Slender Columns

Slender Columns
A braced slender column is defined as a column in which the effective height/depth ratio is
greater than 12. The strength of slender columns is significantly reduced by transverse
deflections. The slenderness effect reduces its load-carrying capacity. If the column is short,
the deflection is small and hence the additional moment is negligible, compared with the
initial moment. If the column is slender, the deflection is no longer small, then the additional
moment becomes significant compared to the initial moment. The additional moment should
then be considered if the effective height/depth ratio is greater than 12. If the column is very
slender, the column will quickly collapse and such a failure is called instability failure. The
additional moment, M add is caused by the deflection of slender column. Hence the design
moment will be greater than the initial moment obtained from the structural analysis. The
design moments for braced and unbraced slender columns are different. Thus, their design
moments will also be different however the calculation for M add is similar. slender columns
are also becoming increasingly important and popular because of the following reasons: (i)
the development of high strength materials (concrete and steel), (ii) improved methods of
dimensioning and designing with rational and reliable design procedures, (iii) innovative
structural concepts – specially, the architect’s expectations for creative structures. It has
been explained in Lessons 22 to 26 that short columns fail by reaching the respective stresses
indicating their maximum carrying capacities. On the other hand, the slender or long columns
may fail at a much lower value of the load when sudden lateral displacement of the member
takes place between the ends. Thus, short columns undergo material failure, while long
columns may fail by buckling (geometric failure) at a critical load or Euler’s load, which is
much less in comparison to that of short columns having equal area of cross-section.
For braced columns without any transverse loads occurring in the height, the primary
maximum moment with which the additional moments are to be added.
Unbraced frames undergo considerable deflection due to P- effect. The additional moments
determined are to be added with the maximum primary moment M Δ o max at the ends of
the column.
Design Example
A braced slender column of dimensions 300 mm x 450 mm carry an axial load of 1700 kN and
end moments of 70 kNm and 10 kNm at ultimate limit state. This load and moments induced
a double curvature about x-axis as shown below. The effective heights are lex = 6.75m and
ley = 8.0 m . The characteristic strength of materials are fcu = 30 N/mm2 and fy = 460 N/mm2
.
Design Example
Determine the reinforcement required for a braced column against sidesway with the
following data: size of the column = 350 x 450 mm concrete and steel grades = M 30 and Fe
415, respectively; effective lengths lex and ley = 7.0 and 6.0 m, respectively; unsupported
length l = 8 m; factored load Pu = 1700 kN; factored moments in the direction of larger
dimension = 70 kNm at top and 30 kNm at bottom; factored moments in the direction of
shorter dimension = 60 kNm at top and 30 kNm at bottom. The column is bent in double
curvature. Reinforcement will be distributed equally on four sides.
Reinforced concrete wall
Reinforced concrete wall is designed as a compression member. Reinforced concrete wall is

used in case where beam is not provided and load from the slab is heavy or when the
masonry wall thickness is restricted. Reinforced concrete wall is classified as:
 Plain concrete wall, when reinforcement < 0.4%

 Reinforced concrete wall, when reinforcement > 0.4%
Load from slab is transferred as axial load to wall. When depth is large, it is called RC wall.
Design is similar to a RC column, breadth equal to thickness of wall and depth equal to 1m.
RCC Wall is designed as:
 Axially loaded wall

 Axially loaded with uniaxial bending
Classification of Concrete Walls:
 Plain concrete wall
 Reinforced concrete wall
In plain concrete wall, the reinforcement provided is less than 0.4% of c/s. In reinforced
concrete wall, the percentage of steel provided is greater than 0.4% and is designed similar
to reinforced concrete columns. Slenderness ratio is equal to least of (l/t or h/t), where, l is
effective length of wall, h is effective height of wall, t is thickness of wall If < 12, the wall is
short and if > 12, the wall is slender
Braced and Unbraced Concrete Walls:
Braced: When cross walls are provided for the walls such that they can take lateral load and
2.5% of vertical load, then the wall is braced. Otherwise, the wall is known as unbraced wall.
Note: Other walls under special cases are,
i) Cantilever wall
ii) Shear walls – To take lateral loads [Take care of flexure developed due to lateral loading on
the structure, depth is provided along the transverse direction]
Strut-and-Tie Model Analysis
Strut and tie modelling (STM) is a simple method which effectively expresses complex stress
patterns as triangulated models. STM is based on truss analogy and can be applied to many
elements of concrete structures. It is usually adopted to design non-standard elements or
parts of elements of concrete structures such as pile caps, corbels, deep beams (where depth
> span/3), beams with holes, connections, etc. where normal beam theory does not
necessarily apply.
STM is a lower bound plastic theory which means it is safe providing that:
 Equilibrium is satisfied.
 The structure has adequate ductility for the assumed struts and ties to develop.
 Struts and ties are proportioned to resist their design forces.
The design process for strut-and-tie models can be summarised into four main stages:
1. Define and isolate B- and D- regions (i.e. beam or Bernoulli and disturbed or
discontinuity regions).
2. Develop a STM - a truss system to represent the stress flow through the D-region and
calculate the member forces in the truss.
3. Design the members of the STM - dimension and design the truss members to resist
the design forces.
4. Iterate to optimise the STM as necessary to minimise strain energy.
CORBEL:
Corbel is a short structural element that cantilevers out from column/wall to support load.
Generally, the corbel is casted monolithically with column/wall. There are several typical
modes of failure in the corbel. The most common of which are yielding of the tension tie,
failure of the end anchorages of the tension tie, either under the load point or in the column,
failure of the compression strut by crushing or shearing, and local failures under the bearing
plate.
The following figures shows the failure mode of corbel
Deep Beams
Deep beams are structural elements loaded as simple beams in which a significant amount of
the load is carried to the supports by a compression force combining the load and the
reaction. As a result, the strain distribution is no longer considered linear, and the shear
deformations become significant when compared to pure flexure.
Floor slabs under horizontal load, short span beams carrying heavy loads, and transfer girders
are examples of deep beams. Deep beam is a beam having large depth/thickness ratio and
shear span depth ratio less than 2.5for concentrated load and less than 5.0 for distributed
load. Because the geometry of deep beams, their behavior is different with slender beam or
intermediate beam.
Difference Between Deep Beams & Simple Beams

 Two-Dimensional Action, because of the dimension of deep beam they behave as
two-dimensional action rather than one-dimensional action.
 Plane Section Do Not Remain Plane, the assumption of plane section remain plane
cannot be used in the deep beam design. The strain distribution is not longer linear.
 Shear Deformation, the shear deformation cannot be neglected as in the ordinary
beam. The stress distribution is not linear even in the elastic stage. At the ultimate
limit state the shape of concrete compressive stress block is not parabolic shape
again.
 Deep beams play a very significant role in design of mega and as well as small
structures. Some times for architectural purposes buildings are designed without
using any column for a very large span. In such case if ordinary beams are provided
they can cause failure such as flexural failure.
 To avoid this problem of construction of some very long span halls etc the concept of
deep beams is very effective and durable. But there are also some minor problems
with the construction of deep beams.
GRID FLOORS
Grid floors are types of floors with a flat surface, resting on series of interconnected beams
called grids. It can be of solid concrete, wood, steel or composite. A grid floor essentially
gives a more structural stability and stiffness without utilising a great deal of extra material.
This makes a grid floor ideal for supporting vast areas like establishments or floors. The top
surface of a grid section is a smooth surface, similar to a conventional building surface, yet
the underside has a shape reminiscent of a grid. Grid floors have additional advantage of
incorporating skylights or ornamental lightings in between grids. They are generally adopted
for architectural purpose. They are commonly provided in the structures such as theaters,
tradition corridors, shopping centers where section free space is frequently the principle
necessity.
There are different methods available for analysis of grid floors namely
 Rankine-Grashoff’s method,
 Plate Theory,
 Stiffness Matrix Method
Direct Strength Method
The Direct Strength method is a new design procedure for cold-formed steel members. The
method employs elastic buckling solutions for the cross-section, instead of the element-
byelement plate buckling solutions used in traditional design. The use of cross-section elastic
buckling solutions insures inter-element compatibility and equilibrium. The Direct Strength
method uses strength formulas on the gross section, similar to conventional column curves, for
capacity prediction in local and distortional buckling. This avoids effective section
calculations altogether. The Direct Strength method is an attempt to meet current design needs.
The primary advantages of the method are avoiding effective width and effective section
calculations, and utilizing the availability of robust and free solutions for elastic buckling of
the entire member. The Direct Strength method is based on the same underlying empirical
assumption as the effective width method: ultimate strength is a function of elastic buckling
and yielding of the material.
• Practical advantages of DSM:
– no effective width calculations,
– no iterations required, and
– uses gross cross-sectional properties.
• Theoretical advantages of the DSM approach:
– explicit design method for distortional buckling,
– includes interaction of elements (i.e., equilibrium and compatibility between

the flange and web is maintained in the elastic buckling prediction), and
– explores and includes all stability limit states.
• Philosophical advantages to the DSM approach:
– encourages cross-section optimization,
– provides a solid basis for rational analysis extensions,
– potential for much wider applicability and scope, and

– engineering focus is on correct determination of elastic buckling behavior,
instead of on correct determination of empirical effective widths.
• Limitations of DSM (as implemented in AISI 2004)
– No shear provisions
– No web crippling provisions
– No provisions for members with holes
– Limited number/geometry of pre-qualified members
– No provisions for strength increase due to cold-work of forming
• Practical Limitations of DSM approach
– Overly conservative if very slender elements are used
– Shift in the neutral axis is ignored
• Limitations of finite strip method
– Cross-section cannot vary along the length
– Loads cannot vary along the length (i.e., no moment gradient)
– Global boundary conditions at the member ends are pinned (i.e., simply-
supported)
Cold-formed (CF) structural products can be classified into three main typologies:
• members • sheeting • sandwich panels
Structural members are mainly used in the higher range of thickness, as beams for
comparatively low loads on small spans (purlins and rails), as columns and vertical supports,
and as bars in trusses. The depth of CF members ranges from 50 to 300 mm and the
thickness of material ranges from 1.0 to 8.0 mm, although depth and thickness outside these
ranges also are used.
Sheeting are plane load bearing members in the lower range of thickness, generally used
when a space covering function under moderate distributed loading is needed, e.g. roof
decks, floor decks, wall panels. The depth of panels generally ranges from 40 to 200 mm and
the thickness of material ranges from 0.5 to 2.0 mm.
The first generation includes plane trapezoidal profiles without stiffeners, allowing spans
between secondary members of no more than 3 m. In the second generation the trapezoidal
sheets are stiffened in longitudinal direction by appropriate folding and may span up to 6 - 7
m. The third generation profiles are trapezoidal units with both longitudinal and transversal
stiffeners, which provide suitable solution for spans up to 12 m without purlins.
The prefabricated sandwich panels are particularly suitable because they provide thermal
insulation at the same time as the basic weather shield It consists of two metal faces bonded
to an internal layer of rigid foam Such panels may be installed very quickly thus saving time
on site.
BEHAVIOURAL FEATURES
If compared with conventional metallic member, thin-walled CF elements are mainly

characterised by:
1. the constant thickness of the formed section
2. the relatively high width-to-thickness ratio of the elements
3. the variety of cross-sectional shapes.
The feature 2. gives rise to local buckling phenomena, which penalise the load-bearing
capacity. As a consequence, structural analysis and design of thin-walled CF elements is
generally complicated by the effects arising from the above features, which do not affect the
structural response of more simple and compact sections.
The main aspects that influence the structural behaviour of thin-walled sections are:
• local buckling of the compression parts
• interaction between local and overall buckling modes
• shear-lag and curling effects

• effects of cold-forming process Besides, since CF sections are generally thinwalled and of
open cross-section, torsional-flexural buckling may be the critical phenomenon influencing
the design
Early applications of CF thin-walled aluminium sections were restricted to situations where weight
saving was important. With the advance in the raw material itself and the manufacturing processes,
the range of actual and potential use is virtually unlimited.
The main structural typologies are: • Industrial building • Housing • Temporary structures
Industrial building : Trusses made of CF members may be found in industrial and storage buildings.
The main chords are usually channel sections joined back to back. The web members are normally
single channels.
Temporary structures : Modular unit for houses, offices, construction site accommodation, etc., may
conveniently be produced using CF sections and flat products.
In the case of plane stiffened elements, more complex formulations are provided in order to take into
account three possible buckling modes:
• mode 1: the stiffened element buckles as a unit, so that the stiffener buckles with the same
curvature as the element (a)
• mode 2: the sub-elements and the stiffener buckle as individual elements with the junction
between them remaining straight (b)
• mode 3: this is a combination of modes 1 and 2, in which both sub-elements and whole element
buckle (c)
Element model approach The exact analysis of a thin-walled member requires to treat it as a
continuous folded plate, but the mathematical complexities of such an analysis are very cumbersome.
Most analyses, therefore, consider the member as being made up of an assembly of individual plates,
with proper boundary and loading conditions, such that the behaviour of the individual plates defines
the behaviour of the whole section.
The analysis of the buckling behaviour of flat plates loaded by forces acting in their middle plane is
rather complex, being substantially affected by two kinds of non-linearity: geometrical and
mechanical. The analysis of the stability of plate elements can be performed following two different
levels: 1. Linear theory 2. Nonlinear theory
INSTABILITY OF PLATES
Rectangular flat element with: • length L • width b • uniform thickness t
 Before reaching the elastic buckling is uniform in the element

 After the elastic buckling a non-uniform stress distribution results and a portion of load from
the mid strip transfers to the edge parts of the element.
 The process continues until the maximum stress (along the plate edges) reaches the yield
point of the material and then the element begins to fail.
According to the linear theory, the behaviour of a perfectly elastic material in the field of small
deformations is examined According to the non-linear theory, the behaviour of plates in post-buckling
range is analysed, taking into account both geometrical and mechanical nonlinearities, together with
the presence of geometrical and mechanical imperfections
Post buckling behaviour : Nonlinear theory : EFFECTIVE WIDTH METHOD
According to the Von Karman’s semi-empirical approach, the non-uniform distribution of stresses,
arising during the post-buckling range, can be replaced by an equivalent uniform stress distribution
σ=σmax acting on an “effective width” of the plate (beff), being σmax the actual stress along the
unloaded edges
For the design of structures made of cold-formed sheeting a distinction Structural Classes dependent
on its function in the structure defined as follows:
Structural Class I :Construction where cold-formed sheeting is designed to contribute to the overall
strength and stability of the structure Structural Class III
Structural Class II :Construction where cold-formed sheeting is designed to contribute to the strength
and stability of individual structural components
Structural Class III : Construction where cold-formed sheeting is used as a component that only
transfers loads to the structure
The effective width method takes the post-buckling capacity into account.
BEAMS
A flexural member is a member that is subject to both tension and compression
within its depth.
A beam is usually a flexural member as the load applied will cause (usually) the
bottom flange to go into tension and the top flangle to be compressed.
Most columns are not flexural members as they are loaded at the top which means
the whole of the column is compressed.
Similarly, a tie bar will have tension throughout its entire cross sectional area.
Trusses are designed in such a way that some of the members are in tension and
some in compression so none of the members are flexural members.
Design of Steel Beams
The following points should be considered in the design of a beam.
1. Bending moment consideration: The section of the beam must be able to resist the
maximum bending moment to which it is subjected.
2. Shear force consideration: The section of the beam must be able to resist the
maximum shear force to which it is subjected.
3. Deflection consideration: The maximum deflection of a loaded beam should be
within a certain limit so that the strength and efficiency of the beam should not be
affected. Limiting the deflection within a safe limit will also prevent any possible
damage to finishing. As per the I.S. code, generally the maximum deflection should
not exceed 1/325 of the span.
4. Bearing stress consideration: The beam should have enough bearing area at the
supports to avoid excessive bearing stress which may lead to crushing of the beam or
the support itself.
5. Buckling consideration: The compression flange should be prevented from
buckling. Similarly the web, the beam should also be prevented from crippling.
Usually these failures do not take place under normal loading due to proportioning of
thickness of flange and web. But under considerably heavy loads, such failures are
possible and hence in such cases the member must be designed to remain safe
against such failures
LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
The laterally supported beams are also called laterally restrained beams. When lateral
deflection of the compression flange of a beam is prevented by providing effective lateral
support (restraint), the beam is said to be laterally supported. The effective lateral
restraint is the restraint which produces sufficient resistance in a plane perpendicular to
the plane of bending to restrain the compression flange of a beam from lateral buckling
to either side at the point of application of the restraint. The concrete slab encasing the
top flange, so that the bottom surface of the concrete slab is flush with the bottom of the
top flange, is shown in Fig. 14.2.A. It provides a continuous lateral support to the top
flange of the beam. When other beams frame at frequent intervals into the beam in
questions as shown in Fig. 14.2.B, lateral support is provided at each point of connection
but main beam should still be checked between the two supports.
In the laterally supported beams, the value of allowable bending compressive stress
remains unaltered and the reduction in its value is not made. Bending comprehensive
stress is taken equal to the allowable bending tensile stress, (σ bc=σbt=0.66fy). The
adequate lateral support is provided to safeguard against the lateral-torsional bucking. In
case of doubt for adequate lateral support, the beams should be designed as laterally
unsupported. In case the concrete slab holds the top flange (compression flange) of the
beam from one side only, then, the lateral support is not credited. The concrete slab
simply resting over the top flange of the beam without shear connectors also does not
provide an lateral support. Sometimes, the plank or bar grating is attached to the top
flange of beam by means of bolts. When the bolts are firmly fastened, then, they provide
adequate lateral support temporarily. Even then, bolts have temporary nature of
connections. It is possible that the bolts might be omitted or removed. As such, the top
flange should not be considered laterally supported fully. The beams having lateral
support from other members may buckle between points of lateral support. Therefore,
the laterally unsupported length of beam is kept short.
14.5 DESIGN OF LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS
The design of beams is generally governed by the maximum allowable bending stress and
the allowable deflection. Its design is controlled by shear only when the spans are short
and loads are heavy. The members are selected such that the sections are symmetrical
about the plane of loading and the unsymmetrical bending and torsion are eliminated.
The design of beams deals with proportioning of members, the determination of effective
section modulus, maximum deflection and the shear stress. In general, the rolled steel
sections have webs of sufficient thickness such that the criterion for design is seldom
governed by shear. The following are the usual steps in design of laterally supported
beams:
Step 1. For the design of beams, load to be carried by the beam, and effective span of the
beam are known. The value of yield stress, fy for the structural steel to be used is also
known. For the rolled steel beams of equal flanges as given in ISI Handbook no.1, the
ratio of mean thickness of the compression flange (T=t f) to the thickness of web used to
be less than 2.00. Also the ratio of the depth of web d 1 to the thickness of web is also
smaller than 85. The ends of compression flange of a laterally supported beam remain
restrained against lateral bending (i.e., not free to rotate in plan at the bearings).
In the beginning of design, the permissible bending stress in tension, σ bt or in

