeping dry inside and Image 3.16: Fashionable Layering (Dreamstime)
out; moisture management.

Why did knee breeches go out of fashion? (We have been asked!)
This is best answered if we ask where did the trend come from in the beginning? The
answer is from Bavaria, Austria and Switzerland where this was everyday work attire and
hills were steep and breeches provided freedom of movement. British hunters and cyclists
also used breeches for the same reason. (British workmen of the prewar period who needed
leg movement, used a string to hold the lower pant leg higher, creating a bunch of freer fabric
above the knee. In the 1950s and 60s the Swiss and Austrian Alps were the most frequented
by British visitors, who therefore adopted this style of dress. The word “salopette” origi-
nally meant knee breeches with braces. Today the word usually means a high-tech piece of
legwear for climbing or skiing. The English translation “dungarees” was never used because

79
it implies work wear, although salopettes were originally exactly that. (Dungarees are a one-
piece garment consisting of trousers, a piece of cloth that covers your chest, and straps
that go over your shoulders). Over the years, this style of dress started to feel and look like
something worn by Alpine people in leather breeches, or older people or hunting, shooting
and fishing enthusiasts. Then came lots of new fabrics with Elastane fibres such as Power-
stretch which allowed movement without the full knee of breeches. Rohan salopettes in the
80s were a good example of the period and embraced Lycra, giving a more modern feel and
look http://rohantime.com/42438/heritage/
Finally, the influence of wind profiling for cycling demands close fitting clothing. The three
issues together, plus the increased activities of mountain running and TV visibility of cycling
and its participants, were what drove the changes.

Summary
In the Western world, about 60 per cent of the population now lives in cities. That means
their travel to and from work and social events is within an environmentally climate controlled
situation. School playtime for kids is a similar situation. Layering skills in the population at
large are therefore being lost.
Yet you can sign up on-line for a trip to an extreme environment within minutes.
High-performance garments with their integrated technologies do not do everything for
you, despite whatever might be implied. Good layering skills, together with a basic knowl-
edge of human physiology should be considered as potentially adding around 50 per cent to
the basic performance of the garment.

80
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

3.2: How to keep your hands warm in the cold

and wet
Keeping your hands warm and dry (and safe from abrasion, cuts and even frostbite)
involves multifaceted techniques or skills and is not just simply about buying the right gloves.
It is surprising that most of us expect that just one pair of gloves can perform the functions
of insulation, waterproofing and abrasion resistance, considering that for our upper body,
we often need at least three layers to achieve these effects. So our approach in this chapter
is to broaden and deepen your thinking about the problem of cold hands. Surprisingly, even
though garment layers and layering are discussed frequently and layering is a commonly
accepted concept, there is little if any talk about “layering for hands”. Nor is food and drink
brought into the equation despite its being a vital part of the whole picture.
We are all unique individuals, meaning that we differ widely from each other. However,
our social research leads us to believe that variations in the efficiency of circulation to our
hands and feet are very wide indeed and that additionally one of the many aspects of ageing
is a less efficient circulatory system. This means that some people are much more prone to
cold hands than others, older people the more so. That’s even before considering Raynaud’s
syndrome which can occur at any age.
In this section:
1. A brief history of gloves.
2. Introduction to the basics of human metabolism.
3. Manual dexterity.
4. Types and sizing of gloves, mitts and wrist warmers.
5. Heat assistance.
6. Layering examples for activities. How never to lose a glove.
7. Layering: One, two, or three layers? Recommendations.
8. Sizing of gloves, fitting and selecting for layering.

1. A brief history of gloves

There are a few records of gloves in the social history of the western world but almost
nothing about hand protection. The exception is the word gauntlet which derives from medi-
eval jousting and the leather, steel or chainmail gloves that protected hands and wrists against
swords. Today the word gauntlet is still used to reference type of glove with an extended wrist
protection portion.
The history of mountaineering, however, has recorded the serious consequences of lost
gloves on many famous occasions. Examples include the first ascent of an 8,000er by a
French team in 1950, where one of the two summiteers lost his gloves but continued, losing

81
all his fingers and eventually, after months
of hospitalisation, just had hand stumps
remaining. (We advise how never to lose a
glove in section 6.)
As recently as 2013, the very experi-
enced British polar explorer Sir Ranulph
Fiennes had to pull out of his planned expedi-
tion because of frostbite. This was incurred
when he removed his gloves at -30°C to
mend a ski binding.
Comparatively recent Inuit practices
may hark back to long ago. But they vary;
some Inuit rarely layer their gloves… they
are designed to be able to slip your hands
quickly in and out. But some will wear a thin
cloth glove with the mitt when working in cold
temperatures. But some do have layering
techniques. Taking one pair and turning it
inside-out making it bigger (because of the
thick fur inner) to slide over another. Frost-
bite issues for the Inuit usually occur on the
wrists. They use mitts in several more ways
than merely keeping hands warm:
• As an extra sock layer (this in Image 3.17 Inuit mitts (Pitt River Museum,
University of Oxford)
reverse is a longstanding modern
practise – using socks as emer-
gency gloves).
• To keep the face warm by tucking
into the large hood.
• To plug the arms of a jacket (to
avoid heat loss through the sleeve
ends) when huddling to keep warm.
• As a spare boot.

2. Introduction to the basics of

human metabolism
A brief reminder from chapter 3.1, where
we explain how the body gives priority
of circulation to our core, which includes
everything from head to crotch.
Hands and feet are at the extremities
of the body and the natural circulation of
warm blood to them varies very widely in
the population at large. This is in addition to
the fact that the hypothalamus area of our
brain protects our body core temperature by Image 3.18: Human Thermoregulation (OGC)

82
shutting down circulation to the hands and feet (vasoconstriction) and increasing circulation
(vasodilation) to avoid overheating.
First of all, Granny’s advice, “Put your hat on if your hands or feet are cold,” is basically
sound.
The core of course includes our brains (because that’s our computing power and control
centre), and the whole of our digestive system, which is the means by which we convert
food into muscle glycogen and heat.
Vasoconstriction and your resultant very cold hands is more noticeable as your circula-
tion restores during further exercise, causing what is often referred to as “the hot aches”,
which can be quite painful. Vasodilation to get rid of heat is not normally thought of as a
discomfort problem but some people do in warm conditions get very swollen, sweaty hands
that they find uncomfortable.
(Chap 5; Human Physiology in Part 2 covers this aspect in detail.)
Can hands/bodies be trained or acclimatised to cold?
Yes indeed is the answer. An outstanding example is Outward Bound, which was set
up in the UK in the latter part of the Second World War by shipowner Lawrence Holt with
Kurt Hahn. Ships’ crew noticed that young sailors who had not served on sailing boats with
exposure to the elements, as had the older sailors, had lower survival rates in the water
after vessels were torpedoed. The training included outdoor activities of course but there
was a mandatory requirement that all participants either take a daily cold shower or a dip in
the lake! There are many other examples of specific cold training among elite mountaineers
including carrying snowballs in their hands, and training inside freezers.
Additionally, blood circulation decreases with age, while so-called “white finger” or
Raynaud’s syndrome can afflict a person of almost any age.
In summary: Two key reminders about your physiology and metabolism,
1. Rule number one: Keep your body core warm and dry.
2. Rule number two: Remember that the only real source of heat when you are out in
the wilds is food and drink. So maintain hydration and food intake in good time.

3. Manual dexterity
What we are all aiming at is not only the
right balance between warmth and manual
dexterity, but also the capability of dealing
with the perspiration from our hands inside
and rain from outside. Resistance to wear is
also a key issue.
Let’s see what we can learn from indus-
trial gloves. In many countries and areas
of the world it is a legal requirement that
manual workers are given gloves as part of
their personal protective equipment (PPE).
Image 3.19 Manual dexterity in the cold.
Protection is needed not only against (Alan Hinkes).
cold but also heat, chemicals, disease, fric-
tion, abrasion: the list is long. Removing gloves is not an option in these cases, so there is a
standard dexterity test for industrial gloves to ensure that gloves don’t need to be removed.

83
See link to the different types of glove and processes to make them (http://www.elcosh.org/
document/3685/d001225/Information%2BDocument%2Bfor%2BSelecting%2BGloves%2Bfor
%2BProtection%2BAgainst%2BMechanical%2BHazards.html?show_text=1#3). Some types
of industrial gloves are usable for outdoor activity and are often at an attractive price. But they
can miss key features that we expect, such as wrist loops or waterproofing.
There is no dexterity and/or touch-sensitivity standard for outdoor activity gloves. However,
industrial gloves do also there are standards covering everything from chemical, heat, mechan-
ical and MVTR ratings. The dexterity rating for industrial gloves even has a timed standard,
picking up a pin 3 times in 30 seconds, The simplest gloves are tested internally by manufac-
turers themselves but complex gloves must have an external test-house rating.
So let’s look at the key things we want to do, and the tools we use in the outdoors, which
are very wide-ranging.
Additionally the tools and components we touch, such as trekking poles and ice axes, bike
handlebars and gears, benefit from applying some additional insulation overlay, and we deal
with this in a later section.
Not only that but the materials that our tools (poles, axes,etc) are made from differ greatly
in how much heat they absorb and the speed of absorption. Heat loss may be considerable
during many operations performed by your hands: holding walking and ski poles, using your
bike brakes and simply holding the handlebars, using a compass or an Arva (avalanche search
device); smartphone and camera usage; wielding ice axes, zipping your jacket up, (tip: Add
extra-long zip-puller cords for winter or a long cold trip), fitting a helmet, roping up and tying
on, handling karabiners and slings and placing gear. But maybe the key one is fitting crampons:
Alan Hinkes, mountain guide, recalls: “I once saw a Korean climber on K2 take his gloves
off to fit his crampons: he got frostbite. When I was training at Glenmore Lodge, we used to
practise fitting crampons with woollen Dachstein mitts on. Crampons nowadays are much
easier to fit; back then, we had straps and prong buckles.”
Good practice is to practise well with hand protection on.
Frostnip, the precursor to frostbite, can be acquired, even in the UK.
Stuart Smith, mountain instructor says: “On a KIMM/OMM many years ago (starting from
Threlkeld in the UK Lake District), I got frostnip in two fingers and three toes due to wet sloppy
snow and minimal running kit. This still comes back and I get slightly hard white digits now.
Hence I think about my hand protection more closely than most, maybe.”
Arguably, the colder, windier and wetter that conditions get, then no one glove type can do
the job of keeping you warm and dry and providing dexterity at the same time.
Here is our dexterity ability list for cold conditions where removing gloves is either best
avoided or might be vital. In several cases there are minor customisations to be made which
the garment maker doesn’t do for you because they don’t look right in the store or you could
take the approach of considering modifications for each piece of gear you might want to use,
one by one.
We have tried to rank these in order of importance, but everyone must decide their own
priorities according to their activities.
1. Fitting crampons or spikes to boots. Chuck K: “Much easier with ‘cradles’ than old
strap systems.” Stuart Smith: “I got so cold putting old-style crampons on in Scot-
land I backed off the Aonach Eagach ridge and walked back to the valley to rewarm.”
2. Ski touring: Fit and remove skins. Mike P: “I found ‘skin socks’ were a big help in
windy conditions”. (Skin socks are simply a sleeve of fabric that one inserts an arm
into, turning the sleeve inside out over the skins).

