An ADTRAN White Paper

Overview of Mobile
®

Communications
Overview of Mobile
Communications
T his paper contains a brief summary of the evolution
of the mobile communications networks, the advent
of 2G, 2.5G, and 3G architectures, and key attributes and
issues associated with each technology.
Background
In the Beginning…
Wireless mobile telephony has been available for many
years. Originally, mobile telephony implementations consisted
of a single tower located on a high building or mountain broad-
casting over a metropolitan area with a 50-mile radius or so.
The number of subscribers was severely restricted because all
of the available channels were quickly consumed. For instance,
in 1976 New York City only had 12 channels (or carriers) and
only permitted 543 users to obtain service. With such an
implementation, it was not unusual to wait several
minutes before getting a dial tone.
50-Mile Radius
The Advent of Cellular
All this changed with the advent of cellular technology. A
cellular architecture differs from earlier approaches in that
the cellular radio only covers a distance of a few miles (called
a cell), and the same frequencies can be reused by nearby cells.
A A
A A
Figure 1
2
By allowing frequencies to be reused, the number of
users that can be accommodated by any frequency spectrum
is greatly increased. All frequencies are not used in every cell
to avoid interference from cell to cell. Figure 1 shows a typical
frequency reuse pattern. As shown, the frequencies used in the
cells marked “A” are separated by at least one cell.
The initial analog cellular frequency licenses were given
to two providers in each coverage area, and each license permit-
ted 416 channels. Based on a “one in seven” reuse pattern, this
resulted in approximately 60 channels in each cell (416/7). This
equates to 60 active calls in any cell at a time for each provider.
As a mobile user passes from cell to cell, a handoff occurs,
and the call is switched to a different channel in the new cell.
This is handled by the Mobile Switch located in the Mobile
Telephone Switching Office (MTSO).
Physical Arrangement
Each cell site consists of a tower, with both a transmit and a
receive antenna, and a Base Station which contains the radio
(Base Transceiver Station –BTS) and land line access equipment
housed in a building or cabinet. The calls from all cell sites in
a service area are backhauled to the Mobile Switch in the MTSO
where all control resides as well as a gateway to the PSTN.
Base Station Base Station
Cell Site 1– 4 T1s
Cell Site
1– 4 T1s
Mobile Switch
Base Station
Hub Site
PSTN T3
MTSO/MSO