compression, σbc may be assumed as 0.66 fy. The bending compressive stress, σbc and the
bending tensile stress, σbt are equal for the laterally supported beam.
Step 2. The maximum bending moment M and the maximum shear force F in the beam
are calculated. The required section modulus for the beam is determined as Z=(M/σ bc)
Step 3. From the steel section tables, a rolled steel beam section, a rolled steel beam
section, which provides more than the required section modulus is selected. The steel
beam section shall have (D/T) and (l/ry) ratios more than 8 and 40 respectively. As such
the trial section of beam selected may have modulus of section, Z more than that
required. Some of the beam sections of different categories have almost the same value
of the section modulus Z. It is necessary to note the weight of beam per meter length and
the section modulus, Z. The beam section selected should be such that it has minimum
weight and adequate section modulus, Z.
Step 4. The rolled steel beam section is checked for the shear stress. The average and
maximum shear stresses should not exceed the allowable average and maximum values
of shear stresses.
Step 5. The rolled steel beam is also checked for deflection. The maximum deflection
should not exceed the limiting deflection.
ISI Handbook no.1 provides tables for allowable uniform loads on beams and channels
used as flexural members with adequate lateral support for compression flange. The
values of allowable uniform loads corresponding to respective effective spans are given
for various beams and channel sections. For given span and total uniformly distributed
load found, rolled beam or channel section may be selected from these tables. The rolled
steel I-sections and wide flange beam sections are most efficient sections. These sections
have excellent flexural strength and relatively good lateral strength for their weights.
Example 14.1 The effective length of compression flange of simply supported beam MB

500,@0.869 kN/m is 8 m. Determine the safe uniformly distributed load per meter length
which can be placed over the beam having an effective span of 8 meters. Adopt
maximum permissible stresses as per IS 800-1984. The ends of beam are restrained
against rotation at the bearings.
Solution:
Step 1: Permissible bending stress
MB 500,@0.869 kN/m has been used as simply supported beam. The effective span of
beam is 8 m. The effective length of compression flange is also 8 m.
From the steel section table, the section modulus of beam Z=1808.7 x 103 mm3
Mean thickness of compression flange tf =T= 17.2 mm
Thickness of web tw=10.2 mm
It is assumed that the value of yield stress, fy for the structural steel of MB 500,@0.869
kN/m is 250 N/mm2(MPa).
From IS: 800-1984, the maximum permissible bending stress, for above ratios (by
linear interpolation) σbc=65.121 N/mm2(MPa)
Step 2: Load supported over beam
MB 500,@0.869 kN/m can resist maximum bending moment equal to moment of
resistance. Therefore the maximum bending moment M=160.189 m-kN
Step 3: Load supported over beam
The effective span of the beam is 8 meters. Let w be the uniformly distributed load per
meter length. The maximum bending moment, M for the beam occurs at the centre..
The self-weight of the beam is 0.869 kN/m. Therefore, the safe uniformly distributed load
which can be placed over the beam (20.02-0.869)=19.15 kN.
Example 14.2 Design a simply supported beam to carry a uniformly distributed load of 44

kN/m. The effective span of beam is 8 meters. The effective length of compression flange
of the beam is also 8 m. The ends of beam are not free to rotate at the bearings.
Design:
Step 1: Load supported, bending moment and shear force
Uniformly distributed load = 44 kN/m
Assume self weight of beam = 1.0 kN/m
Total uniformly distributed load w= 45 kN/m
The maximum bending moment, M occurs at the centre

Step 2: Permissible bending stress
It is assumed that the value of yield stress, fy for the structural steel is 250 N/mm2 (MPa).
The ratios (T/tw) and (d1/tw) are less than 2.0 and 85 respectively. The maximum
permissible stress in compression or tension may be assumed as σ bc = σbt = (0.66 x 250) =
165 N/mm2
The steel beam section shall have (D/T) and (l/ry) ratios more than 8 and 40 respectively.
The trial section of beam selected may have modulus of section, Z more than that needed
(about 25 to 50 per cent more).
Step 3: Trial section modulus
1.50 x 2181.82 x 103 mm3=3272.73 x 103 mm3
From steel section tables, try WB 600,@1.337 kN/m
Section modulus, Zxx=3540.0 x 103 mm3
Moment of inertia, Ixx=106198.5 x 104 mm4
Thickness of web, tw=11.2 mm
Thickness of flange, T=tf=21.3 mm
Depth of section, h=600 mm
Step 4: Check for section modulus
The effective length of compression flange of beam is 8 m.
From IS: 800-1984, the maximum permissible bending stress σ bc=118.68 N/mm2(MPa)
Section modulus required

Further trial may give more economical section.
Step 5: Check for shear force
Average shear stress,
Permissible average shear stress
0.4 x fy = (0.4 x 250) = 100 N/mm2 > Actual average shear stress
Step 6: Check for deflection
Maximum deflection of the beam
Allowable deflection
The maximum deflection is less than allowable deflection, hence the beam is safe.
Provide WB 600,@1.337 kN/m
Design of Compression Members
11.1 INTRODUCTION
A strut is defined as a structural member subjected to compression in a direction parallel to

its longitudinal axis. The term strut is commonly used for compression members in roof
trusses. A strut may be used in a vertical position or in an inclined position in roof trusses.
The compression members may be subjected to both axial compression and bending.
When compression members are overloaded then their failure may take place because of
one of the following:
1. Direct compression
2. Excessive bending
3. Bending combined with twisting
The failure of column depends upon its slenderness ratio. The load required to cause above
mentioned failures decreases as the length of compression member increases, the cross-
sectional area of the member being constant.
11.2 COMMON SECTIONS OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
The common sections used for compression members are shown in Fig. 11.1 with their
approximate radii of gyration. A column or a compression member may be made
of many different sections to support a given
load. Few sections satisfy practical requirement in a given case. A tubular section is most
efficient and economical for the column free to buckle in any direction. The radius of gyration
r for the tubular section in all the directions remains same. The tubular section has high local
buckling strength. The tubular sections are suitable for medium loads. However, it is difficult
to have their end connections. A solid round bar having a cross-sectional area equal to that of
a tubular section has radius of gyration, r much smaller than that of tube. The solid round bar
is less economical than the tubular section. The solid round bar is better than the thin
rectangular section or a flat strip. The radius of gyration of flat strip about its narrow
direction is very small. Theoretically, the rods and bars do resist some compression. When
the length of structural member is about 3 m, then the compressive strengths of the rods and
bars are very small.
Single angle sections are rarely used except in light roof trusses, because of eccentricity at
the end connections. Tee-sections are often used in roof trusses. The single rolled steel I-
section and single rolled steel channel section are seldom used as column. The value of
radius of gyration r, about the axis parallel to the web is small. The intermediate additional
supports in the weak direction make the use of these sections economical. Sometimes the
use of I-sections and channel sections are preferred because of the method of rolling at the
mills, since, the out-to-out dimensions remain same for a given depth. This failure is not
there with other rolled steel sections. The costs of single rolled steel sections per unit weight
are less than those of built-up sections. Therefore the single rolled steel sections are
preferred so long as their use is feasible.
11.3 STRENGTH OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
The strength of a compression member is defined as its safe load carrying capacity. The
strength of a centrally loaded straight steel column depends on the effective cross-sectional
area, radius of gyration (viz., shape of the cross-section), the effective length, the magnitude
and distribution of residual stresses, annealing, out of straightness and cold straightening.
The effective cross-sectional area and the slenderness ratio of the compression members are
the main features, which influence its strength. In case, the allowable stress is assumed to
vary parabolically with the slenderness ratio, it may be proved that the efficiency of a shape
of a compression member is related to A/r 2. The efficiency of a shape is defined as the ratio
of the allowable load for a given slenderness ratio to that for slenderness ratio equal to zero.
The safe load carrying capacity of compression member of known sectional area may be
determined as follows:
Step 1. From the actual length of the compression member and the support conditions of the
member, which are known, the effective length of the member is computed.
Step 2. From the radius of gyration about various axes of the section given in section tables,
the minimum radius of gyration (rmin) is taken. rmin for a built up section is calculated.
Step 3. The maximum slenderness ratio (l/ rmin) is determined for the compression member.
Step 4. The allowable working stress (σ ac) in the direction of compression is found
corresponding to the maximum slenderness ratio of the column from IS:800-1984.
Step 5. The effective sectional area (A) of the member is noted from structural steel section
tables. For the built up members it can be calculated.
Step 6. The safe load carrying capacity of the member is determined as P=(σ ac.A), where
P=safe load
11.4 ANGLE STRUTS
The compression members consisting of single sections are of two types:
1. Discontinuous members
2. Continuous members
11.4.1 Continuous members
The compression members (consisting of single or double angles) which are continuous over
a number of joints are known as continuous members. The top chord members of truss
girders and principal rafters of roof trusses are continuous members. The effective length of
such compression members is adopted between 0.7 and 1.0 times the distance between the
centres of intersections, depending upon degree of restraint provided. When the members of
trusses buckle in the plane perpendicular to the plane of the truss, the effective length shall
be taken as 1.0 times the distance between the points of restraint. The working stresses for
such compression members is adopted from IS:800-1984 corresponding to the slenderness
ratio of the member and yield stress for steel.
11.4.2 Discontinuous members
The compression members which are not continuous over a number of joints, i.e., which
extend between two adjacent joints only are known as discontinuous members. The
discontinuous members may consist of single angle strut or double angle strut. When an
angle strut is connected to a gusset plate or to any structural member by one leg, the load
transmitted through the strut, is eccentric on the section of the strut. As a result of this,
bending stress is developed along with direct stress. While designing or determining strength
of an angle strut, the bending stress developed because of eccentricity of loading is
accounted for as follows:
i.Single angle strut
1. When single angle discontinuous strut is connected to a gusset plate with

one rivet as shown in Fig. 11.2.A, its effective length is adopted as centre to
centre of intersection at each end and the allowable working stress
corresponding to the slenderness ratio of the member is reduced to 80 per
cent. However, the slenderness ratio of such single angle strut should not
exceed 180.
2. When a single angle discontinuous strut is connected with two or more
number of rivets or welding as shown in Fig. 11.2.B, its effective length is
adopted as 0.85 times the length of strut centre to centre of intersection of
each end and allowable working stress corresponding to the slenderness ratio
of the member is not reduced.
ii.Double angle strut
1. A double angle discontinuous strut with angles placed back to back and
connected to both sides of a gusset or any rolled steel section by not less than
two rivets or bolts or in line along the angles at each end or by equivalent in
welding as shown in Fig. 11.3.A, can be regarded as an axially loaded strut. Its
effective length is adopted as 0.85 times the distance between intersections,
depending on the degree of restraint provided and in the plane perpendicular
to that of the gusset, the effective length ‘l’ shall be taken as equal to the
distance between centres of the intersections. The tacking rivets should be
provided at appropriate pitch.
2. The double angles, back to back connected to one side of a gusset plate
or a section by one or more rivets or bolts or welds as show in Fig. 11.3.B,
these are designed as single angle discontinuous strut connected by single
rivet or bolt.
If the struts carry in addition to axial loads, loads which cause transverse bending, the
combined bending and axial stress shall be checked as described for the columns subjected
to eccentric loading. The tacking rivets should be provided at appropriate pitch.
The tacking rivets are also termed as stitching rivets. In case of compression members, when
the maximum distance between centres of two adjacent rivets exceeds 12 t to 200 mm
whichever is less, then tacking rivets are used. The tacking rivets are not subjected to
calculated stress. The tacking rivets are provided throughout the length of a compression
member composed of two components back to back. The two components of a member act
together as one piece by providing tacking rivets at a pitch in line not exceeding 600 mm and
such that minimum slenderness ratio of each member between the connections is not
greater than 40 or 0.6 times the maximum slenderness ratio of the strut as a whole,
whichever is less.
In case where plates are used, the tacking rivets are provided at a pitch in line not exceeding
32 times the thickness of outside plate or 300 mm whichever is less. Where the plates are
exposed to weather the pitch in line shall not exceed 16 times the thickness of the outside
plate or 200 mm whichever is less. In both cases, the lines of rivets shall not be apart at a
distance greater than these pitches.
The single angle sections are used for the compression members for small trusses and
bracing. The equal angle sections are more desirable usually. The unequal angle sections are
also used. The minimum radius of gyration about one of the principal axis is adopted for
calculating the slenderness ratios. The minimum radius of gyration of the single angle section
is much less than the other sections of same cross-sectional area. Therefore, the single angle
sections are not suitable for the compression member of long lengths. The single angle
sections are commonly used in the single plane trusses (i.e., the trusses having gusset plates
in one plane). The angle sections simplify the end connections.
The tee-sections are suitable for the compression members for small trusses. The tee-
sections are more suitable for welding.
Example 11.1 A single angle discontinuous strut ISA 150 mm x 150 mm x 12 mm (ISA 150
150,@0.272 kN/m) with single riveted connection is 3.5 m long. Calculate safe load carrying
capacity of the section.
Solution:
Step 1: Properties of angle section
ISA 150 mm x 150 mm x 12 mm (ISA 150 150,@0.272 kN/m) is used as discontinuous strut.
From the steel tables, the geometrical properties of the section are as follows:
Sectional area A = 3459 mm2
Radius of gyration rxx= ryy=149.3 mm
Radius of gyration ruu= 58.3 mm, rvv=29.3 mm
Step 2: Slenderness ratio,
Minimum radius of gyration rmin= 29.3 mm
Effective length of strut l= 3.5 m