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3. Reading an Arva avalanche device, where speed is of the essence for the rescue.
4. Tent erection: including pegging out and threading poles into the sleeves. Chris T:
“Depends on the model, of course. Some can be erected with thick mitts on, some
are still hard with thin liner gloves. Stuart Smith: “In polar conditions when using a
pulk (sled), I preload the pole sleeves with sections already duct taped at the joints
in place. Then the folded sections are closed to roll tent into pulks. This doesn’t work
with a pack, of course, because it’s too long.”
5. Rope work and climbing: Coil rope, knotting, belay, fixing and removing protection.
6. Zip pullers. Chris T: “Longer pullers
are essential.” Mike P: “Customising
with longer cord pullers is standard
procedure for polar trips. Another
option is using Sugru to create your
own preferred size and shape of
puller. You must be able to feel the
puller through your outer gloves. For
most garments as supplied, this is
not the case.”
7. Stuart Smith: “See my custom zip
pullers, Image 3.20”
8. Opening rucksack buckles. Chris T:
“Squeeze types are easiest.” Mike P: Image 3.20: Zip puller extensions (Stuart Smith)
“The narrower webbing used nowa-
days means the buckles are smaller and trickier. The second-generation metal buckles
are bringing easier options.”
9. Jacket hood adjustment. Chris T: “Most hoods I have tested are ok, one-handed pulls
are easiest.” Mike P: “You may have to increase the size of the puller end to feel it
though heavy gloves. Pre trip practise is suggested I find; when buying new, try your
jacket hood with gloves on.”
10. Camera. Chris T: “Depends on the model. I can operate mine with medium-weight
softshell gloves on.” Mike P: “The newer digital cameras and smartphone cameras
need special gloves. I prefer slightly larger cameras with physical buttons.”
11. Smartphones: The screens are known as “capacitive charge” type and are activated
only by something electrically conductive, which includes our fingers. So to operate
them, you either need bare fingers or special gloves that will conduct electricity. Spe-
cial gloves are usually quite thin and so best used as an inner glove. This is becoming
more important as GPS becomes more popular and smartphones are used for GPS
navigation.
12. Stuart Smith: “The basic dexterity test we used to use when training was opening a
packet of Opal Fruits with inner gloves”
13. Chuck K: “Opening ziplock bags that I use to carry food and snacks. I often use
a small piece of duct tape to create a small opening at the top so I can insert my
thumb to open the bag. Otherwise I find these bags impossible to open in the cold.”

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4. Types and sizing of gloves, mitts and wrist warmers
In contrast to socks (which have a mix of up to five polymers in each sock but only one
process – knitting), glove manufacture is a multiplicity of processes. Depending on whether
they are gloves, mitts or wrist warmers and waterproof or non-waterproof, they are made
using a very wide variety of processes, knitting, cut and stitch, taped seams, pre-shaped
liners, moulding and so on.
Because of dexterity, insulation, waterproofing and sweat permeability needs being so
different in each different type of sport we have counted somewhere in the region of 50
different sports having specialised gloves. To that we must add all the types of industrial and
military gloves.
Types of materials used are also very wide:
• Simple knit, as in low cost industrial inner gloves.
• Directional wicking (knitted) fabrics such as Powerstretch.
• Waterproof fabrics such as Gore-tex and eVENT.
• Non woven fabrics meaning insulation wadding, for example Primaloft, Thinsulate.
• Non-compressible insulation (closed-cell foams as in ground pads, cellular neo-
prene as in wetsuits or aerogel.
• Tactile or gripping or abrasion-resistant surfaces for palms and fingers (leather,
rubber and so on).

Knitted gloves and mitts (from original Dachsteins to modern Powerstretch)

Knitting is an excellent process for making
gloves because the inherent stretch of knitted
fabric enables a very good fit and the loops
hold air which is the best insulation (when
dry, at least). They are usually quite thin (with
some notable exceptions such as Dachstein
mitts), so allowing good dexterity and tactile
sensitivity. Basic knitted gloves are often made
of polypropylene, are very low cost, wear into
holes quite quickly, and absorb water very
readily. For these reasons you would normally
carry at least one spare pair.
Dachstein wool mitts are the original
Austrian knitted gloves that UK climbers and
mountaineers used all through the 50s to the
70s. They are warm when wet.
Some still swear by them and indeed they
can still be bought in a few specialist stores.
They were knitted but in addition received a
“fulling” process, where the whole woollen
mitt is subjected to a sort of hammering
process with some added chemicals and
heat to ensure that the wool shrinks and
becomes extremely tight and almost wind-
proof. There is an interesting paragraph on Image 3.21: Dachstein mitt (OGC)

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wool and its tendency to shrink and “felt” in the next chapter 4.0, Socks and Layering for
feet and legs.
An improvement on basic knitted gloves, polyester fleece or polypropylene, are those
made from a directional wicking knitted fabric, Powerstretch by Polartec being the most
frequently used. Directional wicking knitted fabric helps ensure that your sweat is pulled
outwards and that there is less water ingress from the outside.
Both these types of knitted gloves are excellent for using as a liner for a larger five-finger
glove or mitt.

Wrist warmers

Image 3.22: Wristwarmers (OGC) Image 3.22a: Wristwarmers (OGC)

Fingerless gloves look very similar and are field tested by the many market traders
handling cash in winter. Both work well as the first layer or two or three-layer system. It is
a much-overlooked piece of variable length that is very helpful to keep circulation moving
through to your fingers. It can be a simple sleeve with a thumb hole or have a thumb loop.
It’s also easier to use and less easily lost than a glove because you can leave it on your wrist
simply by removing the thumb and roll back out of the way.
Longer versions of these as full arm warmers are often used by bike riders to supplement
short-sleeved riding vests.

Nordic ski gloves

Unlike alpine ski gloves, they are thin and so have good dexterity, but are windproof and
may be lightly insulated. They have a very tight wrist closure which can make them useful
for climbing.
Touchscreen gloves for operating your smartphone are knitted with an integrated
conductive metal fibre. They are very thin and the metal strands are sometimes visible.

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They can serve as an inner glove to an outer
warmer or waterproof shell.
About Screens, capacitive or resistive types.
Smart phones use capacitive screens
which are electrically sensitised. However,
smart watches and other devices use resis-
tive touch screens which flex very slightly
under pressure, but don’t react to multi-
finger gestures, as do capacitive screens.
Alex Roddy TGO: “Most of the GPS
watches currently available either use
capacitive touch or don’t use touchscreens
at all, such as the Garmin Fenix 5 Plus,
which does not have a touchscreen and
is operated entirely with buttons – a much
better interface for an outdoor watch, in my
opinion. Some Suunto models use a combi-
nation of buttons and capacitive touch. A few
devices still use resistive touchscreens but
these are now quite rare. I tested one earlier
in the year, the OS Aventura (a chunky hand-
held GPS). These don’t need a bare finger
or conductive glove to work, but are signifi-
cantly less responsive than capacitive touch
and don’t support multi-finger gestures.”

Fingerless mitts Image 3.23: Nordic Ski Glove (OGC)

A cyclists’ favourite and sometimes called track mitts (track cycling needed hand protec-
tion in case of sliding down a 40-degree banking). They often come with integrated gel
pads for anti-vibration. They are very useful for rock climbing, scrambling and cable routes
(known as via ferratas in Italian or Klettersteig in German in most areas of the Alps.
Static “layering”

Image 3.25 bike rider + handlebar mitts

Image 3.24: Bar Mitts (Cold Avenger)

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 For some activities, fixing the outer layer permanently on bars or paddle shafts is the way
to go; e.g. handlebar mitts, also known as bar mitts, pogies or weathershields.
Chris T: “Pacerpoles (a unique UK-made pole with a horizontal ergonomic handle) make
some neoprene mitts designed to be left on the poles.”
MTB riders who spend an extended amount of time in very cold weather use handlebar
mitts on their bike handlebars, to protect hands and handlebar area from wind, rain or snow
and away from. Gloves are of course still needed underneath.
These are not technically considered “gloves” as they are not worn on the hand, but
they fulfill the same function as an outer glove. The Iditarod mtb event in Alaska (http://www.
iditarodtrailinvitational.com/) certainly spurred development work here. This website has a
good history of their evolution (http://bikepacker.com/history-pogies-buy/).
They are also used on quad bikes (agricultural uses), by dog-sled mushers and on canoe
and kayak paddle shafts.

Waterproof gloves and mitts including Gore-tex, eVENT and Porelle

One of the most frequent questions we
get is about waterproof gloves. Andy Kirk-
patrick in his inimitable style says there is no
such thing as a waterproof glove because of
the hole through which you put your hands!
(https://andy-kirkpatrick.com/articles/view/
the_truth_about_gloves) Of course this
concept can also apply to all waterproof
outerwear. In reality, keeping dry is not only
technology but your applied technique.
There are ways of mitigating the problem,
for a time at least! When working retail he
used to jokingly recommend to customers
a moulded gardening glove. Under certain
conditions one might use these but you will
soon have hands drenched with sweat. Image 3.26: West coast glove (Alan Halewood)
Alan Halewood sent us his favorite glove image (3.26), naming it a ‘west coast glove’
meaning west coast of Scotland where conditions are often very wet, windy and cold,
requiring multiple changes of gloves for a full day. The outer surface of this glove is fully
waterproof but not breathable, of course.
So let’s take a closer look at what other types of waterproof gloves and mitts there are.
There are essentially two construction method types;
1. ePFTE films ( Gore-Tex and eVENT), which are laminated to woven fabrics similar
to waterproof outerwear. Because woven fabrics have little stretch, these mitts, and
especially the gloves, need lots of pattern pieces to create the complex shapes.
2. Stretchy Hydrophilic PU films laminated to knitted fabrics to make gloves (and,
increasingly, waterproof socks). There are very few seams because the knitted fab-
ric stretches to fit. This is possibly the largest category and includes many gloves
for bike, ski, climb and general use. These are mainly gloves, with one notable or
unusual example as shown below of an OR lightweight knitted mitt for runners.
Gore-tex and eVENT. There is a distinct difference in method of construction between
gloves and mitts. Non-insulated mitts are usually made from waterproof Gore-tex laminate