Roaming and Mobile Intelligence Network Using SS7
The key attribute of cellular telephony is mobility – the
subscriber can be on the move while communication is
taking place. Mobility is extended to include the ability to
“roam” from coverage area to coverage area. Every registered
user has a profile stored in a Home Location Register (HLR)
located within the mobile switch in their home MTSO. As the
user roams, the cellular phone notifies the roaming location’s
network what its ID and telephone number are. The mobile
switch in the roaming area will send a message across an SS7-
like network to the user’s Home MTSO. The status and profile
of the user is identified by the home switch and sent to the
switch in the roaming area. The switch in the MTSO of the
roaming area will set up a Visitor Location Register (VLR)
and assign a temporary telephone number.
At this point, the home switch knows in which coverage
area the phone is located, and how to reach it. The switch in
the roaming area knows of the phone and where to send billing
information for calls. Therefore, someone can call the phone in
its home area using the local phone number. The home switch
will send the call across the PSTN to the Mobile Switch in the
coverage area where the phone is “visiting” or roaming by
dialing the temporary phone number assigned by the MTSO
in the roaming area. The Mobile Switch in the roaming MTSO
will then connect the call to the mobile phone – simple!
Voice Technology
First Generation (FDMA/AMPS)
The first generation cellular was an analog implementation.
Each license covered a spectrum of 12.5 MHz divided into
30 KHz channels (in each direction), resulting in a total of
416 channels in each direction. Each call within a cell is placed
on a different channel or carrier frequency, which is Frequency
Division Multiple Access (FDMA). This is also referred to as
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS). Each coverage area
could have two licensees – provider A and B. As described
earlier, the North American “one in seven” frequency reuse
pattern allows each cell site to handle on average 60 calls
(416/7) for each provider. Once received, the call was encoded
to 64 Kbps and backhauled to the MTSO over a T1 circuit
(typically). As time went on it became necessary to accommo-
date more users over the same frequency spectrum.
®
Second Generation (TDMA /CDMA /GSM)
The second generation cellular technology introduced a
variety of techniques to increase the number of users per
30 KHz carrier.Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) subdi-
vides each 30 KHz channel into six digital sub-channels of
8 Kbps each (Note that there are six 8 Kbps TDMA sub-
channels in each 30 KHz carrier.) Since the compressed voice
requires 8 Kbps and with control overhead, each call consumes
two of the TDMA channels. The result is that three users can
share a single 30 KHz carrier. Using the same 30 KHz channel
spacing made it easy to overlay the second generation TDMA
on top of the original AMPS implementation.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is an entirely
different technique used to separate calls from each other.
CDMA uses spread spectrum technology to place all calls
across the entire spectrum as packetized calls, with each
having a unique code. Each phone “hears” all calls, but
only decodes the one with the properly assigned code.
One of the values of CDMA is that the entire assigned
spectrum can be reused in each cell site, greatly increasing
the number of calls that a site can handle (Unlike the FDMA
frequency reuse discussed above). CDMA is designed to work
with FDMA (AMPS) by allowing the carrier to remove a
certain amount of spectrum from FDMA use (1.25 MHz
in North America) and use that for CDMA calls. Using
CDMA techniques, the carrier can achieve approximately
a 10:1 increase in capacity compared with FDMA over the
same spectrum.
CDMA also adds some features that improve call quality.
These include a “soft” handoff, where a call is connected
to the next cell before the previous cell hands the call
off. Additionally, CDMA adds variable rate voice coding,
improved multi-path processing, and increased call security.
Carriers in the United States are required by the FCC to
continue to support analog users, so all cellular providers will
have some 30 KHz AMPS channels available in each cell site
for analog only users. In rural areas where the usage has not
demanded it, the cell sites typically have not been updated to
include digital, and analog may be the only coverage available.
Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) is the
most popular worldwide standard for cellular communications,