Slenderness ratio of the strut
Step 3: Safe load
From IS:800-1984 for l/r=119.5 and the steel having yield stress, f y=260 N/mm2, allowable
working stress in compression σac =64.45 N/mm2 (MPa)
For single angle discontinuous strut with single riveted connection, allowable working stress
0.80 σac = (0.80 x 64.45) = 51.56 N/mm2.
The safe load carrying capacity
Example 11.2 In case in Example 11.1, a discontinuous strut 150 x 150 x 15 angle section is
used, calculate the safe load carrying capacity of the section.
Solution:
Angle section 150 mm x 150 mm x 15 mm is used as discontinuous strut. From the steel
tables, the geometrical properties of the section are as follows:
Effective length of strut l= 3.5 m
Step 3: Safe load
For single angle discontinuous strut with single riveted connection, allowable working stress
0.80 σac = (0.80 x 64.45) = 51.56 N/mm2.
Example 11.3 In Example 11.1, if single angle discontinuous strut is connected with more
than two rivets in line along the angle at each end, calculate the safe load carrying capacity of
the section.
Solution:
Discontinuous strut ISA 150 mm x 150 mm x 12 mm (ISA 150 150,@0.272 kN/m) is used with
double riveted connections. From the steel tables, the geometrical properties of the section
are as follows:
Length of strut between centre to centre of intersection L=3.50 m
Effective length of discontinuous strut double riveted 0.85 x L= 0.85 x 3.5 = 2.975 m
Step 3: Safe load
Allowable working stress for discontinuous strut double riveted is not reduced.
Example 11.4 A double angle discontinuous strut ISA 125 mm x 95 mm x 10 mm (ISA 125
95,@0.165 kN/m) long legs back to back is connected to both the sides of a gusset plate 10
mm thick with 2 rivets. The length of strut between centre to centre of intersections is 4 m.
Determine the safe load carrying capacity of the section.
Solution:
The double angle discontinuous strut 2 ISA 125 mm x 95 mm x 10 mm (ISA 125 95,@0.165
kN/m) is shown in Fig. 11.4. Assume the tacking rivets are used along the length. From the
steel tables, the geometrical properties of (two angle back to back) the sections are as
follows:
Radius of gyration rxx= 39.4 mm
Angles are 10 mm apart

Radius of gyration ryy= 40.1 mm
Length of strut between centre to centre of intersection L=4 m
Effective length of discontinuous strut 0.85 x L= 0.85 x 4.0 = 3.40 m
Step 3: Safe load
Example 11.5 In Example 11.4, if double discontinuous strut is connected to one side of a
gusset, determine safe load carrying capacity of the strut.
Solution:
kN/m) connected to one side of a gusset is shown in Fig. 11.5. Assume the tacking rivets are
used along the length. From the steel tables, the geometrical properties of (two angle back to
back) the sections are as follows:
Distance back to back of angles is zero
Effective length of strut whether single riveted or double riveted L=4 m

Step 3: Safe load
From IS:800-1984 for l/r=109 and the steel having yield stress, f y=260 N/mm2, allowable
For above strut, allowable working stress 0.80 σac = (0.80 x 73.9) = 59.12 N/mm2.
Example 11.6 In Example 11.4, double angle strut is continuous and connected with a gusset
plate with single rivet; determine safe load carrying capacity of the strut.
Solution:
kN/m) is singly riveted as shown in Fig. 11.4. Assume the tacking rivets are used along the
length. From the steel tables, the geometrical properties of (two angle back to back) the
sections are as follows:
Angles are 10 mm apart

Length of strut between centre to centre of intersection L=4 m
Effective length L= 4 m
Step 3: Safe load
Example 11.7 Design a single angle discontinuous strut to carry 110 kN load. The length of
the strut between centre to centre of intersections is 3.25 m.
Design:
Step 1: Selection of trial section
Assuming that the angle strut is connected to the gusset plate with two or more than two
rivets.
Effective length of strut l=0.85L=(0.85 x 3.25 x 1000) = 2762.5 mm.
The slenderness ratio for the single angle discontinuous strut and value of yield stress
for the steel may be assumed as 130 and 260 N/mm2, respectively.
Therefore, allowable stress in compression for strut σac =57 N/mm2 (MPa)
Effective sectional area required
The equal angle section is suitable for single angle strut. It has maximum value for minimum
radius of gyration.
Step 2: Properties of trial section
From steel section tables, try ISA 110 mm x 110 mm x 10 mm (ISA 110 110@0.165 kN/m)
Sectional area A=2106 mm2, rxx=ryy=33.6 mm, ruu=42.5 mm, rvv=21.4 mm
Therefore rmin=21.4 mm

Step 3: Slenderness ratio
Slenderness ratio
Step 4: Safe load
From IS:800-1984, allowable working stress in compression for the steel having yield stress as
260 N/mm2 σac =57.56 N/mm2 (MPa)
The angle section lighter in weight than this is not suitable. Hence the design is satisfactory.
Step 5: Check for width of outstanding leg
Width of outstanding leg to thickness ratio
Hence, satisfactory. Provide ISA 110 mm x 110 mm x 10 mm (ISA 110 110@0.165 kN/m) for
discontinuous strut.
Alternatively:
From IS:808-1984, try angle section 120 x 120 x 10 (@ 18.2 kg/m)
Sectional area, A=2320 mm2, rxx=ryy=36.7 mm, ruu=46.3 mm, rvv=23.6 mm
Step3: Slenderness ratio
Effective length of strut is 2762.5 mm
Minimum radius of gyration rmin=23.6 mm
Slenderness ratio
Step 4: Safe load carrying capacity
working stress in compression
Safe load carrying capacity
Example 11.8 Design a double angle discontinuous strut to carry 150 kN load. The length of
strut between centre to centre of intersections is 4 m
Design:
Step 1: Selection of trial section
Assuming that the strut is connected to both sides of gusset 10 mm thick by two or more
than two rivets.
Length of strut L= 4.00 m
Effective length of strut l=0.85L=(0.85 x 4) = 3.40 m.
The slenderness ratio of a double angle discontinuous strut and the value of yield
stress for the steel may be assumed as 120 and 260 N/mm 2, respectively.
Therefore, allowable stress in compression σac =64 N/mm2 (MPa)
Effective sectional area required
From steel section tables (properties of two angles back to back), try 2 ISA 100 mm x 65 mm x
8 mm (2 ISA 100 65,@0.099 kN/m)
Sectional area A=2514 mm2, rxx=31.6 mm,
For angles having 10 mm distance back to back and long legs vertical ryy=27.5 mm
Therefore rmin=27.5 mm
Step 3: Slenderness ratio
Slenderness ratio
Step 4: Safe load
From IS:800-1984, allowable working stress in compression for the steel having yield stress as
260 N/mm2 σac =61.48 N/mm2 (MPa)
Provide 2 ISA 100 mm x 65 mm x 8 mm for the strut. Provide tacking rivets 18 mm in
diameter at 500 mm spacing.
BUCKLING BEHAVIOUR OF COLD FORMED STEEL LIPPED ANGLE SECTION

A thin walled member under compression, there is a possibility of local buckling to occur.
Besides local buckling, other mode of failure such as:
1. Local buckling mode
2. Distortional buckling mode
3. Global buckling mode
Global buckling modes are consist of
1. Flexural buckling
2. Torsional buckling and 3.Flexural – torsional buckling
 Buckling: When a structure is subjected to compressive stress, buckling may

occur. Buckling is characterized by a sudden sideways deflection of a structural
member.
 Local buckling: Local buckling is an extremely important facet of cold formed
steel sections on account of the fact that the very thin elements used will
invariably buckle before yielding.
 Distortional buckling: Distortional buckling characterized by rotation of the
flange at the flange/web junction in members with edge stiffened elements. In
members with intermediately stiffened elements distortional buckling is
characterized by displacement of the intermediate stiffener normal to the plane
of the element.
 Global buckling: Global buckling is a buckling mode where the member
deforms with no deformation in its crosssectional shape.
Effective Width Method (EWM):
The basis of the Effective Width Method which has been followed in the IS 801 code is that the local
plate buckling leads to reductions in the effectiveness of the plates that comprise of cross-section.
More formally, this loss in plate effectiveness can be understood as an approximate means to account
for equilibrium in an effective plate under as amplified stress distribution as opposed to the actual
(full) plate with the actual nonlinear longitudinal stress distribution that develops due to buckling
.Each plate in a cross-section was reduced to its effective width and this reduction from the gross
cross section to the effective cross-section is fundamental to the application of the Effective Width
Method.
b. Design and load calculations The design and load calculations of the stiffened and unstiffened equal
angle sections are designed as per the IS801-1925 codal provisions
The main process of cold-formed steel structural elements involves forming steel sections in a cold
state from steel sheets of uniform thickness. The thickness of steel members ranges from 0.4mm to
6.0mm. The cold forming operation increases the yield point and the ultimate strength of the steel
sections. Their large strength to weight ratio. Versatility. Non-combustibility with appropriate
measures and ease of production has attracted architects, engineers, builders and manufactures of
building products with the promise, that it can help them provide improved function and greater
aesthetic appearance for many applications at low cost. The wide range of available coldformed steel
products has expanded their use to primary beams, floor units, roof trusses, wall panels and building
frames. Cold –formed steel members can be produced in a wide variety of sectional profiles such as
angles, channels, hat sections, zed sections and sigma sections. Angles are the most common
structural shape found in almost any structure due to their simplicity and ease of fabrication and
erection. Single angles are usually used as web members in steel joists and trusses, members of
latticed transmission towers or communication structures and also as bracing members to provide
lateral support to the main members. Until recently, the hot-rolled steel members have been
recognized as the most popular and are widely used steel group, but since then the use of cold-
formed high strength steel structural members has rapidly increased. However, the structural
behavior of these light gauge high strength steel members characterized by various buckling modes
such as local buckling, distortional buckling, and flexural-torsional buckling is not yet fully understood.
Plain sections are finding applications as secondary members: the sections are usually strengthened
with flange end stiffeners or web stiffeners in primary structural applications.
SHEAR LAG
In a structure if two members are joined via a flanged member like angle-section or C-section
or I-section for sustaining tensile load we don't connect all the the cross-section or
component.
Some of the flanged section is not joined to the gusset plate, this cross-section which are not
connected are not as efficient as the connected leg in transferring loads. The larger the
unconnected leg less is the transfer of tensile stress, this effect of uneven strain distribution
in unconnected flange at connection is called shear lag.
In a box girder, a large shear flow is transmitted from vertical webs to horizontal flanges,
which causes in-plane shear deformation of the flanges and results in unpredicted extra
longitudinal displacement at the web-flange junction. Due to which central portion of flange
lag behind that of the web for the response quantities. This phenomena of lagging is Shear
lag.
The non uniform transfer of stress across the section cause non uniform straining of the
section due to which the section can not be effectively utilized and fails under the minimum
strength across the section instead of average. This whole phenomena is known as shear lag
effect.
Consider an unequal angle section shorter leg connected. Now, apply the load along the
longer leg then the straining of longer leg is different from shorter leg due to non uniform
stress distribution and hence thus cause the shear lag. In order to avoid this non uniform
straining lug angle is used. ( tack bolts are provided accordingly).
When a tension member ,like an angle section or a channel section, is connected to the
gusset plate or other structural member through welding or bolting such that only few legs
are connected (called as connecting legs) and remaining legs are not connected ( called as
outstanding leg) then for a certain distance , most of the force is carried out by the
connected leg instead of whole section taking an average load. This distance is known as
shear lag distance. It's effect can be summarised as :
"It is found that the shear lag due to connection through one leg only causes at the ultimate
stage the stress in the outstanding leg to be closer only to yield stress even though the stress
at the net section of the connected leg may have reached ultimate stress. They have
suggested an equation for evaluating the tensile strength of angles connected by one leg,
which accounts for various factors that significantly influence the strength. In order to
simplify calculations, this formula has suggested that the stress in the outstanding leg be
limited to fy (the yield stress) and the connected sections having holes to be limited to fu (the
ultimate stress). IS 800 :2007 code.
Flange Curling
The non-linear flange curling phenomenon in cold formed profiles is the tendency of slender
flanges to deform towards the neutral axis for increasing flexural curvature. Based on
Braziers work, Winter proposed a simple engineering formula for determination of the local
flange deformation towards the neutral axis. This formula is used in Eurocode to estimate
flange curling deformation and give a limit after which flange curling has to be taken into
account, however no method or procedure is given for this. The current work presents a new
original method, which fits directly into the iterative scheme of Eurocode for determination
of effective widths and the neutral axis position in flexure of thin-walled cross sections
Cross-sections with wide flanges or arched profiles subjected to flexure may show an effect
which is called "flange curling": The membrane stresses due to the bending moment have to
be turned around the curvature of the element or of the deformation which causes lateral
loads. Hence the wide flange is bent additionally as shown in Figure 4 and consequently the
cross-section stiffness and modulus W decreases. The amplitude of this deformation may be
estimated using formulae in Eurocode 3 [1]. The cross-section properties are calculated now
on the basis of the cross-section with curved geometry due to flange curling .
Flange curling is a second order effect. In many cases, however, cross-section deformations
similar to flange curling occur already due to first order theory. This cross-section distortion
may become much bigger than flange curling and should be taken into account using an
appropriate theory. For example cassettes without lateral supports at the free flanges show
this behaviour.
Wall stud
A wall stud is a vertical framing member in a building's wall of smaller cross section than a
post. They are a fundamental element in frame building. The studs in the wall are the two-by-
four framing members that form the structure of the wall and, for that matter, the entire
house. Some wall studs perform specific functions, such as framing doorways and windows,
and they have special names that relate to those functions. If you also consider the floor and
ceiling, you'll find framing members with specific names, but instead of being two-by-fours,
these are usually two-by-six or two-by-eight lumber.
Types of Studs Used for Doors and Windows
An important part of wall framing is creating the rough openings for doors and windows.
These openings may be slightly modified during installation of the doors and windows, but
ideally, they are constructed by the framer to the proper dimensions so that little
modification is needed.
 King studs -The studs that determine the width of the rough opening are the king
studs. They extend from the sole plate to the top plate and must be spaced to allow
for the jack studs.
 Jack studs -The framer attaches the jack studs on the sides of the king studs that
face the opening. They are also known as trimmer studs or simply trimmers, and
their function is to support the top of the door or window opening, which is known
as the header.
 Headers- Headers aren't always constructed with two-by-fours, but they may be.
The header extends across the width of the door and window opening and is
supported by the jack studs.
 Cripple studs – The header must support the weight of the building above it, and
to allow it to do this, the framer must nail short lengths of two-by-four material at
16-inch spacing between the header and the top plate of the wall. These are cripple
studs or simply cripples.
 Saddle or sill
The saddle stud is the horizontal stud that forms the bottom of a window opening.
TYPES OF LOAD ACTING ON INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
 Dead load
 Live load
 Wind load
 Crane load
 Earthquake load
Dead load : The dead loads acting on industrial buildings includes:
1. Own weight of roof covering

2. Own weight of different structural steel elements
3. Weight of R.C. slab (case of Mezzanine)
4. Collateral loads (from Mechanical, elect., HVAC,…etc) Equipments acting on the top
roof
Dead Loads: Own weight of roof covering
o The own weight of roof covering depends on the type of roof cladding
cladding ie:5‐10kg/m21.
o For steel corrugated sheets wt 10‐20k /g m22.
o For sand ih w c panels, wt 3. This weight is acting on inclined
projection
Live Loads : For roofs, it depends on the roof inclination and roof accessibility. For floors in
Mezzanine levels, the live loads is to be assessed accord.
Wind Load : Steel structures are usually light weight structures and the effect of wind should
be taken into consideration. Wind acting on the building may cause pressure pressure on
one side and suction on the other side. The effect of the wind load is the sum of the effect of
pressure and suction.
Crane Loads : The cranes usually affect the st t ruc ture i n th e 3D as follows:
 Vertical component representing dead and live loads + impact