89
and taped, just like a three-ply waterproof garment. In the case of insulated five-finger gloves
and mitts, they are made with a glove insert as a liner, which has pre-bonded seams. So the
outer is not essentially waterproof. This is because it’s far too complex to make a five-finger
glove with taped seams (with the odd very rare exception).
A Gore-tex glove and mitt insert (see picture left, Image 3.27 courtesy WL Gore), made
from an ePTFE waterproof breathable membrane which is totally sealed. However, they are
not bonded to the outer textile of the glove. This means that none of the seams need to be
taped, making glove construction rather easier. However, the glove absorbs some water into
the outer materials which comprise leather, fabric and insulation fibres.
We asked WL Gore directly on this issue and the reply was:
“Regarding the absorption of water, GORE is testing the whole glove performance for
breathability and insulation in a wet state (artificial sweat) to prevent a performance loss
of a GORE-TEX glove by being soaked. Most of the shell fabrics and leather used today are
coming with a coating or lamination (mostly for seam integrity reasons) anyway and are not
taking up much water. We recommend manufacturers to use our insert as close to the outer
fabric shell as possible and keep all insulation on the inside. For a Standard GORE-TEX glove,
we have no restrictions regarding the number of layers but we have some product technolo-
gies such as grip gloves, where we restrict them to just a shell and one layer of insulation.”
Stuart Smith: Sailors and swiftwater technicians/ fire and Rescue personnel are using
special gloves, such as Palm gloves which I as an Outdoor Instructor, use in the water: They
are closed-cell Neoprene gloves with reinforced palms. This is wetsuit material by any other
name and does not have any breathability (MVTR).
Our conclusion is that a waterproof taped seam mitt has the least water absorption, and
is the most water resistant/waterproof. This is because it doesn’t have any insulation to soak
up sweat and rain, and very little in terms of tactile surfaces and has taped seams.
This type of taped seam waterproof mitt is now also being offered by the mountain
running brands, OMM, Inov8 and OR, using proprietary fabrics. In this case they are made
from thin stretchy knitted materials instead of woven. They are very light (30g/1oz per pr)
and thin, and can be tucked easily into a hip belt pocket. Most people won’t consider them

Image 3.28: Light waterproof running mitt (OGC)

90
because they assume warmth must mean thickness. Warmth however is also maintained
through prevention of heat loss by conduction and convection, wind and rain.

5. Heat assistance
While it is far preferable to use techniques and better glove selection, from time to time
a little assistance can be helpful. Heated gloves are becoming gradually more available but
variety is very limited so you may not get the right combination of insulation, waterproofing
and manual dexterity you need. They are also rather expensive. Heated mitts do seem more
effective than heated gloves.
Mike P: “My tests with heated gloves indicate that the cooling produced by strong winds in
cold wet conditions (wind-chill factor sub zero °C) on a finger glove was not sufficient to main-
tain a comfortable temperature for more than a couple of hours. My current opinion, therefore,
is that heated mitts, which have a much smaller surface area, hence much lower heat loss than
gloves, would be more effective, when used, of course, with a finger glove inner.”
Heat assistance or add-on heating can sometimes, not always, be effective. There are
essentially four types. Catalytic (charcoal in a soft packet): use once only then dispose.
Metal container (see right) with wick/liquid fuel. Reusable. Zippo hand warmer: lighter
than the powerbank and uses liquid fuel, usually methanol or ethanol.
Rechargeable hand warmers by Zippo
(Image 3.29).
There are other possible uses for these
heaters such as keeping liquids from freezing
in bladders or feed tubes.
Stuart S: “Also drying thin inner gloves
while they are stashed.”
Mike P: “It is easy to assume that added
heat is more effective than layering. Here is
an illuminating example. While I was wearing
thin Nordic ski gloves that were completely
windproof and slightly waterproof, my hands
went into vasoconstriction when the temper-
ature dropped to 6°C with rain and wind. I Image 3.29 Zippo handwarmer (Zippo)
inserted a charcoal hand warmer in one glove,
and pulled on a very thin non-insulated waterproof mitt over the other glove. The latter was
much more successful because it protected the whole of the very high surface area of the
fingers from wind and evaporative cooling. Conclusion: prevention of heat lost by conduction
and evaporation is sometimes more effective than simply an artificial heat source.”

6. Layering tips and examples for activities. How never to lose a glove
Remember that gloves will “steal” heat from your hands until a temperature balance is
reached and your hands and gloves are the same. So it’s important not to lose the heat which
is then stored in the glove. First of all, never sit on your gloves! To conserve this heat we
suggest there are only four places for your gloves when they are not on your hands.
• Dangling from your wrist loop temporarily as in the picture, left.
• Attached to cords or tape threaded through the sleeves and whole jacket – the origi-
nal polar method. However this is improved nowadays as an external harness.

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Image 3.30: Expedition mitts Image 3.31: Glove on Wrist Loop (OGC)
(Wintergreen, Northern Wear)

Image 3.32: Stowing gloves to retain warmth (OGC) Image 3.33: Keeping outer glove safe (OGC)

• See picture of Brenig musher gloves. Image 3.30.

• This ‘Wintergreen Norhernwear’ glove comes with a harness see Image 3.33
• 3. Stuffed in your pockets, cuffs inwards.
• Best of all, zipped inside your jacket with the openings facing downwards to avoid
heat loss. Some jackets have a very wide inside chest pocket for this purpose. See
Image 3.34
Choose an outer glove with double pull tab. You pull one to close, the other to open.
Ensure that you can manage to get your wrist and hand into the second glove while
wearing the first glove you are trying. Some mitts and gloves have an additional closure
around the wrist that adds additional protection to prevent rain entering the glove down your
sleeve. It’s important that you experiment before purchase with taking your hands in and out
the gloves using the closure systems to prevent water ingress. (Bear in mind also that damp
hands are much harder to push into gloves.)

92
 Stuart S: “I sometimes find this feature a bit ‘faffy.’ Sometimes these tabs are dual-
colored cord and do not always show up when using goggles or cat 4 glasses. They are
hard to use sometimes when using mitts. They add to wrist bulk and cause minor location
confusion – top or bottom of wrist cuff.”
Always have at least one spare pair: mountaineering history has many famous stories of
the dire consequences of the loss of gloves. Gloves get wet, of course, and on any long, cold
serious day, one or two spare dry pairs are essential.

7. Layering: One, two, or three layers?

In very cold and or wet, windy high-chill-factor conditions, the key issue is manual
dexterity and touch sensitivity.
In very wet conditions, it’s best to have spare gloves to change into rather than assume
gloves are waterproof.
Keeping your hands and feet warm needs skill and practice possibly to a greater extent
than general layering for the body.

Here are some hand-layering ideas:

Recommendations
• Wrist warmers serve as a first layer for many activities because they fit easily within
many other gloves; e.g. Nordic ski glove (or windproof fleece), cycling gloves. They
also protect the often neglected wrist area, vital to keep blood flowing into the hands.
• For backpacking and general outdoors activity in spring through autumn tempera-
tures, when the main tools used are poles and cameras, two lightweight gloves are
best to deal with wind and rain. Powerstretch gloves, for warmth and with OMM or
Inov-8 waterproof overmitts are small enough to stuff into a typical hip belt pocket
on your pack. Wrist warmers instead of gloves might be enough when combined
with a thin OMM/Inov-8 waterproof overmitt.
• Winter climbing needs three layers plus even maybe spares as well.
• Suggestion: wrist warmers, plus a thin but totally windproof glove (Nordic ski
gloves are good) and a Gore-tex waterproof outer glove or even a mitt instead if
conditions are cold.
• Ski touring. There is a dramatic temperature difference between January and May.
According to season that might mean from three layers early season to bare hands
late season, but watch for sunburn in latter case. Aluminium poles conduct heat
very rapidly. Select a pole with a well-insulated hand grip but also with an extended
insulated section below. So, when traversing steep slopes and dropping your upper
hand to compensate, you are still touching an insulated area. If you have old-style
poles without this extension use cycle handlebar insulating tape.
• Cycling. Road. Insulating handlebars is a first step. Insulated tape is readily avail-
able. Arm or wrist warmers together with a wind/waterproof insulated glove.
• Cycling MTB. Dexterity needs depend a little on whether SRAM or Shimano gear
shifters are used.
Here are the inputs from our editors and contributors;
Layering issues
Chris T: “Thinking about gloves, I’ve realised that, although I like the idea of layering,
I rarely actually do it, usually only wearing one pair at a time, swapping them as required.

93
Liner gloves when it’s not too cold or windy, light windproof softshell or fleece gloves most
of the time, thick insulated mitts if my hands get cold (usually at stops or when fitting cram-
pons, ski skins) - I rarely wear these for more than half an hour before my hands get hot
and I remove them.
“When I am layering, it’s for much colder, drier areas than the UK such as Yellowstone
and it worked well. I carry Gore-Tex shell mitts, which I sometimes wear over the liner or
windproof gloves, though not often. For igloo-building where I am either patting snow or
holding a cold shovel, I use my 1980s Black Diamond gloves, which have removable thick
pile inner gloves and waterproof non-breathable shells. These are extremely warm but allow
very little dexterity.
Chuck K: “Although our climate over here in East coast USA is very different than the UK,
I agree with everything said so far. I often wear windproof fleece gloves and a shell over if
necessary. My climbing gloves have patches of ensolite (closed cell foam like karrimat) on
top of the hand so you can place your hand on the ice and not get cold. In very cold tempera-
tures, I have a pair of thick (expedition class) mitts, where I can slide my hands easily in and
out when I need to repair something with my hands.”
Stuart S: “I use lightweight non-insulated Extremities Tuff Bags mitts, made from Gore-
tex outer, together with my choice of synthetic “wool” pile inner and a closed cell foam insert
which has space for a handwarmer, either solid fuel or chemical.
Issues of reinserting wet hands into glove
Chuck K: “One issue I found on my last hike was that my hands got too warm. When I
took the mitts off, my hands were damp and I found it difficult to get my hands back into the
mitts. Maybe a thin cotton glove would have helped?”
Chris T: “I’ve had this problem with quite a few gloves I’ve tested – potentially it’s very
serious. There are pairs I never used again due to this. It’s particularly bad with ones where
the inner pulls out of the shell when you take them off because it sticks to your fingers.
Getting the inner fingers back in the shell fingers can be impossible.”
Mike P: “I suspect glove manufacturers are selecting glove lining textiles that feel good
and warm as you try them on in the store. Hopefully test reports can overcome this and a
simple ‘wet hand’ test can be developed. Technically speaking, glove linings should be the
directional wicking type.”
Issues in Cold/dry conditions
Mike P: “I use a lightly insulated but totally windproof Nordic ski glove inside my shell
mitts or even five-finger mountaineering gloves so that I can handle climbing hardware.”
Stuart S: “In this picture of me in minus 20°C (-4°F) in Finland, I have on three layers of
gloves: silk gloves, Ansell thermaknit (low-cost industrial gloves) and the outer fibre-pile-
shelled mitt from Montane. When standing still, I added a fourth layer, a Primaloft mitt inside
the orange outer.
Al Hinkes: “I used a variety of gloves and mitts for my 28 expeditions to the 14 8,000ers.
I always had spares – losing a glove would have most likely resulted in frostbite (and
possible post-expedition amputation), or even led to a further incident en route caused by
the lowered physical capacity and even resulted in death. Therefore, in high altitude situa-
tions one must not proceed with cold feet or hands, assuming that proceeding further will
warm them. It won’t, and the higher you, go the worse it gets. Feet are also important but