and with the notable exception of North America, is now used
An ADTRAN White Paper • 3
in most nations around the world. GSM is based on TDMA
technology, using 200 KHz channels as opposed to the 30 KHz
channels used in North America. Since it was digital from
inception, a GSM network cannot operate with analog (AMPS)
channels. GSM phones include a Subscriber Identity Module
(SIM) which allows a user to move the phone from GSM
country to GSM country even if the frequency band changes.
GSM offers superior voice quality using a higher rate voice
encoder (vocoder) and has eight sub-channels per 200 KHz
carrier. This is only slightly more efficient than the AMPS
implementation. GSM is starting to be implemented in North
America in the PCS spectrum (see next section). At least one
provider has indicated they have plans to install 800 MHz GSM,
which will be the first GSM in that spectrum in North America.
A number of TDMA-based cellular providers are adding a GSM
overlay in order to provide a path to 2.5G and 3G data
capability (AT&T and Cingular are installing GSM/GPRS
in the1900 MHz band).
Cellular Versus PCS
The original frequency spectrum allocated by the FCC for
cellular mobile telephony was 824 MHz – 849MHz (handset
transmit band) and 869MHz – 894 MHz (handset receive band).
The FCC granted two licensees (Provider “A” and Provider “B”)
for each trading area. Various service providers bid for these
licenses. In each area, there are still just 2 cellular service
providers with licenses (there are additional PCS licenses –
see below). All providers have reciprocal coverage agreements
with providers in other areas in order to offer a nationwide
“footprint”. As you move from city to city, your phone will
display your carrier’s name (e.g. Cingular) if you are operating
on their network. If you are on a partner’s network, your phone
will typically display “Extended Area”. When you see “Roaming”
this indicates you are now on a "non-partner" network and some
features may not work – or, if you have to pay for roaming,
you will be charged for calls.
PCS (Personal Communications Services) operates in a
different frequency band from the original cellular band. The
PCS bands are 1850 MHz – 1910 MHz (handset transmit band)
and 1930 MHz – 1990 MHz (handset receive band). Although
the PCS spectrum is wider, the higher attenuation caused
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by the higher frequency results in a reduced coverage area.
Analog communication is not supported in the PCS band. In
North America, the technologies used for PCS are still CDMA
and TDMA with some North American providers adding GSM
1900 (also referred to as PCS 1900). This uses GSM TDMA
technology operating in the PCS 1900 MHz spectrum.
For PCS there are six licenses labeled A – F. Like cellular,
the U.S. is divided into roughly 100 Major Trading Areas
(MTAs) with two licenses (A and B at 30 MHz each) awarded
for each MTA. The U.S. is also divided into roughly 500 smaller
segments referred to as Basic Trading Areas (BTAs) with licenses
C-F available for each BTA (30 MHz for C and 10 MHz for
D-F). Previously, we had just two mobile carriers in each area
where people live. Now we have six additional licenses available
resulting in a total of eight licenses for two-way wireless service.
Wireless Data and Technology Evolution
Although it is possible to pass packet IP data over the 2G
digital network, useful data applications require higher band-
width. The data evolution is referred to as 2.5G and 3G.
Several new technologies aimed at increasing data bandwidth
and improving data performance have been introduced. In
wireless communications, the likelihood of bit errors is high.
Digital voice communication (2G), uses a technique called
Forward Error Correction (FEC) which allows bit errors to
be corrected by the receiving end without the retransmission
of data. FEC works by transmitting some additional bits
(somewhat like checksum bits) along with the payload bits.
When voice is being transmitted, some bit errors can be tolerat-
ed without disrupting the conversation. Data transmission is
entirely different. The reduction of the bit error rate of data
requires that more FEC bits be sent, reducing the efficiency
of the transmission since more of the transmission
contains overhead bits.
2.5G Network Alternatives
In cellular and PCS technologies, 2.5G refers to features that can
be added to 2G networks that are primarily aimed at increasing
data rates. Examples of 2.5G technologies are Enhanced Rates
for Global Evolution (EDGE), High Speed circuit Switched Data
(HSCSD), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), and 1x Radio
Transmission Technology (1XRTT).

Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) –
(TDMA-EDGE)
EDGE is a technique for increasing the data rates on a 200 kHz
carrier as used in GSM networks. Standard GSM (without
EDGE) has a data rate of 22.8 Kbps per time slot. EDGE increas-
es the number of bits transmitted per symbol from one to three,
allowing the data rate to almost triple to 65.2 Kbps. Time slots
can be aggregated to achieve even higher data rates, for a maxi-
mum user data rate of 384 Kbps (not counting FEC or TDMA
overhead). EDGE will be used by many GSM service providers,
and is also being considered in the evolution of North American
TDMA, where it will be called TDMA-EDGE. (With more North
American providers adding GSM, TDMA – EDGE appears
less likely, but GSM EDGE may become widely used in North
America. In fact AT&T, Cingular, and T-Mobile have plans to
add EDGE to their GSM networks within a couple of years).
High Speed Circuit Switched Data (HSCSD)
HSCSD is a GSM technique for achieving higher data rates
(up to 56 Kbps) by allowing up to four time slots to be used
at the same time. This technology is more applicable to connec-
tion oriented data transfers as opposed to truly bursty data such
as email or messages. There is a similar capability in North
American TDMA systems to concatenate the three calls in a
TDMA carrier to provide data rates of 44 Kbps, but currently
no carriers are offering this.
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
GPRS is an “always on” packet data service for GSM networks.
In GSM, with all eight time slots allocated for GPRS, data
rates up to 115 Kbps may be achieved. In reality, typical data
throughput rates will be between 20 Kbps and 50 Kbps. With
EDGE and EGPRS, data rates up to 384 Kbps can be achieved
when radio propagation conditions are favorable.
1x Radio Transmission Technology (1xRTT)
1xRTT is the CDMA equivalent of GPRS. 1xRTT promises data
rates of up to 144 Kbps. This is the first step in the evolution to
CDMA2000 which is a 3G technology described below.
®
3G Network Alternatives
3G is the next revolutionary step in technology for digital
cellular and PCS. All 3G approaches require that users have
new handsets (telephones).
One major objective for 3G is the support of data rates
exceeding 144 Kbps in a vehicular environment, exceeding
384 Kbps in an outdoor/indoor pedestrian environment, and
exceeding 2 Mbps in an indoor environment. Another major
objective is the desire for even more efficient digital cellular/
PCS technologies to support increasing voice traffic.
The first release of the 3G standard was completed at the
end of 1999 and new releases should be issued annually. The
first 3G commercial services began in October 2000, with the
CDMA2000 1x deployment by SK Telecom in Korea, and in
October 2001, with the W-CDMA/UMTS deployment by
NTT DoCoMo in Japan.
There was not a consensus on a single 3G standard since
compatibility with 2G systems (which represent billions of
dollars in investment) must be preserved. It now appears
that there will be two 3G technologies which will be used
for multiple terrestrial 3G standards.
CDMA2000
CDMA2000 is a wideband CDMA technology backward
compatible with CdmaOne™ (The 2G technology used in
North America). There are multiple phases planned for
CDMA2000, with each phase offering the ability to increase
the data rate. Essentially the 1.25 MHz carrier is used for data
only (providing 144 Kbps data). This first phase, although not
full 3G, is what several carriers will use to enhance their net-
works. In later phases, more 1.25 MHz carriers are combined
to increase the data throughput rate. Since this plan was
decided upon, other technology approaches have been
proposed (see below).
Note: The 1.25 MHz carrier is the size of a CDMA carrier
channel used in North America.
An ADTRAN White Paper • 5
W-CDMA
W-CDMA is a wideband CDMA technology backward
compatible with GSM network infrastructure and services.
This is an evolution of the GSM (TMDA based technology)
to a CDMA based offering. Using advanced coding schemes,
this allows for data rates up to 2 Mbps.
Note: W-CDMA requires a new wider spectrum, while
CDMA2000 can operate over the same 1.25 MHz channels
currently used by CDMA.
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)
UMTS is the name for a W-CDMA based standard. UMTS
is a name that is trademarked and owned by ETSI. There are
a couple of modes within UMTS. One places CDMA packets
within TDMA time slots in a channel (TDD or TD-CDMA).
This is not unlike using a few T1 DS0s to transport Frame
Relay. The second places CMDA packets across an entire
channel (FDD).
Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA)
FOMA is the name for a 3G/W-CDMA service being
offered in Japan.
Other CDMA2000 Variants (Proposed)
As with most any technology evolution, before the ink dries
on a proposed plan, someone comes along with a better idea.
Achieving 3G data rates is no exception. Two new concepts
have been proposed which will offer interim service while
CDMA2000 continues in development. Both of these are
in final phases of standard approval.
1 x EV-DO (1x Evolution Data Only - a.k.a. HDR High
Data Rate) This is a data-only service with asymmetrical
data. This was first proposed by Qualcomm in 1998 and is
supported in Lucent equipment. The approach is to use the
entire 1.25 MHz carrier channel and advanced modulation
techniques to achieve data rates of 2 Mbps down stream
and 153 Kbps up stream.
6
1 x EV-DV (1 x Evolution Data & Voice – a.k.a.
1XTREME). As the name implies, this technology
offers support for increased data rates while continuing
to support voice. Originally proposed by Motorola in 2000,
this technology uses CDMA 1.25 MHz channels and by
applying advanced coding methods (QPSK originally and
16QAM in later evolutions) offers 1.38 Mbps initially with
future growth to 5.2 Mbps. 1xEV-DV is compatible with
CdmaOne™ and CDMA2000.
Note: There are providers claiming 3G capability but they are
achieving this with 2.5G technology, and are probably only achiev-
ing the lower data rates defined by 3G. They would not be able to
reach the high end of the defined 3G data rates without making
significant technology changes to their network.
It is highly unlikely that true 3G will be deployed in North
America in the next few years. The cost of buildout and the
lack of applications will effectively dampen any enthusiasm for
deployment, especially in today’s financial environment. Mobile
providers will most likely add GSM/GPRS or CDMA2000
overlays onto their existing networks in order to offer
data at rates of 50K to 100K.
Cellular Provider Plans
Below are some of the major Cellular operators in the United
States and their plans for enhanced data as of February 2002
(information from www.umtsworld.com).
Verizon Wireless is offering services based on CDMA2000
1x technology up to 144 Kbps initially. Verizon has said
that users should see speeds of 40 Kbps to 60 Kbps
on average.
Cingular Wireless plans to upgrade its wireless networks
by early 2004 to a GPRS and EDGE. GPRS offers data
speeds of up to 177 Kbps initially, but users will initially
see speeds of 40 Kbps.
AT&T Wireless deployed GPRS networks in about 40
percent of its markets in 2001. It plans to offer the service
nationally by the end of 2002. AT&T Wireless plans to
simultaneously begin deploying EDGE through software
upgrades. Current plans are to deploy EDGE nationwide
by the end of 2002. The company plans to start deploying
WCDMA in 2003, and to finish that deployment in 2004.
 ®