 Horizontal component in the plan of frame due to lateral shock
 Horizontal component in longitudinal direction due to braking force
 The vertical component acting on each wheel is ={the dead weight (wt of crane
bridge) bridge) + the live loads ((weight of trolley + wt of cargo) positioned at the
wr0est case location)} location)} * the impact factor. The impact factor for electrical
cranes is 25% 2. The horizontal horizontal lateral lateral shock is taken 10% of the live
loads without impact 3. The braking braking force is taken 1/7 of the total vertical
vertical component without impact.
Special loads
These special loads includes extra requirements according according to project project
technical technical specifications specifications or due to site conditions. For example, the
client may ask for a structural structural system to withstand withstand explosions explosions
or extra live load more than that required in load code. Other kinds of special special loads
includes includes effect of temperature, settlement of supports, loads during construction,
construction, terrorist terrorist attacks, attacks, aircraft aircraft attacks…….etc.
CONFIGURATION OF INDUSTRIAL BUILDING
These buildings are typically used for workshops, factories, industrial and distribution
warehouses and retail and leisure. Referred to colloquially as ‘sheds’, sizes vary from small
workshops of just a few hundred square metres up to massive distribution warehouses
covering over one hundred thousand square metres.
Steel dominates the framing systems used in this sector with a market share of
approximately 90%. Whilst most single-storey buildings are relatively straightforward
building projects, increasing levels of specialisation by steelwork contractors and other
supply chain members have, in recent years, led to huge improvements in
quality, cost and delivery performance of single storey steel buildings. These improvements
have been achieved through increasingly efficient use of the portal frame by design-and-
build steelwork contractors, improved project planning, and active supply chain
management by main contractors.
Speed of construction
Early return on investment is particularly important for retail and logistics companies and
therefore speed of construction is vital. This can affect the design in many ways that are
perhaps not immediately apparent. For example:
 The layout and components can be designed so that parallel rather than sequential
construction can take place
 Interfaces between trades need to be minimised
 Collaborative discussion between trades will be needed to ensure that, whatever is
decided, all aspects of construction can proceed quickly and safely.
Structural steel components are pre-fabricated off-site by a steelwork contractor;

any protective coatings that are required can be applied at this stage. Site activity is primarily
an assembly operation, bolting steelwork parts together, which leads to short construction
programmes. The building can be made weathertight quickly, allowing the following on
trades early access to commence their work
Anatomy of typical single storey building

Main article: Concept design, Trusses, Portal frames, Building envelopes
Arrangement of a typical single-storey building
Single storey buildings are usually required to provide large open floor areas, with few
internal structural columns, thus offering maximum flexibility in use and freedom for
activities that involve moving plant and equipment inside the building. These requirements
are most often achieved by using a relatively light structural frame spanning from one side of
the building to the other, clad with a weathertight envelope. The design of the
structural framework and the envelope are closely linked.
The schematic arrangement of a typical single storey building showing both the structural
frame and the building envelope is provided. There are essentially three layers to the
structure:
 The primary steel frame, consisting of columns, rafters and bracing. The example
shown is a portal frame, however, it is equally applicable to other types of structural
frames.
 The secondary steelwork, consisting of side rails and purlins for the walls and roof
respectively. These members serve three purposes:
 To support the envelope
 To transfer load from the envelope to the primary steel frame
 To restrain the primary steel frame members
 The roof and wall cladding, whose functions include some or all of the following:
 Separating the enclosed space from the external environment
 Transferring load to the secondary steelwork
 Restraining the secondary steelwork
 Providing thermal insulation
 Providing acoustic insulation
 Preventing fire spread
 Providing an airtight envelope
 Providing ventilation to a building (ventilated or unventilated roofs and walls).
Multi-bay portal frame during construction
The cladding will also normally include ancillary components such as windows, rooflights,

vents and gutters.
In most cases both building length and building width are much larger than the height of the
building. Single-bay and multi-bay buildings can be used depending on the overall size of the
building. A multi-bay portal frame is shown.
Overview of single storey industrial steel buildings

[top]Framing options
There are two main framing options for single storey industrial buildings:
Portal Frames
‘Hit-and-miss’ multi-bay building during construction
The vast majority of single storey, steel framed buildings are portal frames. These were first
widely used in the 1960s. During the 1970s and early 1980s they developed rapidly to
become the predominant form of single storey construction. Using plastic design techniques
first developed at Cambridge University, for spans up to about 50m portal frames are the
most economical solution available. Large column-free areas can be achieved at relatively
low cost. Often on multi-span frames the intermediate valley columns are omitted (‘hit-and-
miss’) so that on, say, a 45m span frame, with bay centres of 8m, each column-free ‘box’
covers an area of over 700m2, which is nearly a fifth of an acre!
Portal frames typically use hot-rolled beams and columns for the roof rafters and supporting
columns, although cold formed sections may be adequate for some small span
structures. Portal frames come in a variety of different shapes and sizes, with flat and pitched
roofs. The schematic arrangement of a typical single storey portal frame building is shown.
Single span symmetric portal frame
A small number of steelwork contractors offer portal frames made wholly from plates, often
to form a tapered rafter section, which more closely follows the load profile on the steel
member. The extra fabrication cost involved is offset by savings in the material content of the
resultant frame. However, overall this form of frame has not been successful in the UK,
mainly due to the efficiency of steelwork contractors offering parallel flange beam solutions.
Sophisticated computer software is widely available to design portal frames to the optimum
efficiency. These programs use plastic or elastoplastic design techniques, and can handle
multi-span frames with varying geometries and multiple load cases. Design is carried out to
both to BS 5950[1], and BS EN 1993-1-1[2]. Detailed guidance on design to BS 5950[1] is
given in SCI P252, and guidance on design to BS EN 1993-1-1[2] is given in SCI P399.
Lattice trusses
Lattice truss using tubular members
The main alternative to portal frames is lattice construction. Lattice trusses are generally

more expensive than portal frames for routine applications and spans. However, for certain
applications they will offer the best framing solution, such as: for very large spans (greater
than 50m), for production facilities needing heavy plant suspended from the roof area, or
where deflection criteria are particularly critical.
Trusses are a triangulated assembly of members usually either rolled or structural hollow
sections. The internal members can be angles, beams or hollow sections, depending on the
design loads, configuration and fabrication costs. Two basic configurations are used in single
storey buildings – pitched roof trusses and ‘flat’ trusses of near uniform depth. Trusses are
usually planar and will generally require bracing of some form to provide stability. As an
alternative, three-dimensional trusses can be created.
Trusses typically have a greater depth than single beams or plate girders. The deflection of
a truss is modest, and can be controlled, making them especially suitable when significant
loads have to be supported from the roof structure, or when a flat (or nearly flat) roof is to
be provided. The larger depth of the trusses increases the dimensions of the façade, but also
provides space for services to be placed in the roof structure instead of below.
The weight of a trussed roof structure per unit area of roof is, in general, less than that of
single beam girders, but the fabrication costs are higher. Trusses may be exposed in the
completed structure, which may increase the fabrication costs if, for example, hollow
sections are used for the members.
Cable stayed roofs
In a cable-stayed structure, tensile members (wire ropes or bars) are provided to give
intermediate support to members such as roof beams, thus allowing those members to be
reduced in size. The stays need to be supported by columns or masts and those members
need to be anchored or braced with other stays. The bracing arrangement is usually very
conspicuous and the aesthetics of the building must be considered carefully. An example of a
cable stayed building structure is shown .
Cable stayed roof beams of a storage facility
As most of the structure is outside of the building, maintenance costs can be high for this
form of construction. Care must be taken in detailing the waterproofing where the stays pass
through the envelope.
[top]Geometry and layout
Column positions may be restricted to suit the layout of equipment inside the building, such
as racking in a warehouse, or machinery in a production unit. A good understanding of
the costs of portal frames and the impact of different span and bay centre options is crucial
to achieve an optimum building layout. Good advice can be obtained from steelwork
contractors specialising in single storey buildings.
With increasing spans the unit structural cost falls gradually to a minimum at a span of
around 30-35m. Above this distance costs start to increase quickly. Graphs can be produced
for differing bay centres and height combinations to optimise the layout. The range of
combinations escalates quickly, and the steelwork contractor will need to run a number of
alternative designs to identify the best layout for the proposed building.
The height given in the performance specification should normally be specified to the
underside of the roof steelwork, which in the case of portal frames is the underside of the
haunch at the point where it meets the column. This is the clear height required by the
building’s operator, and allows the steelwork contractor to design a frame to clear this level,
the top of the column being determined by the total depth of the steelwork in the haunch
area.
Column bases are typically set about 450mm below finished floor level, although this may
vary on sloping sites or to suit door details.
The layout and design of the structure will also need to take full account of the
required speed of erection. Decisions made at this stage will have a large impact on the
number of work fronts available to the erectors, so the overall layout of the building may
need to be changed if a particularly quick site programme is required.
As a guide to steelwork sizes, on a typical 36m span multi-span frame, with a height to
underside of haunch of 12m, one might see portal rafters 457mm or 533mm deep, the portal
legs 686mm deep and a total steelwork weight of about 35 kg/m 2.
[top]Secondary steelwork
One feature of single storey buildings is the relatively high proportion of the steelwork that
is cold rolled. Roof purlins and side rails for supporting roof cladding sheets and vertical
cladding respectively are available as proprietary products from a number of manufacturers,
for incorporation into the steelwork project. Although these items are very light, weighing
only a few kilograms per metre, they typically account for 15-25% of the total weight of the
steelwork in the building.
There are many more pieces of cold rolled steel than hot rolled (main) steelwork to erect and
therefore this element of the erection needs to be carefully planned and controlled.
Secondary steelwork
[top]Envelope
Metal clad single storey industrial building
All buildings, whatever their use, must provide a controlled internal environment that is
protected from the variable and uncontrollable external climate. The required internal
environment will depend on the intended use of the building and this will determine the
specific requirements for the building envelope. Regulatory requirements under Part L of the
Building Regulations are also forcing significant attention on the design and construction
of building envelopes.
Generating and maintaining a controlled internal environment is a complex process,
requiring a combination of mechanical and electrical services to heat and/or cool the building
and a well-designed building envelope to regulate the heat gain and loss.
In addition to forming the building envelope, the roof and wall cladding may also have an
important role to play in the structural performance of the building, by providing restraint to
the secondary steelwork. Where such restraint is assumed (as is often the case in the purlins
and side rails manufacturers’ load/span tables), it is essential that the cladding is capable of
providing this restraint in practice.
The most common types of cladding used in single storey industrial buildings are ‘double
skin’ systems comprising two metal sheets with a layer of insulation between. Double skin
metal systems can be divided into four basic categories:
 Built-up systems
 Insulated panels
 Standing seam systems
 Structural liner trays.
These are shown below.
 Metal cladding systems used in single storey buildings

Built-up systems


Insulated panels


Standing seam systems
Liner tray systems
Built-up cladding system
Composite cladding system
[top]Floor slabs
In most cases, the floors of single-storey industrial buildings are used for vehicles, heavy
machinery and racking systems. They are designed to support heavy loads and have to be
’flat’. Concentrated loads due to vehicles, machines, racking and containers have to be
considered, depending on the application and local thickening of the slab can be undertaken
if the configuration of any heavy machinery, etc. is known at the design stage. Most industrial
buildings have a concrete floor with a minimum thickness of 150 mm on top of a layer of
granular fill, which is also at least 150 mm thick. For large floor areas, a sliding layer between
the base layer and the concrete is required, typically using two layers of synthetic material.
[top]Office areas
Entrance and office accommodation – ProShed, Daventry
In almost all cases, there will be offices incorporated into the development. These are
typically two storeys high, generally either within a corner of the building, or attached to the
front and side elevations. The office floor area is usually about 5% of the total area of the
building, but is dependent on the client’s or tenant’s specific requirements.
Most of the offices incorporated into industrial buildings are designed to conform to normal
commercial standards and the envelope may be curtain walling rather than a steel sheet
based system.
In multi-storey office areas, suspended floors are commonly composite floor slabs with in-
situ topping or precast units. The choice will often depend on the programme and
construction process selected by the main contractor.
Although the office areas are usually very much smaller than the remainder of the building,
its construction involves many more trades and is consequently often the most critical area in
terms of the overall construction programme.
[top]Mezzanines
Mezzanine floors in single storey industrial buildings offer the flexibility of providing
additional floor space without extending the overall size of the building. They can be part of a
new building construction, or as an upgrade to an existing building. Mezzanine floors tend to
be separate steel framed structures which are supported directly off the ground floor
concrete slab and tied into the main structural framing of the building. However, in industrial
buildings it may be a requirement that uninterrupted working spaces are provided over the
whole of the ground floor area (support forklift traffic). In these cases the mezzanine floor
structure can be supported directly off the roof main framing members, thereby providing an
unobstructed area underneath. Typically mezzanine floors are lightweight open grid floors.
To restrict the loss of headroom to a minimum, cellular beams can be specified which will
allow services to be provided within the depth of the mezzanine floor beams. A typical
mezzanine floor in an industrial facility is shown.
Typical mezzanine floor in an industrial building
[top]Forms of construction
Main article: Trusses, Portal frames
[top]Choice of building form
A single large hall is the main feature of most industrial buildings. The construction and
appearance of a single storey industrial building provides the design engineer with a wide
range of possible configurations in order to realise the architectural and functional
requirements of the building. Generally, an industrial building has a rectangular foot-print,
which is extendable in its long direction. The design of the building has to be coordinated
with its functional requirements and its operational energy performance, including lighting.
A comparison of the benefits and the reasons for choosing a particular building form (simple
beam structure, portal frame or truss) is shown in the table.
Simple beam/column Portal frame Truss
Advantages
Very long spans

Simple design Long span possible
Heavy loads may be

Designed to be stable in-plane carried
Member sizes and haunches may be

optimised for efficiency Modest deflection
Disadvantages
Generally more
Relatively short span Software required for efficient design expensive fabrication
Bracing needed for in- Limited to relatively light vertical Generally bracing is
loading, and modest cranes to avoid used for in-plane
plane stability excessive deflections stability
No economy due to
continuity
Comparison of basic structural forms for single storey buildings
[top]Types of portal frame

Portal frames are the most commonly used type of structural frame for industrial buildings
because they are a highly cost-effective solution. They are widely used because they combine
structural efficiency with functional application. Various configurations can be designed using
the same structural concept as shown. Multi-bay frames can also be designed, as in (e) and
(f), using either single or pairs of internal columns.
 Various forms of portal frames

(a) Portal frame – medium span


(b) Curved portal frame


(c) Portal frame with mezzanine floor


(d) Portal frame with overhead crane
 Various forms of portal frames

(e) Two bay portal frame


(f) Portal frame with integral office


(g) Mansard portal frame
These simple types of structural systems can also be designed to be architecturally more
appealing by using curved members, cellular or perforated beams etc. Innovative structural
systems have also been developed in which portal frames are created by moment resisting
connections using articulations and ties.
[top]Lattice structures
Long-span industrial buildings can be designed with lattice trusses, using channel,
beam or tubular sections. Lattice trusses tend to be beam and column structures and are
rarely used in portal frames. Various configurations of lattice trusses are illustrated. The two
generic forms are W or N bracing arrangements. In this case, stability is generally provided
by bracing rather than rigid frame action.
Using lattice structures, a comparatively high stiffness and load bearing resistance can be
achieved while minimising material use. Besides the ability to create long spans, lattice
structures are attractive and enable simple service integration.
Various forms of lattice truss used in industrial buildings

[top]Suspended structures
By using suspended structures, long span buildings with high visual and architectural quality
can be realised. The division into members that are predominantly subject to either tension
or compression permits the design of lightweight structures. However, structures that save
on materials use do not necessarily lead to economic solutions. Particularly in space
structures, the joints may be very complex and more time consuming to construct and install.
Therefore, possible applications of this type of structure are industrial buildings that also
serve architectural purposes rather than merely functional buildings.
[top]Design
Main articles: Concept design, Trusses, Portal frames, Modelling and analysis, Member
design, Operational carbon, Single storey buildings in fire boundary conditions, Simple
connections, Moment resisting connections
Steel construction is one of the most efficient sectors in the construction industry. Leading
suppliers manufacture the components offsite, using computer controlled equipment driven
directly by information contained in 3D computer models used for detailing. In addition to
driving the manufacturing process, the information in the model is also used for ordering,
scheduling, dispatch and erection. Single storey construction at its best, with its highly
integrated design and manufacture, represents excellent levels of efficiency. The key to
realising the highest level of efficiency is to work in a way that enables the optimum use of
this infrastructure.
[top]Design concept
The development of a design solution for a single storey building, such as a large enclosure or
industrial facility is more dependent on the activity being performed within the building (and
possible future requirements) than other building types. Although single-storey buildings are
primarily functional, they are often designed with a strong architectural input dictated by
planning requirements and client ‘branding’.
The following overall design requirements should be considered at the concept design stage
of single storey industrial buildings:
 Space use, for example, specific requirements for handling of materials or
components in a production facility
 Flexibility of space in current and future use
 Speed of construction
 Environmental performance, including services requirements and thermal
performance
 Aesthetics and visual impact
 Acoustic isolation, particularly in production facilities
 Access and security
 Sustainability considerations
 Design life and maintenance requirements, including end of life issues.
To enable the concept design to be developed, it is necessary to review these considerations

based on the type of single storey building. For example, the requirements for a distribution
centre will be different to those for a manufacturing facility. A review of the importance of
various design issues is presented in the table for common single-storey industrial building
types. Retail and leisure building requirements are described specifically in the sector specific
sections of the website.
Relative importance of different design issues in single-storey industrial buildings
[top]Frame choice
The most popular choice of structural form for single storey buildings with spans of 20 to
60m is the portal frame because of its excellent structural efficiency and ease
of fabrication and erection. Portal frames may be designed using elastic or plastic
analyses and design. Elastically designed portal frames are likely to be heavier, as they do not
fully utilise the capacity of the sections, but are simpler to design and detail using non-
specialist design software.
For longer spans, lattice trusses may be used to advantage instead of portal
frames. Trusses are likely to be more efficient for spans over 60m and in buildings of shorter
spans where there is a significant amount of mechanical plant.
[top]Structural design
Efficient portal frames with relatively low roof loads are slender structures and in some cases,
the slenderness is such that second-order effects need to be considered, when analysing the
structure. Generally, second order effects must be considered for the Ultimate Limit
State (ULS), but will have negligible effects at the Serviceability Limit State (SLS).
Portal frames provide sufficient in-plane stability, and thus only require bracing for out-of-
plane stability. However, their structural efficiency depends on the method of analysis, and
the assumptions that are made regarding the restraint provided to the structural members.
More efficient Less efficient
Analysis using elastic-plastic software Elastic analysis
Cladding considered to restrain the flange of the

purlins and side rails Purlins and side rails unrestrained
Purlins and side rails used to restrain both The inside flange of the hot rolled
flanges of the hot-rolled steelwork steelwork is unrestrained
Nominal base stiffness utilised Nominal base stiffness ignored
Efficient portal frame design
The most economical structures are often those produced using plastic design techniques,
which in the UK, are well established and have been used for over 40 years.
Lattice trusses are typically designed using elastic analysis techniques.
The ‘screen grab’ below is of a Fastrak model of a portal-framed building.
Computer model of a portal frame