94
to be frank, people can and do continue with
frozen toes (sometimes resulting in amputa-
tion) but with frozen fingers your ability to do
the essentials becomes impossible.
“I would very rarely have bare hands or
fingers. I often used ski-type gloves because
dexterity is quite good, and sometimes
de-layered to ‘thinnies’ – polypropylene
inners or thin wool or silk gloves. Power-
stretch gloves were only just becoming
available, but they were a little thicker and
not quite so fine a touch. I would sometimes
add a third layer, a thin overmitt a ‘thinnie’
or over thicker gloves as a windproof layer. I
always had a couple of spare thinnies.
“In terms of losing heat to tools and gear,
the tent poles were alloy so I had to wear
‘thinnies’ or thicker gloves when erecting
the tent. My axe shafts had a rubber sleeve. Image 3.34: Finland in winter at -20C (Stuart Smith)
Very occasionally, I would cover the axe head with Karrimat held on by Duck tape.
“A camera is an added risk of frostbite so extra care is needed – again always thinnies
at least – often thicker gloves and I practise using and handling the kit. Most of my expeds
were using traditional film cameras and cassette digital video. I never had a film crew so had
to do it all myself, adding to the risk and overall time taken on the route.”
Avoiding frostbite is layering and attention to detail and situational awareness en route
“I monitored my fingers – making sure they never went numb – scrunching them to
pre-empt cold.
Stopping to rewarm, Windmilling my arms, getting the blood flowing to finger ends.
“You suffer hot-aches when warming them up. Feet are, of course, the same issue. I once
had an 8,000m bivouac and had to stay awake all night massaging my feet. My colleague
didn’t and carried on next day, with, sadly, subsequent post-expedition amputation.
Insulation to other items – water bottles were always plastic or nalgene but never
aluminium (which has the highest conductivity of all metals.)
Sometimes I would make a cover with karrimat to keep the contents warm, but diameter
was increased which made handling more difficult.”
See frostbite info from Mayo clinic: https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/
frostbite/symptoms-causes/syc-20372656

8. Sizing, fitting and selecting for layering.

About sizing and selecting for layering of gloves and mitts
Glove sizing. Measure the circumference around the palm of your hand (or knuckles), in
inches, so 8½inches is a size 8½. Manufacturers then translate that into S, M, L and XL so
one has to read their chart. But brands interpret differently so instead of being reliable, glove
sizing is as chaotic as clothing sizes. Not only does the actual size vary per brand, but gloves
that should be your correct size are often far too small to layer another thin glove inside.

95
 We asked Paul Casey, the CEO and owner of The Climbers Shop and Joe Brown in the UK
for his thoughts lest we had arrived at too jaundiced a view.
He replied: “Hi Mike, I stopped trying to use supplier size charts for gloves many years
ago. As you say, there is no consistency between brands or even within a brand’s own
range. It’s even more confused when you look at trying to layer gloves. I have found the
only way to get the right size glove is to try each and every model on. Especially important
when buying different layers that you try them on at the same time. As you say, it’s worse
than garments as fit is so critical in gloves. There are many brands or models of glove I just
can’t use personally because they do not fit my hand shape or size. In the end that’s why we
range such an enormous choice – it’s the only way to give a perfect fit.
Summary of how to select and fit
Remember the 4 key aspects of keeping hands warm.
1. Understanding human physiology (vasoconstriction).
2. Metabolism and the importance of food as a heat source.
3. Understanding the heat absorbing aspects of the tools we use.
4. Dexterity skills and customisation of some garment features.
5. We don’t expect a waterproof layer alone to do everything we need on our upper bod-
ies, so why expect a single glove to be adequate for a hand? It’s all about layering.
6. Avoid removing gloves in the cold, so select and combine gloves and mitts that can
layer together, to avoid exposing bare hands.
7. Always try to buy a winter glove with enough room to take a second thinner pair
inside, which has the dexterity you need. Naturally, that doesn’t prevent you from
using the outer glove on its own, without an inner: a little extra roominess means
it’s easier to get your sweaty or wet hands back in.
8. Your inner glove needs to give adequate short-term protection when your hands
are removed from the outer, with the dexterity that you need, and an outer glove for
insulation and/or waterproofing.
9. When trying the gloves on, always have your full outer-layer jackets with you. When
the cuffs are closed, they should tuck easily inside or outside (depending on your
activity) the glove. Jacket cuffs vary in aperture size/circumference so you may
not get the cuff over your jacket, only under. But if it needs to go under then is the
gauntlet area /extended cuff wide enough?
10. Ensure that you can fit your hand into the second glove while wearing the double
glove on the other hand – that’s the test!
11. Gauntlets are a type of glove or mitt with a long, flared, open cuff with two pulls,
one to open, the other to close. Look for the additional pull closure around the wrist.
This adds additional protection to prevent rain running down your sleeve into your
glove. It’s important that you experiment before purchase by taking your hands in
and out of the gloves using the closure systems.
12. Fit for glove layering is supercritical, even more so than for a garment. Ignore
manufacturers’ sizing. Go into the store and try, unless you are buying simpler
lower-cost liner gloves. Ignore the size charts and try to test dexterity with inners
and outers, multiple layers and delayering. So don’t buy online, go to the store and
try!
13. When going into the store, take your favourite old existing gloves. Maybe even ask
the store to help you try on while holding an axe or pole or trying crampon fitting.

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 14. If selecting gauntlet-style gloves with single hand closure and opening, try on with
your bulky outer jacket to see if you can get a good fit that sheds water somewhat.
And try, try and try again until you get the good closure and the right fit and combi-
nation of warmth and dexterity and tactile sensitivity.
15. Hestra of Sweden is the only glove manufacturer we have found in the world, who
thinks layering for hands (https://hestragloves.com/sport/en/article/hestra-glove-
system/).
If the worst came to the very worst, cold hands might lead to frostbite, so remember
the insights into avoidance by Alan Hinkes, whose skills prevented him from ever suffering
frostbite despite his having summited all 14 of the world’s 8000m peaks through 28 expedi-
tions. Even frostnip (the stage before frostbite) can have long term effects, as Stuart Smith
shared with us.

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Raynaud’s syndrome
Raynaud’s syndrome, also known as Raynaud’s phenomenon, is a medical condition
in which spasm of arteries cause episodes of reduced blood flow. Typically, the fingers,
and less commonly the toes, are involved. The skin goes white, then blue and, as circu-
lation returns, turns red and tingles, sometimes painfully. Rarely, the nose, ears, or lips
are affected. According to USA Army reports, this affects around 10 per cent of the adult
female population but less for men. The reasons for this are not known. Sufferers need to
develop their own techniques for dealing with this in everyday life. For outdoor activities,
it’s a much more serious issue, especially for rock climbing where confidence in one’s
grip is vital.
Remedies: Consult your doctor, there are two different types of Raynaud’s; tests to
help are still in their infancy but develop your own understanding by on-line research.
Layering techniques for hands as described in this chapter can be of some help.
Mike P: “For most of my life, I have had remarkably good circulation and I needed
very little in terms of warm gloves. No longer! I have developed Raynaud’s and at times it
is quite severe. I find it curious that no articles on the subject point out the body’s normal
reaction (for 100 per cent of the population) to keep the core warm is by reducing blood
circulation to the hands and feet. This is called vasoconstriction and is talked about here
in this chapter and others. What I find is that it is helpful to keep my core and arms warm
(and using more layers than friends around me, which causes some comment!). After
being inactive for some period, working on my computer or reading, then even around
the house if I touch a bottle of milk in the fridge, it triggers. I find that sometimes it’s
not even something cold, even touching any surface is prone to trigger a reaction. Even
putting thin gloves on before leaving the building can sometimes set it off.
Some people have tried the prescription drug Nifedrine (which is used for cases of
frostbite) but I have had no success.
My Recommendations;
• Wrist warmers are a must, even for inside the house.
• A two-layer glove system, maybe even three-layer when including wrist warmers.
• Keep inner gloves dry and warm ready to put on.
• Have your selected outer gloves ready for use. In warmer conditions for summer
use a very thin light runner’s overmitt is very effective over Powerstretch. Some-
times, wind protection is far more effective than thick insulation.
• Insulate your equipment – axes, poles and so on – by taping or wrapping
closed-cell foam around any bare metal. Aluminium has the highest thermal
conductivity, so beware of exposed metal areas on walking or ski poles or axes.
• Ski poles with an extended grip below the primary grip area are best.
• Walking poles need to be insulated below the handle. Choose poles with a han-
dle with good thermal insulation, cork might be the best but is becoming rare.
• When belaying, use selected inner gloves to help prevent the rope triggering an
attack.
Are you a sufferer? Please send your best tips, ideas and or questions to me mike@
outdoorgearcoach.co.uk

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 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

4: Socks and Layering for feet and legs

Feet produce more sweat per square inch than any other part of the body. a pair of feet
can have about 250,000 sweat glands that can produce about half a pint of moisture a day.
Socks (and footwear) are a crucial element of your moisture-management system.
Comfortable feet are absolutely vital when you are out there enjoying your outdoor sports
and activities. it isn’t easy to achieve comfort without careful choice and management of
socks, footwear and insoles, allied to looking after your foot health. But don’t forget that your
legs also need to be adequately insulated for the conditions. Keeping legs and ankles warm
helps ensure your body doesn’t trigger vasoconstriction and reduce circulation to your feet.
the right combination of gaiters, over-bootees (cycling) leggings, pants and sometimes over-
trousers are important for keeping feet warm, when allied to the right footwear and socks.
(Choice of footwear itself of course is a critical factor but too long to be dealt with in this
chapter or even this book.)
1. A short history of socks.
2. The sock myth: “A sock is a sock is a sock and there is nothing to be understood?”
3. Types of sock.
4. Fibres used in socks – it’s the combination of fibres that counts.
5. Moisture management, insulation and foot layering.
6. Which is the best type of sock for you?
7. Interview with a sock manufacturer. Join Mike and George in their sock tech talk.
8. Layering for legs to help keep your feet warm. Directional wicking base layers,
trousers, bib trousers/salopettes, gaiters and leggings,

1. a short history of socks

We have produced a fascinating short
history of socks starting prior to the time when
knitting was invented. What the ancient greeks
and romans used through the centuries up
to the great polar explorations when famous
explorers like Scott, Shackleton and nansen
were using reindeer-skin boots lined with
grass. (See sennagrass picture, image 4.1.
ignore the seeds, it’s the leaves they used.)
this story is online at our website at link
https://www.outdoorgearcoach.co.uk/
history-of-socks/ image 4.1: Sennagrass (Public Domain)

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2. The sock myth:
“A sock is a sock is a sock and there is
nothing to be understood.”
Not so! Socks are a sophisticated and
technical part of your layering system,
and are produced using high-produc-
tivity, capital-intensive machinery, mainly in
Western countries, unlike garments.
Specialist outdoor socks are still mainly
produced in Europe, the UK and the USA
(unlike most other garments, which are Image 4.2: (Dreamstime)
usually produced in low-labour-cost coun-
tries in Asia) and are an exacting mix of up to five different fibres chosen for optimum
durability, strength, sweat absorption and comfort. (These fibres are wool, nylon, polyester,
polypropylene and elastane. (We are excluding here such fibres as cotton, acrylic, regener-
ated cellulose/rayon, which don’t really make a good performance sock, although they are
often temptingly cheaper.)
Additionally, some of these Western sock factories are driving sustainability and eco-
friendly production systems at a fast pace, for example using recycled nylon, which is rather
new as at 2018.
Socks are unique in that no other garment is exposed to such a high combination of
wear and comfort factors: high compression (differing widely according to sport activity
type), friction from feet and cutting by toe nails, abrasion from the boot, sweat output, and
of course, water ingress.