Sprint PCS plans to start its CDMA2000 1x networks Leap Wireless has selected CDMA2000 for high-speed data
nationwide in 2002 with speeds up to 144 Kbps initially. services. Leap expects the majority of its 1x upgrades to
Users should see speeds of 40 Kbps to 60 Kbps on average. take place starting in the first half of 2002.
Nextel Communications has not yet disclosed plans for Dobson Communications plans to upgrade its wireless
a data-capable next-generation network. Analysts have networks to GSM/GPRS/EDGE.
speculated that Nextel will switch to CDMA and
upgrade its networks with CDMA2000 technologies. Summary
The table below is a quick summary of the various technologies
T-Mobile (formerly VoiceStream)launched its GPRS
in use and "planned" for mobile communications.
service in November 2001 under the brand iStream.
T-Mobile is the only national operator that currently
offers a network based completely on GSM technology.
T-Mobile network can run at speeds up to 56 Kbps and
average up to 40 Kbps.

GENERATION SERVICE TECHNOLOGY STANDARD SPECTRUM

1G Analog Voice FDMA AMPS Cellular 800 MHz

Cellular 800 MHz

TDMA US TDMA PCS – 1900 MHz

2G Digital Voice and Minimum GSM Europe – 900 MHz /1800 MHz
Data (14K bps)
US – 1900 MHz
CDMA CDMA ONE PCS – 1900 MHz

TDMA GSM (Voice)/GPRS Europe – 900 MHz/1800 MHz

2.5G Digital Voice and Higher (Packet Data)/EDGE US – 1900 MHz
Speed Data
CDMA 1XRTT (Packet Data) US – 1900 MHz

UMTS (Europe)
Digital Voice (Packetized) W-CDMA FOMA (Japan) Wider
3G
1xEV-DO
High Speed Data (up to 2Mbps) CDMA2000 1xEV-DV PCS – 1900 MHz

An ADTRAN White Paper • 7

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About ADTRAN
ADTRAN, Inc. is an established supplier of advanced
transmission products for today’s expansive telecom-
munications networks. Widely deployed in carrier, CLEC,
enterprise, and global networks worldwide, ADTRAN
products support all major digital technologies including
fiber, T3, T1, E1, wireless T1/E1, ATM, Frame Relay, VPN,
SHDSL, SDSL, HDSL, HDSL2, ISDN, and DDS. According
to Gartner/Dataquest and IDC, ADTRAN has gained the
leading market position in enterprise integrated access
devices and HDSL, while maintaining its leadership
position for the fourth year in a row in T1 and subrate
DSU/CSUs, Frame Relay/DDS extension, and ISDN
extension. ADTRAN equipment serves the major
Incumbent Local Exchange Carriers, interexchange
carriers, ISPs, Competitive Local Exchange Carriers,
international service providers, public and private
enterprises, and original equipment manufacturers.

ADTRAN, Inc.
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Huntsville, Alabama 35806
P.O. Box 140000
Huntsville, Alabama 35814-4000

800 9ADTRAN 256 963-8000 voice

256 963-8004 fax
256 963-8200 fax back
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EN468A

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