(Image courtesy of Trimble)
[top]Interdependence of frames and envelopes

The structural efficiency of portal frames is partly due to the provision of restraint to the
rafters and columns by the purlins and side rails respectively. Similarly, the efficiency of
the purlins is dependent on restraint provided by the cladding. The cladding sheets are
profiled to provide the necessary strength to span between the purlins and provide the
required restraint. The profile has also to accommodate storm water run off. Designers and
contractors should note that good interaction between the frame and envelope components
is essential for structural efficiency and, for this reason, the cladding must be fixed to
all purlins and rails in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
[top]Operational energy performance
Air pressure testing of an industrial building

(Image courtesy of BSRIA)
Driven by Part L of the Building Regulations, the required reductions in U-values over recent
years have led to a considerable increase in insulation thickness, with possible implications
for frame stability, cladding weight and consequential handling requirements. There is a
common perception that this trend will continue indefinitely as regulatory changes increase
the demands on the building envelope. However, in reality the relationship between
insulation thickness and energy efficiency is subject to a law of diminishing returns and the
point is now close to being reached where further increases in insulation thickness are
unlikely to yield significant improvements in operational energy performance, a fact
recognised in a 2012 consultation[3].
For many applications, the inclusion of roof lights is important because they reduce the
amount of artificial lighting that is needed and, consequently, the energy demands of the
building. However, they also increase solar gain, which can lead to overheating in summer
and increase cooling demand. Heat loss through thermal bridging also becomes more
significant (relatively) as the insulation thickness increases, requiring the use of enhanced
construction details and specialised components in order to satisfy regulatory requirements.
A balance of all the factors is necessary to optimise the reduction of carbon emissions in the
operation of any building.
Mid-slope rooflights providing natural lighting in a distribution warehouse
Airtightness
The introduction of mandatory airtightness testing has highlighted the importance of
designing and delivering a building that is not ‘draughty’. Recent studies have demonstrated
that controlling airtightness is a very effective way of improving energy conservation. As an
example, while the current minimum standard for airtightness of buildings >500m 2 is
10m3/m2/hr at 50 Pascals, levels of airtightness down to a tested value of 2m 3/m2/hr are
possible with standard construction. However, achieving this level depends on an assured
quality of construction and detailing. For buildings with floor areas less than 5000
m2 achieving good levels of airtightness becomes difficult to achieve due to the higher
proportion of openings relative to the envelope area. While a common view is that
airtightness is the responsibility of the cladding contractor, in reality the necessary quality of
construction can only be achieved if all parts of the supply chain understand the
requirements and the building design is well coordinated.
Lighting
Requirements for the lighting of industrial buildings depend on the type of building, its use
and occupancy pattern. The concept and arrangement of openings to provide natural lighting
permit diversity in architectural design. Rooflights and gable glazed roofs are common, along
with lightbands in the façade. Openings for natural lighting can serve as smoke and heat
outlets in case of fire. In the UK, single storey industrial buildings typically have rooflights
comprising 10 – 15% of the roof area.
Well-designed natural daylighting can have a significant impact on a building’s operational
carbon emissions. However, too much natural daylighting can result in excessive solar gain in
the summer, leading to overheating, and increased heat loss through the envelope in the
winter.
One factor which has a major impact on the efficiency of lighting large single-storey industrial
buildings (both natural and artificial) is the use of high bay shelving or racking. Once
obstructions such as high bay racking are installed, the building is effectively split into a
number of narrow, corridor-type spaces which require many more fittings, and hence more
energy, to achieve the same level and uniformity of lighting. If known at the design stage, the
configuration of racking should be taken into account in the design of rooflights and artificial
lighting systems.
The decision to utilise natural daylight within a building and the type of day-lighting selected
have important implications for the overall building design. It is discussed in detail in
the Target Zero Warehouse guidance
[top]Service integration
For industrial buildings, special requirements for building services are often defined, which
may be necessary for the operation of machines and manufacturing lines. The service
integration should be taken into account in the early planning stages. In particular, the
position and size of ducts should be coordinated with the structure and any provisions for
natural lighting. The use of structural systems, such as cellular beams and trusses, can
facilitate easier integration of services and help to achieve a coherent appearance of the
building.
The design of the servicing machinery and rooms can be of major importance in industrial
buildings. Centralisation of the building services can offer the advantage of easy
maintenance. In large buildings, service runs can be very long and, particularly for ducts at
roof level, expansion and movement of the ducts should be considered and taken into
account.
Natural ventilation reduces the reliance on air conditioning systems, which in turn means a
reduction in the building’s operational carbon emissions. The effectiveness of natural
ventilation depends on the size and orientation of the building. Roof vents are a common
option for natural ventilation in buildings without suitably large openings, however these
need to be carefully positioned so as to maximize their performance. Hybrid ventilation
systems are now popular in industrial buildings. They use predominantly natural ventilation,
but with mechanically driven fans to improve predictability of performance over a wider
range of weather conditions.
[top]Roof drainage systems
Typical roof drainage system

(Image courtesy of A.C.Bacon Engineering Ltd.)
The design, detailing and erection of gutters is often neglected. Those involved in the design
of the supporting steelwork are often not aware of the impacts arising from the introduction
of insulated gutters and symphonic drainage systems. The weight of the gutter, both in terms
of the handling difficulties during installation and the strength and serviceability of the
supporting structure, is such that it requires specific attention. Attention is necessary to the
fixing details so that they can readily be attached to and restrain the supporting members. It
is also good practice to include a secondary drainage system to avoid flooding into the
building if the system clogs and fails. The gutter design should take account of the potential
for flash floods and the fact that gutters have to be maintainable with good access for
cleaning.
The image shows a typical roof drainage system used in single-storey industrial buildings.
[top]Floors and foundations
The structural engineer will normally be responsible for the design details of the foundations.
The ground slab is usually designed and built by a specialist subcontractor working to a
performance specification prepared by the consulting engineer. The design and construction
details should be approved by the engineer prior to construction and the details must be
coordinated with all adjacent trades.
There are innovations in the use of precast concrete bases, ground beams and such items as
dock leveller surrounds and retaining walls, which are helping to increase the overall speed
of construction. The detailed design of these items and the adjacent elements of structure
and cladding has to be consistent with both the construction sequence and the need for
access and handling.
The structural engineer has to determine whether nominally pinned or nominally fixed bases
are appropriate for the steel frame. A site investigation should be commissioned and
information obtained on the anticipated ground conditions. The decision on appropriate
foundations will be based on this information and should be passed to the steelwork
contractor as the basis for his design.
With regard to the ground floor slab, the Concrete Society technical report TR34[4] sets out
good practice for design and construction, including advice on tolerances, loadings, finishes,
joints, sub base, a variety of alternative construction methods and necessary maintenance
measures.
The slab is generally laid after the cladding has been erected, which means that it should not
be affected by weather and dust. If acceptable methods can be developed, construction can
be accelerated by casting the slab prior to erection of the envelope.
[top]Connection details
The three major connections in a single bay portal frame are those at the eaves, the apex and
the column base.
For the eaves, bolted connections are mostly used as shown in the figure below.
Typical eaves connection in a portal frame
The apex connection is often designed similarly.

The base of the column is often simple with larger tolerances to facilitate the interface
between the concrete base and steelwork. Pinned connections are typically preferred as they
enable smaller foundations to be designed, however, stability during construction needs to
be considered as must whether the column is in a boundary condition.
Example of a nominally pinned column base in a portal frame
[top]Fire Safety
Single storey buildings are not usually required to have fire resistance. The most common,
but not the only, situation where fire resistance is required is when fire spread between
buildings is of concern. This is the well known boundary condition. Where this occurs, it is
normally only the external wall close to adjoining buildings and its supporting columns that
requires fire resistance. The rafters and any columns not considered to be in a boundary
condition are left unprotected. The bases of the protected columns must be designed
however to resist the overturning moment cause by the collapse of the rest of the structure
NEED FOR LARGE COLUMN FREE AREAS
Steel is a material which has high strength per unit mass. Hence it is used in construction of
structures with large column-free space. Most of the Industrial Structures require this
criterion.
Industrial Warehouse Floors

Forklift Areas
Products best for forklift areas:

 Epoxy
 Polished Concrete
 Acrovyn Wall Protection
 Acrovyn Corner Guards
 Entrance Matting
Production Areas
Products best for production areas:

 Linoleum
 Vinyl Composition Tile (VCT)
 Epoxy
 Polished Concrete
Office
Products best for office areas:

 Linoleum
 Luxury Vinyl Tile
 Commercial Carpet
 Vinyl Composition Tile (VCT)
Parkade
Products best for parkade areas:

 Epoxy
 Kelmar Waterproofing Systems
 Merdek Waterproofing Systems
 Expansion Joints
TYPES OF ROOF IN INDUSTRIAL BUILDING:
 FLAT ROOF
 LOW SLOPED ROOFS
 PITCHED ROOFS
ROOFING MATERIALS
 METAL RETRO FIT

 PVC
 TPO
 EPDM
Commercial Flat Roofs: Pros & Cons
Flat roofs are one of the most common types of roof for commercial buildings.
Advantages
Commercial flat roofs can be significantly more cost effective to build than pitched roofs or
steep slope roofs because they require less material due to the fewer square feet to be
covered.
They are easier and quicker to install, which can translate to a significant savings for the
building owner. This also effects the ease and potential price of your next commercial roof
repair.
Owners have many types of flat roofing materials and membranes to choose from – rubber
rolled roofing, EPDM, PVC, TPO, bitumen, modified bitumen and built-up roofing.
While there are many different color choices to choose from with roofing membranes,
however many building owners choose to stick with white.
This can help reduce energy waste from cooling costs due to it’s reflective properties.
Air conditioners can be moved from the ground to the roof. Solar panels and satellite dishes
are easier to install on flat roofs than on pitched ones. These items are then less obvious
from the curb or parking lot.
Maintenance and drain cleaning is easier on flat roofs since workmen can walk easily and
safely, regardless of weather conditions.
Disadvantages
The most important issue is poor drainage.
Standing water can degrade the roofing materials long before they normally would. One of
the advantages of pitched roof styled buildings is not having to worry as much about
drainage issues. Materials breakdown leads to leaking and water damage inside the building.
It is imperative that an experienced commercial roofing contractor with a good reputation for
professional work do the installation or repairs in order to avoid problems with the roof.
The experienced team at Sentry Roofing understands where the drains must be located and
the proper height to avoid puddling.
Commercial Low-Sloped Roofs: Pros & Cons

Low-sloped roofs are often found on factories, warehouses, apartment buildings and other
industrial buildings. They may first appear to be flat but they actually have a slight pitch.
Advantages
The pitch of low-sloped roofs allows for water runoff. The roof design directs the water to
where it should go, such as valleys, saddles and drains. Roof area is less than with high-
pitched roofs, requiring fewer square footage of roofing materials.
Low-sloped roofs offer easier and safer conditions for roofers to work on than high-pitched
roofs or steep slope roofs.
Commercial roof installation, repair and replacement is easier to perform. There is less
chance that the building owner will need to call repairmen out to manage water problems,
since the slight pitch does not allow for standing water or puddling.
Air conditioners, solar panels and satellite dishes are easier to install and maintain on low-
sloped commercial roofs than on roofs with a higher pitch.
The same variety of materials that are used on commercial flat roofs can be used on low-
sloped roofs – rubber rolled roofing, EPDM, TPO, bitumen and modified bitumen. Modified
bitumen have longer warranty times due to the additional thickness and superior sealing
capabilities.
Disadvantages
Heavy snows that do not melt quickly can add weight to the roof. Building codes regarding
low-sloped roof for your area must be adhered to precisely.
Commercial Pitched Roofs: Pros & Cons

While pitched roofs are seen in residential homes more than commercial buildings, they are
still commonly used alongside flat and low-sloped rooftops.
Advantages
The main positive aspect of pitched roofs is that the increased slope provides greater runoff
for water and snow.
The steeper the roof structure, the easier it is for liquid and debris to roll off. Ultimately this
means less risk for water buildup that could lead to leaks and mold damage.
Overall, having a steep-sloped roof could reduce your needs of repair and maintenance a bit
compared to a flatter, less inclined roof.
Disadvantages
Unfortunately, with the steep incline of a pitched roof it is significantly more difficult to
perform maintenance and repair.
The need for increased safety procedures, transferring materials and difficulty maneuvering
around the roof generally increases the costs of each individual installation, repair or
maintenance service.
Commercial Metal Retrofit Roofing: Pros & Cons
Metal retrofit roofing is a simple, cost-effective method of re-roofing your older, end-of-life
metal roof with a durable membrane.
Advantages
The biggest advantage is the cost of the retrofitting your metal roof. This material not only
greatly extends the life of your roof, it doesn’t cost as much as your standard metal roof
replacement.
During installation, the original metal roof provides protection to your building’s interior so
you can continue day-to-day operations while the work is being done. This protects your
employees, your inventory, and doesn’t interrupt production.
Retrofitting is also eco-friendly. By not taking the roof apart and damaging / scrapping the
materials, this reduces landfill waste, making re-roofing an appealing option for the
environmentally-conscious.
When you retrofit over a metal roof, you are taking advantage of reusing your current roof
insulation, as well as additional insulation from the membrane. This can help save on energy
costs and keep building temperature regulated.
Disadvantages
While having a metal retrofit roof installed over your existing metal roof can extend the life
of your roof by up to 20 years, a complete metal roof installation is generally estimated to
last between 30 – 60 years.
Keep in mind that comes at a significant cost increase, and can be more cost-effective to
simply retrofit.
Commercial PVC Membrane Materials: Pros & Cons
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is one of the most popular and time-tested membrane material used
in roofing today. Sentry Roofing only uses premium Duro-Last PVC membranes.
Advantages
By far one of the largest advantages of PVC roofing materials would be it’s durability,
longevity, and fire retardant properties.
This membrane has been flame tested alongside other similar membranes with very
surprising outcomes.
While a TPO and EPDM membrane can continue to burn, spread and melt the material, the
Duro-Last PVC membrane will work to self-extinguish the flames.
This is incredibly important for your rooftop should any fires occur.
Instead of huge areas of membrane melting away during a rooftop fire like with other
membrane materials, PVC works to help self-extinguish the flames.
This ultimately leaves you with more roofing membrane left and less to have to replace or
repair.
In addition to great fire resistance properties, PVC is also resistant to moisture, wind and
chemicals as well as being tear and puncture resistant.
Due to the light colored membrane sheets and thicker insulation, it is also highly energy
efficient. Reduce costs on your heating and cooling bills and avoid a heat island effect if you
live in hotter areas.
Disadvantages
The only real downside that might be considered for some building owners is the slightly
higher up-front cost of PVC roofing compared to TPO or EPDM.
However this is a small price to pay for the durability, longevity, energy efficiency, warranty
and fire resistance that PVC has.
Commercial TPO Membrane Materials: Pros & Cons

Thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO) is a newer style of commercial roofing membrane. First used
as a roofing material in 1986, it is praised for being an affordable, cost-effective alternative to
PVC.
Advantages
Today, TPO is one of the most common single-ply roofing material used with sales growing at
a double-digit rate year over year.
Many building owners have chose TPO materials over other options due to a cheaper up-
front cost compared to other materials.
Thermoplastic polyolefin has been compared to PVC and EPDM roofing materials a lot due to
similar properties they share.
TPO membranes are very durable and flexible, which makes custom edge-to-edge fabrication
simpler, cheaper and more efficient. The flexibility helps the material stretch and adapt to
your building’s movement and setting.
The material is also 100% recyclable and eco-friendly which is great for companies trying to
go green.
The membrane is slick and good for moving water off the roof. Its lightweight property puts
less stress on the building structure than does metal roofing. The flexibility of membrane
roofing materials allows commercial roofing contractors to mold the material to unique roof
designs.
TPO membrane’s light color is good for reflecting heat away from the building. TPO
membrane comes in white, tan, gray, green, red and blue. This material uses a hot-air gun to
seal the seams.
Disadvantages
One of the biggest downsides to using TPO is that it simply hasn’t been used for roofing as
long as other materials.
For that reason, some people question the longevity compared to PVC or EPDM roofs.
Commercial EPDM Membrane Materials: Pros & Cons

EPDM stands for ethylene propylene diene methylene. This is a durable, darker synthetic
rubber material primarily used in flat and low-sloped roofs nationwide.
Advantages
While most EPDM rubber roofs are black, it can also come in a white coating which will help
with reflecting the suns heat off of the rooftop.
Due to it’s rubber properties, it is able to easily stretch and form-fit to any roof.
EPDM roofing membrane has been on the market for over 60 years and has a good track
record as a commercial roofing material.
Due to it’s darker color, it is a good choice for cooler climates. It’s highly durable rubber
provides excellent protection from the weather. Seams are closed with adhesives or seam
tape.
Since the membrane does not have its own insulation, the building owner has several
insulation options to choose from.
Disadvantages
Hot weather can cause the membrane to shrink, causing tear which lead to water getting
under the membrane. Adhesives and seam tape can degrade from UV sunlight, allowing
water to flow under the membrane.
Proper installation, maintenance and repair procedures are necessary to keep the membrane
lasting longer.
Summary of Commercial Roofing Types and Materials
 Flat Roofs – More cost effective, quicker and easier to install. Materials include
rubber rolls, EPDM, PVC, TPO, bitumen, and modified bitumen. However flat roofs are more
prone to standing water and material degradation.
 Low Sloped Roofs – Allows for better water runoff which means less maintenance
calls. Safer and cheaper than pitched roofs and can use the same materials. Heavy snows can
weigh down and potentially cause damage.
 Pitched Roofs – Best for water and snow runoff, but most dangerous for roofing
crews. Costlier maintenance and repair costs.
 Metal Retrofit Roofs – Simple, cost-effective method of re-roofing a metal roof with a
membrane system. Reuses your current roof structure and insulation making it
environmentally friendly and structurally sound. Can greatly extend the life of a damaged
roof.
 PVC Membrane Roofs – The most popular and time-tested roofing material available.
Duro-Last PVC roofing membranes are more durable, fire resistant and puncture resistant
than most other available membranes.
 TPO Membrane Roofs – Light color, good for reflecting heat away from the building.
Colors come in white, tan, gray, green, red, and blue. Seams are sealed with hot-air gun.
However, easier to puncture and prone to shrinkage.
EPDM Membrane Roofs – Darker roofs, better suited for cooler climates. Made of a highly
durable rubber providing protection from the weather. Seams are sealed with adhesives / seam
tape. Also prone to holes and shrinkage.
A frame can be classified as non-sway if its response to in-plane horizontal forces is sufficiently
stiff for it to be acceptably accurate to neglect any additional internal forces or moments arising
from horizontal displacements of its nodes.Some examples of non-sway frames:
There will be minor differences in the analysis part of sway and non-sway frames.
Non sway structure:
◆ Symmetrical structure and symmetrical loading.
◆ Non sway has only rotational degree of freedom and translational degree of freedom is
absent.
Sway structure : assymetrical loading
Conditions for sway are as follows:
◆ If the supports are not in the same position, sway occurs.
◆ If the applied load is not acting at the center of the structure, sway will occur and the
structure will sway towards less load side.
On the basis of lateral displacement frames are classified in to following two types
 Frames with Sway

 Frames without Sway
Causes of side sway:
1. Unsymmetrical loading (eccentric loading)

2. Different end conditions of the columns of the frame
3. Non uniform sections of the members
4. Horizontal loading on column of the frame
5. Settlement of the supports of the frame
In sway frames there is a in-plane displacement due to horizontal force (or) asymmetrical
loading (or) different moment of inertia (or) unequal legs in Portal frame.
Some examples of Sway frames:

EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE BY STEEL STRUCTURE
Among our wide range of products and solutions, ArcelorMittal is able to offer specific
solutions for improved earthquake resistance:
 High strength low alloyed steels, known as HSLA, provide a high level of yield
strength and a high elongation level to absorb high levels of energy in case of
earthquake.
 Improved weldable steels, such as Histar®, provide high toughness performance and
resistance under dynamic loads.
 Sandwich panels and double skin facade solutions that contribute to structural
resistance of single storey buildings, avoiding partial collapse of the facade and frame.
 Light steel framing solutions which have been pre-designed to satisfy seismic
requirements as light, ductile, and energy absorbent framing systems able to fulfil
severe earthquake requirements.
 A specific rebar product range, with qualified ratio Rm/Re, certified for seismic
resistance of concrete structures.
As a high resistance and ductile material, steel is the indisputable choice for seismic-

resistant construction. Even when it comes to the most demanding projects, such as high-
rise buildings or long span bridges, steel frame construction has demonstrated its capacity
to resist severe seismic events.
An earthquake can have various effects. These effects might include a drop of many meters
across a fault line or a chasm opening up. Hence, it is not possible to design an earthquake
proof building that will resist all the possible earthquakes. However, it is possible to
build structures empowering earthquake resistant features by making use of earthquake
engineering techniques that will help increase the chances of survival of both the building
and its occupants.
 What makes buildings and structures fail in earthquakes?
An earthquake can be one sudden movement of the ground or a series of short waves at
short intervals. It moves the ground up and down or side to side. The buildings and
structures are not resistant to these movements, unless the earthquake proof measures
have been taken into account while designing and constructing the building.Most of the
times, extra weight is added to a building or structure by adding extra floors, inside
partitions to make smaller rooms, rocks piled on top of the roofs to stop them from blowing
away. This extra weight is capable of producing great forces on the structure and helping it
to collapse.
 How can buildings be made earthquake proof?
For any building or structure to be earthquake proof, their foundation has to be resistant to
sideways loads. The load will be lesser if the building is light. In order to reduce the load of
the building, you need to focus on the top as maximum weight is on the roof. However
possible, the roof should be made of a material that is extremely light-weight. Steel is the
perfect material for rooftops as it is known to be lighter when compared to concrete.
Steel structures are known to be earthquake proof as they are made of steel components
that come in a variety of shapes, such as angles, plates, and beams. Steel offers the highest
ductility and allows the resistant building steel structures to bend considerably without
breaking. When you have steel structures, you can be assured that your resistant building
steel structures will behave well during an earthquake and not cause much of damage.
The steel structures are said to be earthquake proof but they cannot be guaranteed to be
100% resistant to any possible earthquakes. However, the resistant building steel
structures might have the best possible chance of survival and would provide greater safety
to the people in the building.
SEISMIC BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL STRUCTURES Steel structures have been known to perform
well under earthquake loads provided certain guidelines are followed in design. Some of
these guidelines are discussed qualitatively at the material, member and structural levels. 4.1
Seismic Behaviour of Structural Steel Steel being a ductile material, equally strong in
compression and tension, is ideally suited for earthquake resistant structures. The common
grades of mild steel have adequate ductility and perform well under cyclic reversal of
stresses. High strength steels provide higher elastic limits but have less ductility. Another
disadvantage in using high strength steels is that they require less areas of cross-section as
compared to mild steels and thereby get more prone to instability effects. Steel as a material
is produced with high quality control, which aids in Capacity Design. The sequence of
formation of plastic hinges is important in capacity design and so it is necessary to be able to
predict the actual yield stress accurately. If the actual strength of members is larger than
their design strength, plastic hinges may develop in other members first. In order to avoid
such a situation, some codes introduce a factor, which is the ratio of the expected yield
strength to the specified minimum yield strength for various grades of steel. This factor is
also used to ensure that members or connections that must withstand the development of
plastic hinges in other members have sufficient strength.
TALL BUILDINGS
The design and construction of skyscrapers involves creating safe, habitable spaces in very

high buildings. The buildings must support their weight, resist wind and earthquakes, and
protect occupants from fire. Yet they must also be conveniently accessible, even on the
upper floors, and provide utilities and a comfortable climate for the occupants. The problems
posed in skyscraper design are considered among the most complex encountered given the
balances required between economics, engineering, and construction management.
Basic design considerations[edit]

Good structural design is important in most building designs, but particularly for skyscrapers
since even a small chance of catastrophic failure is unacceptable given the high prices of
construction. This presents a paradox to civil engineers: the only way to assure a lack of
failure is to test for all modes of failure, in both the laboratory and the real world. But the
only way to know of all modes of failure is to learn from previous failures. Thus, no engineer
can be absolutely sure that a given structure will resist all loadings that could cause failure,
but can only have large enough margins of safety such that a failure is acceptably unlikely.
When buildings do fail, engineers question whether the failure was due to some lack of
foresight or due to some unknowable factor.
Substructure[edit]
One of the many things that make skyscrapers special is their substructure. For example, the
depth of the pit that holds the substructure has to reach all the way to bedrock. If bedrock
lies close to the surface, the soil on top of the bedrock is removed, and enough of the
bedrock surface is removed to form a smooth platform on which to construct the building's
foundation.[1]
Loading and vibration[edit]

The load a skyscraper experiences is largely from the force of the building material itself. In
most building designs, the weight of the structure is much larger than the weight of the
material that it will support beyond its own weight. In technical terms, the dead load, the
load of the structure, is larger than the live load, the weight of things in the structure
(people, furniture, vehicles, etc.). As such, the amount of structural material required within
the lower levels of a skyscraper will be much larger than the material required within higher
levels. This is not always visually apparent. The Empire State Building's setbacks are actually a
result of the building code at the time, and were not structurally required. On the other
hand, John Hancock Center's shape is uniquely the result of how it supports loads. Vertical
supports can come in several types, among which the most common for skyscrapers can be
categorized as steel frames, concrete cores, tube within tube design, and shear walls.
The wind loading on a skyscraper should also be considered. In fact, the lateral wind load
imposed on super-tall structures is generally the governing factor in the structural design.
Wind pressure increases with height, so for very tall buildings, the loads associated with wind
are larger than dead or live loads.
Other vertical and horizontal loading factors come from varied, unpredictable sources, such
as earthquakes.
Shear walls[edit]
A shear wall, in its simplest definition, is a wall where the entire material of the wall is
employed in the resistance of both horizontal and vertical loads. A typical example is
a brick or cinderblock wall. Since the wall material is used to hold the weight, as the wall
expands in size, it must hold considerably more weight. Due to the features of a shear wall, it
is acceptable for small constructions, such as suburban housing or an urban brownstone, to
require low material costs and little maintenance. In this way, shear walls, typically in the
form of plywood and framing, brick, or cinderblock, are used for these structures. For
skyscrapers, though, as the size of the structure increases, so does the size of the supporting
wall. Large structures such as castles and cathedrals inherently addressed these issues due to
a large wall being advantageous (castles), or able to be designed around (cathedrals). Since
skyscrapers seek to maximize the floor-space by consolidating structural support, shear walls
tend to be used only in conjunction with other support systems.
Steel frame[edit]
The classic concept of a skyscraper is a large steel box with many small boxes inside it. By
eliminating the inefficient part of a shear wall, the central portion, and consolidating support
members in a much stronger material, steel, a skyscraper could be built with both horizontal
and vertical supports throughout. This method, though simple, has drawbacks. Chief among
these is that as more material must be supported (as height increases), the distance between
supporting members must decrease, which actually, in turn, increases the amount of
material that must be supported. This becomes inefficient and uneconomic for buildings
above 40 stories tall as usable floor spaces are reduced for supporting column and due to
more usage of steel.[2][3]
Tube frame[
A new structural system using framed tubes was developed in the early 1960s. Fazlur
Khan and J. Rankine defined the framed tube structure as "a three dimensional space
structure composed of three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear walls,
joined at or near their edges to form a vertical tube-like structural system capable of resisting
lateral forces in any direction by cantilevering from the foundation." [4] Closely spaced
interconnected exterior columns form the tube. Horizontal loads (primarily wind) are
supported by the structure as a whole. About half the exterior surface is available for
windows. Framed tubes allow fewer interior columns, and so create more usable floor space.
Where larger openings like garage doors are required, the tube frame must be interrupted,
with transfer girders used to maintain structural integrity. Tube structures cut down costs, at
the same time allow buildings to reach greater heights. Tube-frame construction was first
used in the DeWitt-Chestnut Apartment Building, designed by Khan and completed
in Chicago in 1963.[5] It was used soon after for the John Hancock Center and in
the construction of the World Trade Center.
A variation on the tube frame is the bundled tube, which uses several interconnected tube
frames. The Willis Tower in Chicago used this design, employing nine tubes of varying height
to achieve its distinct appearance. The bundle tube design was not only highly efficient in
economic terms, but it was also "innovative in its potential for versatile formulation of
architectural space. Efficient towers no longer had to be box-like; the tube-units could take
on various shapes and could be bundled together in different sorts of groupings." [6] The
bundled tube structure meant that "buildings no longer need be boxlike in appearance: they
could become sculpture."[7] The tubular systems are fundamental to tall building design.
Most buildings over 40-stories constructed since the 1960s now use a tube design derived
from Khan's structural engineering principles, [2][8] examples including the construction of the
World Trade Center, Aon Center, Petronas Towers, JinMao Building, and most
other supertall skyscrapers since the 1960s.[9] The strong influence of tube structure design is
also evident in the construction of the current tallest skyscraper, the Burj Khalifa.[7]
Sub- Material/ Efficient Height

Advantages Disadvantages Building Examples
Category Configuration Limit
860 & 880 Lake Shore
Drive Apartments (1951,
Chicago, 26 stories, 82
Provides m), BMA Tower (1961,
Expensive moment
flexibility in floor Kansas City, 19 stories, 85
connections.
_ Steel 30 planning. Fast m), One Woodward
Expensive fire
construction. Avenue (1963, Detroit,
proofing.
28 stories, 131 m), Tokyo
Rigid Frame
Marine Building (1990,
Osaka, 27 stories,
118 m)
Ingalls Building (1903,
Provides flexibility
Expensive Cincinnati, 16 stories, 65
in floor planning.
Concrete 20 formwork. m); Numerous buildings
Easily moldable.
Slow construction. under 20 stories.
Efficiently resist
lateral loads by
axial forces in
Interior planning
the shear truss
Steel Shear limitations due to
Braced members.
Trusses + diagonals in the Numerous buildings under
Hinged _ 20 Allows shallower
Steel Hinged shear trusses. 20 stories.
Frame beams compared
Frames Expensive diagonal
with the rigid
connections.
frames without
diagonals.
77 West Wacker Drive

Effectively resists
Concrete Shear (1992, Chicago, 49
Shear Wall- lateral shear by Interior planning
Wall + Steel stories, 204 m),
Hinged _ 40 concrete shear limitations due to
Hinged Frames Casselden Place (1992,
Frame walls. shear walls.
Melbourne, 43 stories,
166 m)
Efficiently
resists lateral
loads typically
with
column-free Taj Mahal Hotel (1990,
ground floor. Fast Significant interior Atlantic City, 42 stories,
construction. planning limitation 131 m), Planet Hollywood
Staggered Low caused by Las Vegas (2000, Las
_ Steel 40
Truss floor-to-floor story-height trusses. Vegas, 39 stories, 119 m),
height reducing Weak in the long The Godfrey (2014,
the total height direction. Chicago,
of the building 16 stories, 56 m)
and hence
reducing unit
cost of steel.
Effectively resists
lateral loads by Sanwa Bank (1973,
Steel Shear
producing shear Interior planning Tokyo, 25 stories, 100 m),
Braced Rigid Trusses +
50 truss - frame limitations due to Osaka World Trade Center
Frame Steel Rigid
interaction shear trusses (1995, Osaka, 55
Frames
system. stories, 256 m)
Shear Wall Effectively resists

Concrete (or
(Shear lateral loads by
Composite)
Truss)- producing shear Interior planning First City Tower (1984,
Shear
Frame Shear Wall/ 70 wall-frame limitations due to Houston, 47 stories, 202
Wall/Core +
Interaction Rigid Frame interaction shear walls m)
Steel Rigid
system.
Frames
Cook County
Administration Building
Concrete Shear
(1964, Chicago,
Wall/Core +
70 “ “ 38 stories, 145 m), 311
Concrete Frames
South Wacker Drive (1990,
Chicago, 65
stories, 293 m)
Table 1. Cont.