3. Types of sock
There are essentially four different types of sock.
1. Activity socks (often by specific activity/sport).
2. Liner socks.
3. Compression socks and tubes.
4. Waterproof socks.
Activity socks. Most socks fall into this category. The inner face is terry loop (Image
4.3, which is like a terry towelling and provides the essential comfort and sweat absorp-
tion capabilities of the sock combined with the wool fibres. The placement of the padding
or cavities is what makes them activity-specific. But for warmth, ignore the activity labelling
and look at the sock inside to see if there is a total wool/terry-loop covering the areas that
are important to you.
Marian P comments: “Re ‘activity-specific socks’, I am concerned that there are often
very thin areas of tight non-terry-loop stretch, then thicker terry loop padding in another
part of the sock. I have found that the great differences in thickness and stretch can cause
uncomfortable ridges or rucking up.
“Also, because of added Elastane, many designs are too tight at the top of the leg, making
a groove in the skin and possibly affecting circulation. Another issue is the length of the leg,
in that they often call them ‘calf length’ when they barely come above the ankle, and it’s
important not to have a draughty gap where the trouser bottom meets the top of the sock.”

100
 Mike P: “The knitting technologies being
brought into play can be very effective but
certainly make wrong sock choice deci-
sions more likely, so take care and read the
fibre-content label and turn the sock inside
out before buying, as only then can you
observe clearly what you are getting.”
Liner socks. These are not terry-loop
knitted and the fibres used are mainly poly-
ester, some polypropylene and very occa-
sionally silk or nylon. They can be used for
a number of reasons including increased Image 4.3: Terry loop (Dreamstime)
insulation, reducing friction between sock
and boot by allowing friction between liner sock and main sock, dealing with moisture, or as
a space filler to ensure a better fit if your boot seems a little too roomy.
Compression socks and compression tubes (tubes are socks without feet) are not terry
loop construction. This is a growing sector with high elastane content (>10 per cent and as
high as 20 per cent) and they provide many benefits, from athletic recovery to protection for
a wide range of medical issues such as deep vein thrombosis.
Waterproof socks. The first waterproof socks available were made in the 1980s using
stretch Gore-­tex woven fabric with taped seams. These have long since disappeared from
the market and the successor products in the marketplace are all knitted.
There are (as at mid-2018) still only four suppliers of waterproof socks. Sealskinz UK,
Dex UK, Showerspass USA (bike apparel), and the latest entrant, Bridgedale UK.
The originator was Porelle, UK producers of hydrophilic membranes sold as Porelle
“Drys”. The name was changed to Sealskinz in 2007, when there was a management
buyout. The second company, DexShell, also UK based, uses the Porelle membrane. Water-
proof socks have a waterproof hydrophilic membrane sandwiched between the inner and
outer layers of the knitted sock. Hydrophilic means there is moisture vapour transmission,
and the measurement is called MVTR (moisture vapour transmission rate) but there is no
direct air exchange allowing air to move in or out of the socks. As far as we can ascertain,
all are made by bonding or laminating three layers together. The waterproof hydrophilic PU or
polyester film is the mid layer, with a knitted outer surface of harder wearing polymer (nylon),
with a touch of elastane to ensure the top is tight against your leg to keep water out. The
knitted inner layer is terry loop knit wool, mixed with polyester to help wick moisture from the
wool through to the membrane and then the outer.

4. Fibres used in socks – it’s the combination of fibres that counts

Socks may consist of a very technical mix of up to five different fibres, depending on the
type of sock and activity.
The fibres used and the mixes have evolved over several years to achieve the best
balance of comfort and durability.
1. Wool is the comfort and sweat-absorption component.
2. Nylon is the vital inner mesh holding the whole sock together.
3. Polypropylene adds some springiness and helps recovery from compression.
4. Polyester ensures that your sweat is being wicked outwards. (Wool doesn’t wick, it
absorbs.)

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 5. Elastane (EU) or Spandex (USA), the generic names for Lycra, (the most common
brand) used to improve fit.
Avoid low-cost socks made from rayon, acrylic, bamboo or beech. Beech and bamboo
do not have spinnable fibres. They are regenerated cellulose fibre, chemically compounded
and extruded as a synthetic polymer, otherwise known as rayon.

More about wool

Wool is a protein fibre obtained from
many different animals, though sheeps’
wool is by far the most commonly used in
outdoor socks. Alpaca, angora, cashmere,
mohair and so on have also been used but
are uncommon due to cost and being less
durable.
Depending on the breed of sheep, and
where on the sheep the wool is shorn, the indi-
vidual fibres can vary from a diameter of 16μ
(microns = millionths of a metre) up to 40μ.
Super­fine-diameter wools are very soft
but lack durability (so are used for clothing);
fine wools are described as Merino (socks);
medium wools are more durable (socks)
“Say, how come sheep don’t
and heavy wools are very coarse and very
durable (ideal for carpets).The general prop- shrink when it rains?”
erties of all wools used for outdoor socks are Image 4.4: (Cartoonstock)
medium durability, good bulk (cushioning)
and especially retaining warmth even when wet. For these reasons, wool is the favoured
main component of most outdoor socks, particularly those designed for day­long activities in
temperate or cold environments.
Wool does not wick – it absorbs, while the surface remains dry. Wicking is more techni-
cally known as capillary action. This, together with ‘beading’ is covered fully in chapter 2.1.

About the shrinking and felting properties of wool

The scales you see on the photomicro-
graph, Image 4.5 are what cause one of
the interesting properties of wool. When
the fibres lie closely alongside each other
these scales act rather like ratchets, which
causes the length of the fibres to shrink.
If we have a wool garment which is not
pre-shrunk and put it into the washing
machine, the result might be, oh dear!
However, this characteristic is used to
good effect in an industrial process called
fulling. This applies heat and pressure
using some chemicals (originally urine was Image 4.5: Wool fibre (Gutenberg Project)

102
used). In the case of a woven fabric, it then becomes known as loden cloth. In the case
of non-woven fibres it is known simply as ‘felt’. Within living memory, fulling mills used
to pay a penny a pot for urine, collected from doorsteps. The mill foreman, not wishing to
be cheated by people diluting their urine for more income, would dip his thumb into the
pot and taste it. If it was diluted, he would declare it “piss poor’, an expression which we
sometimes still use today!
Other fibres are introduced to create the capillary action to move moisture, either in socks
or garments. Wool is not naturally anti­bacterial as is so often claimed, but its surface always
remains dry, so does not allow the bacteria to grow. Given long enough when damp, there
will certainly be bacterial growth, for example when enclosed in a boot for long periods.
Be aware that a very few users have an allergy to wool and must use socks made from
other fibres.
Spandex (USA) or Elastane (Europe): These are the two generic names for elastic yarns.
The elastic yarns are often spun with a nylon “cover” yarn to limit the maximum stretch and
to make them easier to knit. Lycra is a very common brand of elastic yarn used extensively in
sock manufacture. Elastic yarns have spread through all types of outdoor clothing to enable
a better, closer fit and for ease of movement. Socks are no exception.
Some socks now have additional elastane, 10 per cent or more, so they act as compres-
sion socks, for a wide range of uses, from airline travel and sports recovery to varicose
veins. This compression category has been emerging for some years now and has its own
terminology and measures, so long socks without feet are called “compression sleeves”.
Here is an interesting guide to the different
levels of compression available for a whole
range of uses.

How to find fibre types?

All garments have a fibre content label
inside but on a sock the fibre information is
on the packaging. After looking at the fibre
mix, look inside the sock, by taking it off the
display card, with the help of the retail assis-
tant if necessary. This reveals so much more
because you can so clearly see where the
terry-loop padding is. Image 4.6: Fibre types (Credit)

5. Moisture management, insulation and foot layering

Socks for warm conditions (summer UK, sports activities, in the gym, warm climate
countries) usually have padding only at the key pressure points. Elsewhere, the socks have
non-terry-loop panels to assist direct evaporation. This function will work only if they are
worn with open-mesh footwear such as many hiking shoes, running footwear or sandal
styles. Otherwise, the direct flexing action of the boot creates a sort of pumping action, in
which case ribbed socks may work with fully waterproof/membrane footwear. Typically, a
leather hiking boot relies 90 per cent on bellows action to release moisture/sweat, after the
fibres have wicked outwards to some extent. More sweat can be released if you are using
open-mesh footwear, common in running-shoe construction.
1. Foot comfort is best achieved through a trio of well fitting footwear, socks and
footbeds. Plus good foot/skin maintenance. Think through what seasonal conditions