Category Advantages Disadvantages Building Examples
Effectively
resists
overturning
moments by
perimeter
columns 140 William Street,
Concrete or connected to the formerly known as BHP
Outriggers are
Steel or core with House (1972,
obstructive inside
Composite; outriggers Melbourne, 41 stories,
w/Belt the floor interfering
Core + through belt 153 m)
Trusses or with occupiable or
Outriggers (or trusses or belt U.S. Bank Center,
Belt Wall (w/ rentable space
Virtual 80 walls. formerly known as First
Occasional thereby usually
Outrigger) + Could be Wisconsin Center (1973,
Virtual limiting their
Belt Trusses or modified to Milwaukee, 42 stories,
Outriggers) placement in
Belt Walls + virtual outrigger 183 m), Tower Palace
mechanical and/or
Perimeter system by Three (Virtual outrigger
refuge floors.
Columns eliminating system, 1994, Seoul, 73
outriggers and stories, 264 m)
stiffening floors
instead to
prevent the
outrigger-
interfered floors.
Core-
Outrigger Effectively
resists
overturning
moments by
Jin Mao Tower (1999,
perimeter
Shanghai, 88 stories, 421
megacolumns
Concrete or m), Taipei 101 (2004,
connected to the
Steel or Taipei, 101 stories, 508
w/Mega- core with
Composite; m), Shanghai Tower
columns outriggers.
Core + (2015, Shanghai, 128
(w/ or w/o Offers the
Outrigger + 150 “ stories, 632 m),
Belt Trusses architect more
(Belt Trusses Guangzhou CTF
or Belt flexibility to
or Belt Wall) + Finance Centre (2016,
Walls) articulate the
Perimeter Guangzhou, 111 stories,
unobstructive
Megacolumns 530 m), Lotte World
façade
Tower (2017, Seoul, 123
compared to
stories, 555 m)
tube type
structures of
similar height
range.
Effectively resist
lateral loads.
Concrete Core
Resolves the Burj Khalifa (2010,
+ Shear Walls
potential Dubai, 163 stories, 828
Extending
problem of too Substantial m), Wuhan Greenland
from and
deep interior limitations in space Center, under
Buttressed Bolstering
_ 200 spaces for use due to the construction (Wuhan,
Core the Core
extremely tall difficulty in creating 126 stories, 636 m),
(+Fin Walls
buildings with large open space. Jeddah Tower, under
and/or
large structural construction (Jeddah,
Outriggers to
depths required 167 stories, 1000+ m)
further Stiffen
against lateral
the System)
loads.
Note: “ indicates Same as above.
Table 2. Exterior Structures.

Efficiently
resists lateral
loads by
One & Two World Trade
locating lateral
Shear lag hinders Centers, demolished
load resisting
efficient tubular (1972 & 1973, New York,
systems at the
_ Steel 80 behavior. Narrow 110 stories, 417 m & 415
building
column spacing m, respectively), Aon
perimeter.
obstructs the view. Center (1973, Chicago,
Creates least
83 stories, 346 m)
interference
Framed Tube with interior
space planning.
The Plaza on
Dewitt, formerly
known as Dewitt-
Chestnut
Concrete 70 “ “
Apartments (1966,
Chicago, 43 stories,
116 m), Water Tower
Place (1976, Chicago,
74
stories, 262 m)
Efficiently
resists lateral
loads by axial 875 North Michigan
forces in the Ave, formerly known as
braced tube John Hancock Center
members. Bracings obstruct (1969, Chicago, 100
w/Interior Steel 110
Wider column the view. stories, 344 m), First
Columns spacing International Building
compared with (1974, Dallas, 56 stories,
framed tubes. 216 m)
Reduced shear
lag.
780 Third Avenue (1983,
New York, 49 stories,
Concrete 100 “ “ 174 m), Onterie Center
(1986, Chicago, 58
stories, 174 m)
Can be taller
Braced
than
Tube Requires very long
conventional
span floor structures
w/o Interior Steel or braced tubes
150 which must span No built example yet.
Columns Composite with interior
the entire building
columns due to
width.
reduced uplift
forces.
More efficiently
resist
overturning
moment by
corner
Goldin Finance 117,
megacolumns
under construction
than
(Tianjin, 128 stories, 597
conventional
m), Citic Tower,
braced tubes.
formerly known as
Braced Perimeter Bracings obstruct
Composite 170 China Zun Tower,
Megatube gravity columns the view. under construction
between the
(Beijing, 108 stories, 528
corner
m), Erewhon Center,
megacolumns
unbuilt (Chicago, 207
can easily be
designed with stories, 841 m)
progressive
collapse-
preventing
mechanism.
Table 2. Cont.

May cause overall
interior planning Willis Tower,
Reduces shear
limitations due to formerly known as
_ Steel 110 lag compared to
intermediate Sears Tower (1974,
framed tubes.
interior column Chicago, 108
Bundled lines. stories, 442 m)
Tube
One Magnificent Mile
(1983, Chicago, 57
stories, 205 m),
Concrete 110 “ “
Carnegie Hall Tower
(1991, New York, 60
stories, 231 m)
30 St. Mary Axe (2004,
Efficiently
London, 41 stories, 180
resists lateral Complicated joints.
m), Hearst Tower (2006,
loads by axial Many diagonals
Uniform- Steel 100 New York, 46 stories,
forces in the could be
Angle 182 m), Tornado Tower
diagrid obstructive.
Diagrid (2008, Doha, 51 stories,
members.
195 m)
O-14 Building (2010,
Expensive
Dubai, 24 stories, 106
Concrete 80 “ formwork.
m), Doha Tower (2012,
Slow construction.
Diagrid Doha, 46 Stories, 238 m)
Guangzhou
International Finance
Composite 110 “ Slow construction. Center (2010,
Guangzhou, 103 stories,
439 m)
More efficiently
carry lateral
loads than the Construction can be
Varying- Lotte Super Tower,
Steel or uniform angle more costly than
Angle 130 unbuilt (Seoul, 112
Composite diagrids for uniform-angle
Diagrid stories, 555 m)
taller and diagrids.
slenderer
buildings.
Ext. Tube
One Shell Plaza (1970,
(Steel,
Houston, 52 stories, 218
Concrete or Effectively
90–150 Interior planning m), 181 West Madison
Composite) + resists lateral
Tube-in-Tube _ per different limitations due to (1990, Chicago, 50
Int. Core Tube loads by two
tube combo interior core tube. stories, 207 m), 432 Park
(Steel, layers of tubes.
Avenue (2015, New
Concrete or
York, 85 stories, 426 m)
Composite)
Efficiently
resists lateral
Bank of China (1990,
loads by axial Bracings obstruct
Space Truss _ Composite 150 Hong Kong, 72 stories,
forces in the the view.
367 m)
space truss
members.
Efficiently
resists lateral Building form Chicago World Trade
loads by the depends to a great Center, unbuilt
Steel 170
Stand-alone versatile degree on the (Chicago, 168 stories,
superframe structural system. 690 m estimated.)
configurations.
Parque Central Towers I
Concrete 100 “ “ & II (Caracas, 56 stories,
225 m)
Superframe
Could efficiently
produce
extremely tall
building
Conjoined Requires very large
Composite 250+ complex. No built example yet.
Towers sites.
Multiple
emergency
egress
alternatives.
Note: “ indicates Same as above.

Loads on structures
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The structures and structural members are designed to meet the functional and structural
aspects. Both aspects are interrelated. The functional aspect takes in to consideration the
purpose for which the building or the structure is designed. It includes the determination of
location and arrangement of operating utilities, occupancy, fire safety and compliance with
hygienic, sanitation, ventilation, special equipment, machinery or other features, incident to the
proper functioning of the structures. In the structural aspect, it is ensured that the building or the
structure is structurally safe, strong, durable and economical. The minimum requirements
pertaining to the structural safety of buildings are being covered in codes dealing with loads by
way of laying down minimum design loads which have to be assumed for dead loads, imposed
loads, wind loads and other external loads, the structure would be required to bear.
Unnecessarily, heavy loads without proper assessment should not be assumed. The structures
are designed between two limits, namely, the structural safety and economy. The structures
should be strong, stable and stiff.
Estimation of the loads for which a structure should be designed is one of the most difficult
problems in structural design. The designer must be able to study the loads which are likely to be
acting on the structure throughout its life time and the loads to which the structure may be
subjected during a short period. It is also necessary to consider the combinations of loads for
which the structure has to be designed.
3.2 TYPES OF LOADS
The loads to which a structure, will be subjected to consist of the following
1. Dead loads,
2. Live loads or imposed loads,
3. Wind load,
4. Snow load
5. Seismic load
6. Temperature effects
In addition o the above loads, following forces and effects are also considered while designing
the structures.
1. Foundation movements
2. Elastic axial shortening
3. Soil and fluid pressures
4. Vibrations
5. Fatigue
6. Impact
7. Erection loads
8. Stress concentration effects
3.3 DEAD LOADS
Dead load of a structure means the weight of the structure itself. The dead load in a building will
consist of the weight of all wall partitions, floors and roofs. Loads due to partition shall be
estimated on the basis of actual constructional details of the proposed partitions and their
positioning in accordance with plans and the loads thus estimated shall be included in the dead
load for the design of the floors and the supporting structures. If the loads due to partitions
cannot be actually computed for want of data, the floors and the supporting structures shall be
designed to carry in addition to other loads a uniformly distributed dead load per square metre
of not less than 33⅓ per cent of the weight per metre run of finished partitions over the entire
floor area subjected to minimum uniformly distributed load of 1000 N/m 2 in the case of floors
used for office purposes. Dead loads can be estimated using the unit-weight of materials used in
building construction as per IS : 875 (part I) -1987
3.4 LIVE LOADS OR IMPOSED LOADS
Live loads are the loads which vary in magnitude and in positions. Live loads are also known as
imposed or transient loads. Imposed loads consist of all loads other than dead loads. Live loads
are assumed to be produced by the intended use of occupancy in building including the weight of
movable partitions, distributed loads, concentrated loads, loads due to impact and vibration and
snow loads. Live loads are expressed as uniformly distributed static loads. Live loads include the
weight of materials stored, furniture and movable equipments. Efforts have been made at the
international level to decide live loads on floors and these have been specified in the
International standards (2103 Imposed floor loads in residential and public building and 2633
Determination of imposed floor loads in production buildings and warehouses). These codes
have been published in the International Organization.
Code IS : 875 (part 2) -1987 defines the principal occupancy for which a building or part of a
building is used or intended to be used. The buildings are classified according to occupancy as per
IS : 875 (part 2)-1987.
3.5 WIND LOAD
The wind loads are the transient loads. The wind usually blows horizontal to the ground at high
wind speeds. The vertical components of atmospheric motion are relatively small, therefore, the
term wind denotes almost exclusive the horizontal wind. The winds of very high speeds and very
short duration are called Kal Baisaki or Norwesters occur fairly frequently during summer months
over North East India.
The liability of a building or a structure to high wind pressure depends not only upon the
geographical location and proximity of other obstructions to airflow but also upon the
characteristics of the structure itself. In general, wind speed in the atmospheric boundary layer
increases with height from zero at ground level to maximum at a height called the gradient
height. The variation of wind with height depends primarily on the terrain conditions. However,
the wind speed at any height never remains constant and it has been found convenient to
resolve its instantaneous magnitude in to an average or mean value and a fluctuating component
around this average value. The magnitude of fluctuating component of the wind speed is called
gust, it depends upon averaging time. In general, smaller the averaging interval, greater is the
magnitude of the gust speed. The wind load depends upon terrain, height of the structure and
the shape and size of structure. It is essential to know the following terms to study the new
concept of wind as described in IS : 875 (Part 3) – 1987
3.6 SNOW LOAD
The snow load depends upon latitude of place and atmospheric humidity. The snow load acts
vertically and it is expressed in kN/m 2 of plan area. The actual load due to snow depends upon
the shape of the roof and its capacity to retain the snow. When actual data for snow load is not
available, snow load may be assumed to be 25 N/m 2 per mm depth of snow. It is usual practice to
assume that snow load and maximum wind load will not be acting simultaneously on the
structure.
3.7 SEISMIC LOAD (EARTHQUAKE LOAD)
It becomes essential to consider ‘seismic load’ in the design of structure, if the structure is
situated in the seismic areas. The seismic areas are the regions which are geologically young and
unstable parts and which have experienced earthquakes in the past and are likely to experience
earthquakes in future. The Himalayan region, Indo Gangetic Plain, Western India, Cutch and
Kathiawar are the places in our country which experience earthquakes frequently. Sometimes
these earthquakes are violent also. Seismic load is caused by the shocks due to an earthquake.
The earthquakes range from small tremors to severe shocks. The earthquake shocks cause
movement of ground, as a result of which the structure vibrates. The vibrations caused because
of earthquakes may be resolved in three perpendicular directions. The horizontal direction of
vibration dominates over other directions. In some cases structures are designed for horizontal
seismic forces only and in some case both horizontal seismic forces and vertical seismic forces
are taken in to account. The seismic accelerations for the design may be arrived at from seismic
coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of acceleration due to earthquakes and acceleration due
to gravity. Our country has been divided in to seven zones for determining seismic coefficients.
The seismic coefficients have also been recommended for different types of soils for the
guidance of designers. IS : 1893-1962 Indian Standard Recommendations for Earthquake
Resistant Design of Structure, may be referred to for actual design.
3.8 SOIL AND HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
The pressure exerted by soil or water or both should be taken in to consideration for the design
of structures or parts of structure which are below ground level. The soil pressure and
hydrostatic pressure may be calculated from established theories.
3.9 ERECTION EFFECTS
The erection effects include all effects to which a structure or part of structure is subjected
during transportation of structural members and erection of structural member by equipments.
Erection effects also take in to account the placing or storage of construction materials. The
proper provisions shall be made, e.g., temporary bracings, to take care of all stresses caused
during erection. The stress developed because of erection effects should not exceed allowable
stresses.
3.10 DYNAMIC EFFECTS (IMPACTS AND VIBRATIONS)
The moving loads on a structure cause vibrations and have also impact effect. The dynamic
effects resulting from moving loads are accounted for, by impact factor. The live load is increased
by adding to it the impact load. The impact load is determined by the product of impact factor
and live load.
3.11 TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
The variation in temperature results in expansion and contraction of structural material. The
range of variation in temperature varies from localities to localities, season to season and day to
day. The temperature effects should be accounted for properly and adequately. The allowable
stress should not be exceeded by stress developed because of design loads and temperature
effects.
3.12 LOAD COMBINATIONS
All the parts of the steel structure shall be capable of sustaining the most adverse combination of
the dead loads, prescribed live loads, wind loads, earthquake loads where applicable and any
other forces or loads to which the steel structure may reasonably be subjected without
exceeding the stress specified. The load combinations for design purpose shall be the one that
produces maximum forces and effects and consequently maximum stresses from the following
combinations
1. Dead load + Imposed (live) load