103
 and which footwear and footbeds you will use them with. Select your preferred fibre
mix for season and activity.
a. Unless you are in hot conditions and/or don’t mind a lack of durability, avoid cot-
ton, rayon and acrylic. If you are on a budget, rayon socks (rayon is also known
as bamboo) cost around half the price of a wool sock.
b. Two pairs of socks? Some people use a thin liner sock to help reduce abrasion.
If it works, good. But consider that this friction decrease also decrease the grip
of the foot in the shoe or boot. While some activities can be carried out with a
fair amount of sloppiness of fit, others can’t. Activities requiring active adhesion
to rock, ice or snow and precise control of the boot require a firm grip/control
between skin, sock and boot or shoe. Some activities need to feel the action.
Rock climbing is the most obvious example – socks are often not used at all.
c. Inbuilt liner socks. Many people like these and pull two socks on in one, in effect.
They can be slightly thicker so don’t buy unless trying on with boots. ‘1000mile’
socks is one of the leaders with this construction.
d. In the store, a variety of socks is normally provided for trying on boots or shoes.
It’s always good to buy new ones with your new footwear to ensure good fitting.
Footbeds can be either standard off-the-shelf or your personalised orthotics. If
there is enough room in the boot or shoe, it might be possible to insert an addi-
tional pair of 2 or 3mm closed-cell-foam insoles under the footbed for warmth.
Various problems and issues with your feet (and indeed with your back, knees
and lower joints) may be relieved by orthotic footbeds prescribed by a health
professional or podiatrist.
Chuck K, USA editor, says: “Foot layering here for winter involves liner sock, VBL (vapour
barrier liner) liner sock, terry-loop/wool sock, boot, super gaiter.” On a winter excursion
above the tree line in very cold and windy conditions, it is difficult to take layers on and off
because a simple mistake will result in the wind stealing your gear or your losing too much
heat. It is important to ensure you have no exposed skin, so use a face-mask, and/or goggles.
I still use a leather face-mask that I find much better than those available today.
“Eating and drinking can be equally difficult in freezing stormy weather. So, trying to be
clever, I once ate and drank plenty before we came out of the trees. The problem was that I
drank too much and had to pee 30 minutes later, which was quite difficult and awkward. On
another occasion, my mustache froze to my beard and I could not open my mouth to eat or
drink. I now trim both before I go out in the winter!”
Smelly socks and other layers!
Bacteria, not sweat, are the cause of the smell in our socks and garment layers.
Garment smells are caused by bacteria building up in the next-to-skin layers and living on
the bits of your skin that flake off every day. Some fibres are better or worse than others. Wool
is often referred to as naturally antibacterial but its greater resistance to smell is because,
although it absorbs a lot of water, its surface remains dry. And bacteria need water to grow
and replicate. Other polymer fibres are hydrophilic so are good at wicking but have water or
sweat on the surface, which bacteria love. The answer to this is an ancient remedy against
putrefaction, silver.
The use of silver ion treatments for base and middle layers is now becoming universal but
not yet so common for socks.
A quote from Wikipedia: “The antimicrobial properties of silver have been known to
cultures all around the world for many centuries. The Phoenicians stored water and other

104
liquids in silver-coated bottles to discourage
contamination by microbes.” (Wikipedia:
Silver – http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver).
Silver dollars were once put into milk bottles
to keep milk fresh, and water tanks of ships
and airplanes that are “silvered” can keep
water potable for months (Salt Lake Metals
– http://www.saltlakemetals.com/Silver_
Antibacterial.htm). Once antibiotics were
discovered at the end of the Second World
War, the use of silver as a bactericidal agent
decreased. Until recently, that is, with its
Image 4.7: Lifebuoy health soap (Photographed at
use in outdoor garment textiles. Polygiene the Museum in den Halven Maen, The Netherlands,
of Sweden (https://polygiene.com/) is the Alf van Beem, Public Domain)
pre-eminent com-pany producing silver ion
treatments for garments.

6. Which is the best type of sock for you?

What’s the best sock for sweaty feet, for hot weather, for cold temperatures, for painful
feet, for diabetes – these are just some of the questions people ask their search engines. And
they get all the myriad answers that sellers of socks wish to provide. The answer is much
simpler.
The best socks are nearly new socks (with a high wool content and clever blend of other
synthetic fibres) that have been lightly worn and then washed to remove any loose fibres that
might cause friction. They have not yet developed any thin spots caused by wear and tear
and of course they are completely dry.
And finally a tip from Alan Hinkes, who, in more than 28 expeditions, climbed all 14
8,000m peaks without frostbite.
“I always saved a new pair of socks for my summit day. They are completely dry, no old
sweat or dirt and therefore have good loft for best insulation and padding.”

7. Interview with a sock manufacturer – the technology story unfolds

George Crawford-Smith (he is the tall guy!) of Bridgedale just happens to be my OMM
Mountain Marathon partner. So who better
to interview to see if we can unfold some
useful sock secrets?
Mike: “George, how would you like to share
some of your knowledge of socks, as
you were in the sock business for many
years?”
George: “I would be delighted to. Most
people, even those in the outdoor trade,
don’t want to hear techie stuff on socks
but there is some interesting stuff which
will help you see socks in a different Image 4.8: George Crawford Smith and Mike Parsons
light when next buying a pair or advising (OGC)

105
 a customer. Also anyone testing socks
for reviews might use this info as their
start point.”
Mike: “So what’s the difference between
hosiery and socks and stockings?”
George: “Hosiery is the generic term for all
forms of socks and stockings, though
it is often used to refer only to ladies’
fashion stockings.”
M: “Do you use the same knitting machines
as for base layers and fleece garments?”
Image 4.9: Sock factory (Dreamstime)
G: “No, not at all. Machines for fleece and
base layers produce a flat fabric, which
is then put on the cutting table and the
pieces cut out with a vertical knife.
There is a waste of at least 10 per cent,
which goes to landfill. For socks, we use
circular knitting machines (see picture).
There is no waste fabric or even yarns,
to produce essentially a shaped tube
and the toe is closed off with special
stitching.”
M: “So what makes a good outdoor sock
and do you use the same circular Image 4.10: Terry loop (OGC)
machinery for all types?”
G: “Outdoor socks are pretty much defined as having terry–loop padding targeted at the
stress points, mainly underfoot. Knitting machines for outdoor socks have the capa-
bility to knit terry loops for the padded areas. The exception is 200-needle fine gauge
machines, used for knitting liner socks, which are non-terry. Older machines can only
produce half-round terry, that isonly the under half of a sock, the over half or both halves.
Modern machines can produce complex curved padding shapes, too.”
Terry loop
M: “Do you mean non-terry is usually for ordinary day shoes, not for boots or sports?”
G: “Yes. However, there are outdoor-sock exceptions, such as running socks, XC ski socks
(who needs padding if you are only running a short distance or for a short duration?) and
boot-liner socks such as Bridgedale’s Coolmax and thermal liners. (Some people use
liners for reasons of either fit or friction reduction.) Personally, every day for comfort, I
use outdoor shoes with cushioned outdoor socks.”
M: “Let’s have a sock check. I was surprised when I checked these socks of mine. They look
good on the outer but inside they are badly worn. I can see the terry loops, but what’s
happening here exactly?”
G: “A sock experiences huge and repeated mechanical stress on every footfall, unlike other
garments. The terry loop has worn away here, exposing the hard-wearing base nylon
grid that holds the sock together. Wear depends on what the terry loop is made of. If the
terry yarn in your sock is rayon or acrylic, it will wear out very quickly. Socks made of
100 per cent wool will wear out relatively quickly, as you can see here, but 70 per cent

106
Image 4.11: Worn terry loop socks (OGC)

wool/30 per cent nylon will be more durable. When you wear out a pair of socks, you are
left with a grid of base nylon (for strength) on to which the comfort yarns such as wool,
Coolmax, cotton and so on are knitted. An example of a durable sock is the Bridgedale
WoolFusion series. The terry loops are 50 per cent wool/50 per cent polypropylene –
tough, long-lasting, springy cushioned and comfortable.
M: “So you seem to be saying the 100 per cent all-wool sock is a myth?”
G: “For all practical outdoor purposes, yes. All good outdoor socks for colder conditions
seek to have a high wool content but it’s always a cocktail of different fibres. Each
different fibre adds a different characteristic to the sock and that also depends where
within the sock the fibres are used.”
M: “Examples?”
G: “At the first stage of manufacture, yarn spinning, one fibre may be blended with another
fibre or spun around another fibre, such as wool around nylon and nylon around elas-
tane/spandex. Then, in the knitting stage, modern computerised knitting machines
can take yarns into the machine and position them where needed – inside or outside
surfaces, underfoot or overfoot. Without the base nylon grid structure, that you can see
in your worn-out sock, the sock would quickly fall apart. All outdoor socks have some
nylon in them.”
M: “What about merino wool? We know the finer fibres are more comfortable for base layers,
what about socks?”
G: “Wool or, more specifically, Merino wool is the ‘skin-contact yarn’ of choice for outdoor

107
 socks. Wool, in dry and in cold or
temperate situations, is the best yarn
to use, but it needs a helping hand to
improve durability and, some would say,
moisture wicking. In hot situations, such
as the UK summer, hot climates abroad
or in the gym, other yarns can compete!
G: “Typically, garments are made with
average 19μ (micron) wool, while socks,
for reasons of maximising durability, use
around 21μ wool. The greater the diam-
Image 4.12: Merino sheep (Dreamstime)
eter, the greater the durability but the less
soft the wool feels. In terms of moisture
management, they are the same.
“Wool has the unique ability among all
fibres (natural and synthetic) to absorb
moisture (to a high degree) yet remain
as an insulator. Wet cotton socks feel
clammy and cold – OK in hot situations,
but hopeless in cold ones. Wool also
‘feels’ comfortable next to the skin. The
sensation of comfort in wool socks is
long-lasting.”
M: “So what is the difference between Image 4.13: Merino wool (Dreamstime)
Merino and other wools?”
G: “The fleece of many different animals is wool. For commercial reasons, sheep wool is
the most commonly available. There are hundreds of sheep breeds, including dozens
of Merino breeds. The distinguishing characteristic of Merino wool is that the average
diameter of the individual wool fibres in a batch is less than 22.5μ (microns or millionths
of a meter). So Merino is a shorthand for any breed that produces sub-22.5μ wool. Over
that and it is just wool. To sum up, Merino is the wool of any sheep breed that produces
wool with an average diameter of 22.5μ or less.”

Editor’s technical note:

Wool, when it absorbs water, releases
a very small amount of heat. It’s called
“phase change” and creates this comfort
when wet. And, as we already said, wool
is not a very durable fibre, so it’s blended
in the spinning process with nylon. Other
fibres may be blended, or twisted or
knit together with wool to modify and
balance other properties.

Image 4.14: Wool fibre (Gutenberg Project)

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M: “You talk about finishing processes
following the knitting process. Can you
explain what these are, briefly?”
G: “Essentially it is a hot washing (more than
90°C) process that shrinks the wool
and base nylon and other yarns to size.
The sock is then stretched over a foot-
shaped former or plate and steamed
again to press it flat ready for packing
and in-store presentation. During the
process, the whole sock is shrunk from
a loose bag (as it comes off the knitting Image 4.15: Left and right socks (OGC)
machine) to a compact, slightly under-
sized, recognisable sock.
M: “What about left and right socks?
G: “Look closely at different L/R socks.
Some have shape differences, some
have asymmetric designs for left and
right, while others simply have an L on
one foot and an R on the other.
Socks made with an elastic content
(Lycra or Spandex) don’t need to be L or R,
in my view. The elastic accommodates all
foot shapes, whether pointy, square, bulky Image 4.16: Chris Townsend (Chris Townsend)
or slim. These can be knitted on the same
machines as regular socks. Socks with no elastic, and therefore less natural stretch, may
need to be shaped left and right and have more sizes to accommodate all feet. A modifica-
tion to allow knitting of asymmetric toe seams will be necessary.
“I should also explain that different sock sizes of the same style have different struc-
tures. For example, socks for large feet have more courses (one course is one rotation of the
knitting head) to accommodate greater foot
length and less tension around the circum-
ference to accommodate greater foot girth.”
M: “I beg to differ on this issue and I
prefer my socks to be made as left and
right. This is because by day two or three of
a trip, the sweat and grit is embedded and
elasticity is lost, so I find it better if they
are ready-shaped left and right and marked
accordingly. This avoids having to reshape
the sock and risk poor fitting with a loose
or empty end.
Chris T’s view: Image 4.16 “I’ve worn L
and R on the ‘wrong’ feet and never noticed
any difference! I’ve always swapped my
socks from foot to foot during multi-day “But there’s not enough space for
walks as I’ve found this more comfortable. Though shalt not wear socks with sandals.”
I’ve never reshaped socks during a walk.” Image 4.17: (Cartoonstock)

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 M. “It looks as if there is no consensus on left and right shaping for socks, either
among makers or users. Some do, some don’t. Like all emerging technologies, some find
their rightful place, some don’t.
“Well, thanks, George, socks will never be the same again. Sounds like all socks are not
equal. When I buy my next pair, I will be scouting through the fibre content info to ensure I get
the longest-lasting and most comfortable pair.
“By the way, one last question, George. Where do odd socks go to, assuming one
doesn’t have a goat that eats them?”
G: “Mike, there is a little corner in hosiery heaven where the other half of your pair can
be found!”

8. Layering for legs to help keep your feet warm.

Legs and ankles should be insulated well enough to ensure that the blood flows into your
feet, so vasoconstriction doesn’t came into operation. According to temperature and condi-
tions you may need up to four layers for your legs, when including gaiters.
In wet conditions a directional wicking base layer such as Powerstretch or Powerdry
(lighter and cooler) pants is important. Depending on temperature, you may need only water-
proof pants over the top of Powerstretch. Full-length side zips are key if you are ski touring.
For other activities using light boots or shoes, then knee-length zips may be adequate).
Gaiters play an important part in keeping feet dry and warm. “Super gaiters” such as
Berghaus Yeti, which pull right down over the boot rand and fit under the sole, are excellent
but are not easy to remove or apply, and so are semipermanent in most situations. Being able
to remove gaiters easily is important to avoid overheating. In extremely cold areas, investing
in boots with fully integrated gaiters could be worthwhile.
Cycling: Over-bootees, plus higher, non-mesh shoes become very important as the colder
months arrive. Consider changing to flat pedals (non-SPD’s) with better insulated shoes.
Mike P: “I have been climbing and skiing in many very cold areas of the world, including
both polar areas and Himalayas in winter. Never have my feet been so cold as when winter
mountain biking in the UK.”
The colder the conditions, the more important it is to select a salopette-style pant with
a high-rise front and back, providing much additional insulation in the vital back area. In this
case it is vital to ensure that have a salopette has a drop seat to easily execute toilet opera-
tions in the wild. Cycle clothing manufacturers have already addressed this issue with the
design of women’s bib shorts, some of which have a zip drop seat.
We deal with this issue fully in part two of KD&SW.

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 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

5. Keeping your pack contents dry

FInally, we thought it would be a good idea if we did a complete review of keeping
your pack contents dry.
This should be very simple, but often a trip can be spoiled or your pack contents ruined
by lack of care or awareness that your spare clothing and sleeping bag must remain dry. The
issues are very different from garments, because we have our living, breathing, sweating
bodies inside those.
1. Why packs aren’t usually made fully waterproof.
2. Outer covers: The pros and cons.
3. Inner liners: The pros and cons.
4. Emerging technologies: Are these the holy grail?
1. Why are packs not usually waterproof?
Packs are unlike garments because the seams are always under load or stress. What’s
more, the seams are the best place structurally to insert straps and harnesses of all sorts.
In the past, this has made seam taping more or less impossible. Bonded seams are now
becoming common on PVC and TPU but there are still limitations when using conventional
pack fabrics (see box where we review emerging technologies).
In the gear shops, customers often believe they want a waterproof pack. There are
certainly waterproof packs out there, with sealed or bonded seams, so does that mean we
can do away with stuffing our spare gear etc in a refuse sack, or purchasing expensive dry
bags and outer covers?
Cycle bags were the earliest to be made fully waterproof and Ortlieb of Germany has
led the way. There is certainly a
market for totally waterproof packs,
which are essential especially in
watersports such as canoeing and
kayaking.
It is, however, wise to familiarise
yourself with the potential problems.
A major issue is that pockets are of
necessity very simplified, if indeed
there are any at all. The main issue
is that, as soon as you open the top
flap in heavy rain, water drops in
and has nowhere to go. It’s either
absorbed by the contents or forms
Image 5.1 (Cartoonstock) a puddle in the bottom of your pack

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and wets everything. Also, the outer fabric of the pack is subject to lots of heavy wear
and abrasion and it could puncture without your realising. So a sealed inner bag system is
perhaps more reliable because it is protected by the outer fabric of the pack. This outer fabric
can, of course, be treated with a DWR to help repel moisture, but this would require diligent
maintenance. The “multi dry-bag system within an outer pack” system is very likely to be
around for some time to come.
Context: rain isn’t the only issue
In the wilderness areas where outdoor
people love to go, rainfall is often high,
meaning big rivers where bridges, even if
formerly present, have often washed away
in the previous winter’s storms. River cross-
ings are never to be underrated as they can
be very hazardous and an accidental or
planned swim can be a frequent occurrence.
Chris T: “In Scandinavia and on the
Pacific Northwest Trail in the USA, I had
some deep fords that meant the bottom of
the pack was in the river. On one ford on the Image 5.2: River Crossing (Mike Parsons)
PNT, the water was washing over me and
the pack. Everything stayed dry in waterproof stuff sacks. A pack cover would have been
useless. Back in 1982 on the Pacific Crest Trail, I had some serious fords where my pack
got very wet. I used a pack liner and ordinary stuff sacks then and everything stayed dry. If
I’d fallen in, stuff would have got wet, though.”
Mike P: “I recall having to build a makeshift treetrunk bridge to avoid a serious wade
across a river in Patagonia, long before waterproof stuff bags were available. In the Cape
province of South Africa an overnight canyoning trip had a planned swim with a five-meter
jump. We had only half-loaded packs, used large poly bags and rolled the tops like a canoe
bag. The captured air in the pack liners acted partly as a float, but swimming with a pack on
can feel quite alarming.”
2. Outer covers: the pros and cons
On the plus side, if it isn’t windy, and there are likely to be only light showers or drizzle, a
rain cover can work quite well. This is certainly the case, as long as it fits well but you will be
prevented from carrying poles or an ice-axe or anything else tall, spiky or bulky on the outside
of your pack. A cover will mean your lid pocket contents should stay dry as well as the main
pack. Also, some people use an outer cover
for backpacking (though they may well be
using inner dry bags for some vital items as
well). This is often because they want their
pack to be clean and dry enough to take into
their tent with them.
There are some important problems or
issues to consider:
a. They are not bombproof – they can
give a false sense of security. The
rain can enter around the back and
can pool in the bottom. Image 5.3 Pack cover pros and cons (Credit)

112
 b. If you have to open your pack in the rain, you have to remove the cover, exposing
the contents to rain, so you still need internal waterproof liner bags.
c. If you fall in a river, then you’ve no chance at all of keeping your stuff dry.
d. Pack covers catch the wind.
e. Accessing pockets on the pack is slower.
f. It is difficult to carry mountain tools such as ice axes and poles.
g. They can blow away.

Observations on pack covers from brands and outdoor professionals

Brand. Martyn Hurn of Lowe Alpine: “While agreeing with the points above, the
reality is that we can’t sell packs without rain covers in northern Europe – buyers and
consumers expect them. A popular reason given apart from the weather protection is
that it helps keep the pack clean.”
Outdoor pro. Alan Halewood: “I remember tackling a girl to the ground on a winter’s
day running through the mist chasing a pack cover – it was blowing towards the edge of
a cornice she wasn’t aware of!”
Heather Morning: “I endorse Alan H’s story of rucksack covers blowing away. They
are completely useless in a Scottish winter environment due to high winds and for being
unable to use the outside of the rucksack to fix ‘spiky’ kit.”
Steve Long: Given the poor functionality it is less versatile than a sack liner at the
same weight. You have to stop to put it on, otherwise it doesn’t do anything except add
extra weight.
Chuck Kukla (our US editor) outlines practices in his area. He is based on the East
Coast of the USA, with access to Northern New England, White Mountain National Forest
and Baxter State Park in Maine (the end of the Appalachian Trail), Mountain Washington
in New Hampshire and works an outdoor store as well as MIT: “I agree with Martyn Hurn
regarding pack covers. 1) They keep the pack clean, 2) They keep it lighter by keeping the
fabric from getting soaked and the pack dries faster; and 3) You can set the pack down
on wet ground without worry.
“Some packs we sell now include pack covers. Customers here are pleasantly
surprised. Often, because of the cost of waterproof stuff packs, some customers try to
use plastic garbage bags but they soon find the lack of durability.
“We don’t hike in the rain in the winter, so it is a non-issue. The problem here is that,
if we get rain, the temperature will suddenly drop in a matter of hours and everything just
freezes. If caught in the rain, you typically hike out if possible or hunker down in your tent.
“In general, I use a three-bag system with a pack cover in addition. I might use a
30-litre or 60-litre silnylon bag (although, like Chris T, I do not usually recommend the
light silnylon bags as they tear easily) in heavy rain and inside three 20-litre Granite Gear
zipsacks. When I lay them on the ground and unzip them, the contents do not spill out.
“When and if we have to hike above the tree line in driving rain, we will triple-bag the
sleeping bag. The driving rain seems to find each and every opening.”

Marian P adds: “For backpacking, I used to use a bin-bag inside my rucksack, and a
separate rain-cover over it, my logic at the time being that the rain-cover was also for sitting
on (even in dry weather) to help prevent ticks getting on my clothing during rest stops. But
this system wasn’t bombproof. One very wet day, my pack got heavier and heavier, and

113
I realised that I was lugging several kilos
of water that had entered round the back
and pooled in the base of the pack cover.
Not funny – and what’s more, the bin-bag
inside my pack had some tiny rips and I
was dismayed to find how damp my stuff
was. Since then, I’ve always used an inner
drybag system.
3. Inner liners: the pros and cons.
The roll seal closure of dry bags was
invented for watersports, by canoe and
kayak enthusiasts and was adopted and Image 5.4: Pack cover more pros and cons
adapted by the backpacking community (Mike Parsons)
and suppliers.
The main advantage of using inner drybags is that you can hike through the heaviest rain,
or even fall in a river crossing but remain confident that your pack contents are completely
dry. (At least, in the case of those items safely contained within the bags!)
You can colour-code individual bags so you know what is inside. You can have various
sizes of drybag to fit individual items, or just use one big liner bag, with maybe another small
one to protect items in the lid pocket.
The disadvantages: You can’t fill every corner of your pack by stuffing small items down
into little gaps. It’s fiddly to get at the contents. Thought and planning is required to work
out how it best fits and what to store at the top or bottom, in terms of what you might need
to get at quickly. Water might
get in while you are opening
or closing. You have to expel
the air carefully when sealing,
so as not to take up too much
space in the rucksack. It is of
course possible to puncture
the bag if you are careless
or unlucky (a bit of duct tape
should seal a little hole, but in
the case of silnylon you need
silnylon patches and silnylon
glue). Good bags are quite
expensive, too, but should last
a long time if used with a little
respect.
Now for some examples of
such bags in use:
Here’s how we kept our
pack contents safe and dry for
a two-week backpack in the
cool, wet mountain conditions
of Scotland. (We were a team
of two, so joint equipment such
as tent, stove and cooking
items, also food, was shared.) Image 5.5 Colour coding (OGC)

114
Mike’s six-dry-bag system
1. (Yellow) money – seal closure with Velcro overlap.
2. (Red) camera/spare battery/android phone and charger.
3. (Grey) day dry bag with roll-over top. Extra warm layers, hat and gloves for use dur-
ing day. Most of the time, my Powerstretch and Primaloft tops were in here.
4. (Beige) Overnight dry bag with roll over top. It is stuffed at the very base of the pack
and never opened during the day. Everything for overnight is here including sleeping
bag, wash kit, asthma medicine, full set of dry layers, socks, base layer, leggings
and underwear.
5. (Clear) maps – Ortlieb system.
6. (White) first-aid kit – poly bag only.
What this six-bag system allows for or copes with is:
A possible fall into a river. In such a case, well-sealed bags provide buoyancy. Opening
the pack bag during the day and when setting up or breaking camp, that is, when the top of
the pack is open.
High level of protection for my camera, a Panasonic G2 with interchangeable zoom
lenses, which is usually carried in special zip-top pocket in my jacket under the waterproof
jacket. When (serious) river crossing, it’s put into its red sealed bag and ditto when we hit
camp.
The only item not in sealed bags is the tent. The food comes ready in sealed polythene
day bags.
Marian’s three-dry-bag system
Marian: “I use a big dry bag that fills the main body of the rucksack. My sleeping bag
and dry change of clothes are very safe in another dry bag within the main one, so I can
rummage about in the rain for a pair of gloves or whatever, without risking getting the most
important items damp. Day food sits on top of the main dry bag, in a ziplock. I tried Mike’s
six-bag system but can’t make it work for me to stuff neatly in my bag – I can squash every-
thing down and fill all the little spaces with my one big dry-bag. And, if I need to have it open
during heavy rain, it’s not too bad – I can bend over the pack to keep the rain off while it’s
open. I have to be organised enough to have stowed anything I might need at the top, or in
my jacket pocket. The top pocket of my pack has snacks and a compass, sunglasses and
so on, they can get wet, but my mobile phone and wallet are in a small dry-bag. My first-aid
kit is also in there but in a little waterproof
plastic box. Maps are in a reliable Ortlieb
map case stuffed in a side pocket. The
rear pocket contains stove, fuel and mug,
cutlery, insect repellent.
There is a second generation of dry
bags and compression packs that have
either valves or an air-venting fabric An
example of the latter is the Lowe Alpine
Airstream compression sacks which have
an eVENT panel, which allows air to escape
as the bag is compressed.
But make your own decisions and develop Image 5.4 Pack cover more pros and cons
what’s best for you. Our methods are inevitably (Mike Parsons)

115
Image 5.7 Backpacking in the Rain (Chris Townsend)
shaped by our other activities. This includes the whole gamut of outdoor activities from rock,
alpine, greater ranges expeditions, bike, sea kayak, horse riding and so on, although every
activity needs different tactics.

Outdoor pro observations on dry bag systems

Steve Long: “You can use Marian’s system with as many small bags as you choose. So
this system is more space-efficient and wins for me, but really it’s a composite of the two.”
Alan Halewood: “I’m more of a six-bag fan but I know people who use two. A day bag
with individual stuff sacks in it and a ‘holy’ bag that gets opened only in shelter or the tent
for sleeping kit, dry clothing, electronics etc. Their pack is always effectively in two halves
with further waterproof bags in each half.”
Chris Townsend: “A long time ago, I used to use pack covers and a bin liner but since
waterproof stuff sacks have appeared, I use several of these, a system I find versatile and
efficient. The lightest silnylon ones don’t stay waterproof that long, though, in my experience
so I now use slightly heavier ones. I have used the Lightwave pack as reviewed above in
emerging technologies but still use my regular stuff bag system within it.”

116
Emerging technologies
An emerging technology is something that might be totally new to the world . More
often it’s been around in some other industry and there is further innovation progressing
to make it applicable for outdoors use. It might look as though it’s going to succeed or
may stall and fade. Or it could be corrected after a thorough airing in product forums
around the world.
Are these emerging technologies the holy grail that some people think?
Ortlieb’s innovation is hardly an emerging technology now. They have been around
since the 80s with their waterproof welded-pvc coated fabric bike panniers. Many years
on, this technology arrived in backpacks, which are not heavy pvc and are within the
weight range required for all gear carry facilities. Here are their alpine packs: (https://
www.ortlieb.com/de/produkt-details/?produkt=elevation&list=trekking&slug=trekking
&clearname=Trekking).
This pack from Mountain Hardwear won an award at Outdoor 2013 in Germany and is
an emerging technology based on OutDry glove inserts (http://www.mountainhardwear.
com/south-col-70-outdry-backpack-OU5955.html?cgid=outDry&dwvar_OU5955_
variationColor=011#start=0). Instead of the glove liner being an insert, it is bonded
to the outer fabric. This prevents partial penetration of the outer fabric as in non-OutDry
gloves.
The third example is by Lightwave, a UK brand (http://www.lightwave.uk.com/
products/rucksacks/ultrahike). This is positioned as water resistant with the proviso: “All
seams on the main body are welded or taped (for technical reasons, seams attaching a
back panel cannot be sealed but are largely protected from the weather by the wearer’s
own back).”
Observations.
In the first two cases, prices and weights are higher than ideal target for lightweight
backpacking. There are no backpacking models yet available. In the third case they are not
pretending it’s waterproof, merely water-resistant and have explained that some seams
are impossible to seal with a conventional pack construction.
There are still four key issues:
• Not being aware of punctures to the outer might lead to major difficulties.
• When opening a pack in bad weather where does rain entering go?
• If you take an accidental swim in a river crossing, there is a big hole in the top
because these packs are not roll-top designs. Today a pack or bag described as
waterproof probably means having a roll-top closure.
• Finally, if you decide to go down this route, then you need to re-equip totally
every size of pack in your kit room. The advantage of using waterproof stuff
bags means complete flexibility to use any pack in your kit room.

117
 Keeping Dry &
Staying Warm

Further reading
Frances Ashcroft, Life at the Extremes, The science of survival. (2001)
Backpacker Magazine, Backpacking Basics 2011.
Blackshaw, Alan, Mountaineering : from hill walking to Alpine Climbing (First published 1965
and in print with Penguin until mid 1970s)
Yvon Chouinard, Climbing Ice, (Sierra Club Books, 1978).
Colin Fletcher, The Complete Walker (first published in 1968 with new editions through to
2002)
Frank Golden and Michael Tipton, Essentials of Survival at Sea (Human Kinetics
Publishers 2002)
Pete Hill and Stuart Johnson, Mountain Skills Training Handbook (2nd edition, 2011)
Jorgen Johansson, Smarter Backpacking after 50 or How any trekker can adapt any hike to
any age or fitness (2012)
Eric Langmuir, Mountaincraft and Leadership, (2013 Fourth edition)
Steve Long with contributions from P-Y-B Staff, Hill Walking: The Official Handbook of the
Mountain Leader and Walking Group Leader Schemes (Revised 2014).
Katherine Meyer, How to Shit in the Woods: An Environmentally Sound Approach to a Lost Art
(2011, 3rd Edition)
Wilf Paish, Nutrition for Sport, (1990) rather dated now, but this was a classic in its day.
Anita Bean, The Complete Guide for Nutrition for Sports, (7th Revised edition edition, 2013)
Mike Parsons and Mary B Rose, Mallory Myths and Mysteries (2006)
Mike Parsons and Mary Rose, Invisible on Everest: Innovation and the Gear Makers (2003)
Mark Twight, Extreme Alpinism, Climbing Light (Fast & High ,1999)
Tom Richardson, ‘’Gearing Up”: Modern Insulation (Climb Magazine 2014)
Chris Townsend, The Backpacker’s Handbook (Ragged Mountain Press, 2011, 4th Edition)
Andrew Skurka, The Ultimate Hiker’s Gear Guide: Tools and Techniques to Hit the Trail (2012)
Clyde Soles, Rock and Ice Gear: Equipment for the Vertical World, (Mountaineer’s
Books 2000).

Expeditions
John Hunt, The Ascent of Everest, (1953) for the expedition book.
Harriet Tuckey, Everest First Ascent (2013)
Chris Bonington, Annapurna South Face (1970) and Everest: The Hard Way, (1975)

Expedition planning
www.pbase.com Some interesting retro images from USA
theatlantic.com an interesting report entitled “How technical equipment redefines our rela-
tionship with the environment – http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/04/
the-power-of-gear-how-technical-equipment-redefines-our-relationship-with-extreme-
environments/275177/

118
Textiles
Hill, P. J., Taylor, M., Goswami, P., Blackburn, R. S. (2017)’Substitution of PFAS chemistry in
outdoor apparel and the impact on repellency performance’. Chemosphere, 181, 500-7
Robert G. Lomax “Hydrophilic Polyurethanes for Textile Coating and Lamination’ (working
paper, 2009 presented to professional institute in Berlin, linked to 25 years of research. See for
example:
Robert G. Lomax,”Hydrophilic polyurethane coatings.” Journal of Industrial Textiles 20.2
(1990): 88-107.
Robert G. Lomax “Breathable polyurethane membranes for textile and related industries.”
Journal of Materials Chemistry 17.27 (2007): 2775-2784.
Textile Institute, Textile Terms and Definitions
Anna Maria D Roveri, The Art of Weaving, (2001)
Jane Turnbull, The Relationship between the Design of Outdoor Clothing and its
Performance during Use (unpublished PhD, University of Leeds, 2001)
Susan M. Watkins, Clothing: The Portable Environment (1984)

Polar clothing
Cunera Buijs, “Ecology and the principles of polar clothing.” Braving the cold: Continuity and
change in Arctic clothing (1997): 11-33. http://www.cnwspublications.com/disciplines/arctic-
studies.asp
J. Aline, Raymond Golingo, Jill E. Oakes and Rick R. Riewe, ‘Effect of ancient Inuit fur parka
ruffs on facial heat transfer’ Climate Vol 26, 2004 77-84
Ann Fienup-Riordan with translations by Alice Rearden and Marie Meade.Yuungnaqpi-
allerput/The Way We Genuinely Live: Masterworks of Yup’ik Science and Survival (2007) www.
mccord-museum.qc.ca/scripts/printtour.php?tourID=CW_InuitClothing_EN&Lang=2
Jorgen Johansson, Smarter Backpacking (2012)
Kathleen Meyer, How to Shit in the Woods, 3rd Edition: An Environmentally Sound Approach
to a Lost Art (2011)

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