2. Dead load + Imposed (live) load + wind or earthquake loads and
3. Dead load + wind or earthquake loads
Restrained Volume Changes Volume changes: Changes in dimensions of structural members due
to shrinkage, creep, and temperature changes
Shrinkage of concrete is primarily due to drying of newly built concrete elements. Most concrete
shrinkage takes place early in the life of the structure—75% in the first 3 months and 90% in 1
year. Creep is the continuing shrinkage of concrete over time under constant compression loads.
Creep is present in all post-tensioned structure where the force of the post-tensioning tendon
produces pre-compression of concrete elements. The rate of creep deformation is slower than
the rate of shrinkage, with 90% of ultimate creep deformation achieved in about 5 years.
Concrete elements also expand and contract in proportion to temperature variation. The length
of longer concrete elements will commonly vary by several inches due to the combined
influences of shrinkage, creep, and temperature change. If these effects are not fully recognized,
and the volume changes are not accommodated either by design or by allowing for the expected
movement, parts of the structure could be distressed. A typical example of restrained volume
changes is a design that creates a short column in a relatively long structure. This often happens
in parking decks, especially when sloping ramp geometry results in variable column lengths
Prevention
Designers and contractors need to recognize the effects of volume change not only in the
construction of new concrete structures but also during the evaluation and repair of existing
concrete structures. Here are some examples where volume changes affect the repair solutions
and procedures.
1. When repairing an expansion joint in a structure, estimate the future volume change
movements before repairing the joint and replacing a failed expansion joint seal. For example, in
a post-tensioned concrete parking deck, a 2-inch-wide expansion joint could be expected to
increase to 3 to 4 inches wide within a few years after the joint repair, due to the shrinkage and
creep shortening of the deck on each side of the joint. That does not include additional opening
of the joint due to seasonal temperature drop. The new joint seal should be able to
accommodate these movements without distress.
2. When a short column in a concrete structure is distressed due to unanticipated volume

changes, the repair must be able to accommodate future movements of the structure. If the only
repair made to a cracked column is injecting it with epoxy, it is likely that the column will crack
again during the next winter. An effective repair would be to rebuild the distressed column to
transfer the vertical load and also accommodate horizontal movements by providing a sliding
surface at the base of the rebuilt column.
3. A plaza deck without expansion joints will crack due to restrained shrinkage of the deck. One
should evaluate future volume change movements of the deck before deciding whether to place
an epoxy or a flexible sealant in the cracks.
4. Subsequent modifications of a structure can sometimes create unintended restraint to the
volume changes. For example, a partial height wall built between existing columns would reduce
the effective height of the column and make it less capable of accommodating volume changes
without distress.
Sudden Load: It is the load without pre-effect and it may stay for the longer time period after the
application of load. In other words it is the kind of unplanned or undesired load in most of the
cases. This load imparts at random times and may disturb the system at a great intent. As it is
unplanned load, the system might not be designed to bear that. It also do not have fixed value or
direction, its on the roll of dice.
Impact Load: In almost all the cases impact load is designed to be imparted on the system in a
fraction of second. Impact load is designed so it has certain value and pre-defined line of action.
It is been removed with immediate effect, unlikely to sudden load in some cases. In other words
we can say that impact load is the designed version of sudden load, where we have designed the
impact to test the system or to bear natural conditions.
 Sudden load acts suddenly on the structure and stays for longer duration.
 While impact load also acts suddenly on structure but won't stay for longer
duration,it leaves suddenly.
 Imagine a book on the table, now give punch from your hand to book. As soon as
you punch the book it's known as impact load, still your hand is resting on the book
which is sudden load.
 Eg - cricket ball hitting the bat is impact loading. Ball being caught by a fielder is a
shock or sudden loading.
Any structure can be subjected to static or dynamic loads
1. Static Load
They are independent of time, the dead load on a structure can be considered as a static load.
2. Dynamic Load
 Time dependent loads
 Loads can be accelerating or deaccelerating
 Live Load, Wind Load, Earthquake Load, Snow load are the examples of dynamic
load.
Difference between static and dynamic loading
· In a static problem, load is constant with respect to time. On the other hand,

the dynamic problem is time varying in nature. Because both loading and responses varies with
time
· Static problem has only one response, i.e. displacement. But the dynamic problem has mainly
three types of responses, such as displacement, velocity and acceleration.
· Static problem has only one solution whereas a dynamic problem has infinite number of
solutions which are time dependent in nature. Thus dynamic analysis is more complex and time-
consuming than static analysis.
· In static problem, the response can be calculated by the principles of force or static equilibrium
whereas in case of dynamic problem the responses depend not only on the load but also upon
inertial forces which oppose the accelerations producing them. Thus the total responses are
calculated by including inertia forces along with the static equilibrium. Hence, the inertia forces
are the most important distinguishing characteristics of a structural dynamics problem.
In Simple words
Let us take a two storey building, the selfweight of the building (weight of the concrete, steel,
glass etc.) is a static load.
Now if i through a ball on the wall of the building, the impact load of the ball acts on the wall of
that building, as the ball which I had thrown can accelerate with respect to time, so it is a time
dependent load and hence a dynamic load.
In the same way wind load, earthquake load , snow load etc. are all dynamic loads.
An impact load is one whose time of application on a material is less than one-third of the
natural period of vibration of that material. Cyclic loads on a structure can lead to fatigue
damage, cumulative damage, or failure. These loads can be repeated loadings on a structure or
can be due to vibration. Generally impact load on structure means a load applied or acted on a
structure with short duration. So there where always a consideration in roof design a impact
load in the form of wind load. Sudden Load: It is the load without pre-effect and it may stay for
the longer time period after the application of load. ... Impact Load: In almost all the
cases impact load is designed to be imparted on the system in a fraction of second. Impact
load is designed so it has certain value and pre-defined line of action
Load combinations
A load combination results when more than one load type acts on the structure. Building
codes usually specify a variety of load combinations together with load factors (weightings) for
each load type in order to ensure the safety of the structure under different maximum expected
loading scenarios. For example, in designing a staircase, a dead load factor may be 1.2 times the
weight of the structure, and a live load factor may be 1.6 times the maximum expected live load.
These two "factored loads" are combined (added) to determine the "required strength" of the
staircase.
The reason for the disparity between factors for dead load and live load, and thus the reason the
loads are initially categorized as dead or live is because while it is not unreasonable to expect a
large number of people ascending the staircase at once, it is less likely that the structure will
experience much change in its permanent load.
BLAST LOAD
A Blast Load is the load applied to a structure or object from a blast wave, which is described by
the combination of overpressure and either impulse or duration that causes catastrophic damage
to the building both externally and internally.
Blast loading is a short duration load also called impulsive loading. Mathematically blast
loading is treated as triangular loading. The ductility and natural period of vibration of a
structure governs its response to an explosion.
A blast-resistant modular building is a structure that is made to withstand significant explosions
and to protect personnel and equipment in hazardous environments like those encountered at
oil refineries, chemical processing plants or similar operations.
Shock-proof glass, indestructible plastic, bullet-proof fabric and bomb-proof building materials
are a few of the most recent advances, some of which are used in bomb squad armor. Advances
have come in many forms over the years, such as increasing the tensile strength of concrete so
that it is bomb-proof.
CONSTRUCTION LOADS
Construction Loads are defined as, loads imposed on a completed or temporary structure during

and as a result of the construction process. Construction Loads as defined by ASCE 37-02 are
those loads imposed on a partially completed or temporary structure during and as a result of
the construction process. Construction loads include, but are not limited to, materials, personnel,
and equipment imposed on the temporary or permanent structure during the construction
process.
 Weight on Temporary structure:
- CD = Construction Dead Load – The dead load due to shoring, scaffolds and other construction
related dead loads. These loads will be gone after the construction is completed.
 Material Loads
Loads due to material during construction is divided into two groups, Ex. Weight of concrete
placed in a form for the permanent structure is a material load. When the concrete gains
sufficient strength so that the formwork is not required for its support, the concrete becomes a
dead load.
CFML = Fixed Material Load – is the load from materials that is fixed in magnitude. During
construction material have to be stockpiled in the structure that’s been constructed. Load due to
fuel and various other materials required during construction may be relatively fixed if they are
replenished.
CVML = Variable Material Load – is the load from materials that varies in magnitude during the
construction process. Steel, nuts and bolts may be stored, but once they are constructed it
becomes part of the permanent dead load.
 Construction procedure loads
CP = Personnel and Equipment Loads – is the load from personnel and Equipment. Construction
workers working on the structure, concrete buggies, concrete pumping hoses, equipment for
formwork and shoring, generators, gang boxes and compressors.
CH = Horizontal Construction Load – Forces necessary for member stability are determined
during analysis of the structure. Moving wheelbarrows, moving personnel generates lateral loads
on the structure. Wind load is not considered in this item since wind load is considered
separately. It is assumed moving person would exert 50 lbs lateral load on the structure.
- CF = Erection and fitting forces – Forces caused by erection (alignment, fitting, bolting, bracing,
guying, and so on) shall be considered.
- CR = Equipment Reactions – The equipment reactions shall include the full weight of the
equipment operating at its maximum rated load.
CC = Lateral pressure of concrete – Lateral Forces on formwork from placing concrete – This
covers Form and Slipform Pressure, and shoring loads. I will address these formulas and
problems in later sections.
How snow load can damage your buildings
Snow load is the downward force on a building’s roof by the weight of accumulated snow and
ice. The roof or the entire structure can fail if the snow load exceeds the weight the building was
designed to shoulder. Or if the building was poorly designed or constructed.
It doesn’t take a blizzard to cause problems. An imbalance of drifting snow can cause one part of
a roof to give, causing a domino effect.
How much snow is too much?
Calculating the roof load on your barn takes more than an educated guess. The University of
Wisconsin Cooperative Extension Service says that a ballpark estimate of roof snow load can be
made with the following formula:
Calculated Roof Loading (lb/ft2) = Depth (ft) x Density (lb/ft2 /ft depth). The approximate density
(lb/ft2 /ft depth) is:
 5-20 for light snow
 20-40 for packed snow
 40-58 for packed snow with ice
 58 for ice
For example, a roof with 3 feet of light snow has an estimated roof load of 60 pounds per square
foot (3 ft depth X 20 lb/ft2/ft depth density = 60 lb/ft2).
You should know the roof weight limits for your barns and outbuildings. If necessary, rebuild or
fortify them to withstand worst-case scenario snow loads and meet local building standards.
Removing snow
Some failures can be prevented with careful snow removal. The University of Wisconsin
Cooperative Extension Service offers the following suggestions:
 Use caution if standing on the roof, making sure to wear a safety harness and use
securing ladders.
 Use a snow rake. Avoid chipping or picking away at ice as that may damage the roof.
 Remove snow in narrow strips to keep the load somewhat even.
 Leave a thin layer of snow to protect the roof from damage while snow is being removed.
Approximate Methods for Analysis of Indeterminate Structures
During preliminary design and analysis, the actual member dimensions are not usually known.
Approximate analysis is useful in determining (approximately) the forces and moments in the
different members and in coming up with preliminary designs. Based on the preliminary design, a
more detailed analysis can be conducted and then the design can be refined. Approximate
analysis is conducted by making realistic assumptions about the behavior of the structure.
Frame Structures with Lateral Loads: Portal Method the frame can be viewed as a superposition
of a number of portals. For low-rise building frames under lateral loads,
Assumptions:
• Internal hinges at the centers of beams and columns
• Shear carried by interior columns is assumed to be twice of that of the exterior columns.
Frame Structures with Lateral Loads: Cantilever Method
For tall and slender building frames under lateral loads, the entire frame acts similar to cantilever
beam sticking out of the ground
Axial compression and tension forces develop to counteract the moment created due to the
lateral load around the base of the building.
Assumptions:
• Internal hinges form at the center of beams and columns
• Axial stress in a column is proportional to its distance away from the centroid of the cross-
sectional area of columns at any floor level.
A cross-wall is an interior dividing wall of a castle. It may be an external wall dividing, for

example, the inner and outer wards, or it may be a wall internal to a building
A load-bearing wall or bearing wall is a wall that is an active structural element of a building,
that is, it bears the weight of the elements above said wall, resting upon it by conducting its
weight to a foundation structure. The materials most often used to construct load-bearing walls
in large buildings are concrete, block, or brick. By contrast, a curtain wall provides no significant
structural support beyond what is necessary to bear its own materials or conduct such loads to a
bearing wall
These lengths are then multiplied by depth and breadth to get quantities. In short wall and long
wall method, the wall along the length of the room is considered to be a long wall, while
the wall perpendicular to a long wall is known to be a short wall
Shear wall is a structural member used to resist lateral forces i.e. parallel to the plane of
the wall. For slender walls where the bending deformation is more, Shear wall resists the loads
due to Cantilever Action. In other words, Shear walls are vertical elements of the horizontal force
resisting system.
In structural engineering, a shear wall is a vertical element of a seismic force resisting system

that is designed to resist in-plane lateral forces, typically wind and seismic loads. ... A shear
wall resists loads parallel to the plane of the wall. Shear walls provide large strength and
stiffness to buildings in the direction of their orientation, which significantly reduces lateral sway
of the building and thereby reduces damage to structure and its contents. Since shear
walls carry large horizontal earthquake forces, the overturning effects on them are large. Shear
wall is a structural member used to resist lateral forces i.e. parallel to the plane of the wall. For
slender walls where the bending deformation is more, Shear wall resists the loads due to
Cantilever Action. In other words, Shear walls are vertical elements of the horizontal force
resisting system.
Based on type of material used, shear walls are classified into following types.
 Reinforced Concrete Shear Wall.

 Concrete Block Shear Wall.
 Steel Shear Wall.
 Plywood Shear Wall.
 Mid-Ply Shear Wall.
Hollow tube structure:

The tube is a structural engineering system that is used in high-rise buildings, enabling them to
resist lateral loads from wind, seismic pressures and so on. It acts like a hollow cylinder,
cantilevered perpendicular to the ground.The system was developed in the 1960s by
the engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan, and has been used to construct most high-rise buildings since
then.The tube system can be constructed using concrete, steel or a composite of both. In its
simplest form, closely-spaced columns are tied together with deep spandrel
beams through moment connections as part of the external perimeter of the building. The
rigid frame that this assembly of columns and beams forms results in a dense and
strong structural ‘tube’ around the exterior.Since lateral loads can be resisted by this
stiff exterior framing, interior columns can be located at the core and are fewer in number.
The interior can be simply framed for gravity loads and floor space is left free from columns.The
first building designed by Khan using a tube frame was the DeWitt-Chestnut building, Chicago, in
1963. The first skyscraper to use the system was Chicago’s Willis Tower.
Types of system
Framed tube
This is the simplest form of the tube system and can be used on a variety of floor plan shapes,
including square, rectangular, circular and freeform. This type is reasonably efficient from 38-300
m (125-1,000 ft) in height. It was the initial system type developed by Khan.
Khan defined a framed tube structure as "a three dimensional space structure composed of

three, four, or possibly more frames, braced frames, or shear walls, joined at or near their edges
to form a vertical tube-like structural system capable of resisting lateral forces in any direction by
cantilevering from the foundation."
Trussed tube
Trussed (also known as braced) tube systems are similar to the framed tube but have
fewer exterior columns space further apart. To compensate for the fewer columns, steel bracing
or concrete shear walls are introduced to tie the columns together.
By interconnecting all the exterior columns, it forms a rigid box which is capable of resisting

lateral shears by axial in its members rather than through flexure (bending or curving).
By having relatively broad column spacing, it is possible to have lots of clear space for windows.
The diagonals that are introduced on each façade should intersect at the same point on the
corner column. These diagonals interact with the perpendicular face trusses to make
the structure ‘tubular’ and equalise the gravity loads of the exterior columns.
Tube-in-tube
This system is also known as ‘hull and core’ and consists of a core tube inside the structure which
holds services such as utilities and lifts, as well as the usual tube system on the exterior which
takes the majority of the gravity and lateral loads.
The inner and outer tubes interact horizontally as the shear and flexural components of a wall-
frame structure. They have the advantage of increased lateral stiffness.
Bundled tube
The bundled tube system involves, instead of one tube, several individual tubes interconnected
to form a multi-cell tube. Together they work to resist the lateral loads and
overturning moments. When the tubes fall within the building envelope, interior columns are
positioned along their perimeters.
Not only is this system economically efficient but it also allows for more versatile building
designs, adopting interesting shapes and bundled in dynamic groupings rather than being simply
box-like towers.
The first type of building to use this system was the Willis Tower in Chicago.
Hybrid system
A hybrid system is often used where the building design has a slenderness such that a single
system cannot provide adequate strength or stiffness. It combines two or more
basic structural forms, either by direct combination or by adopting different forms in different
parts of the structure. As high-rise building designs become more complex, hybrid systems are
increasingly common.
A tubular structure is nothing but a normal frame structure but with closely spaced columns and
spandrel beams located on the perimeter of the building. This term was kind of coined by Fazlur
Rehman Khan when he designed Dewitt Chestnut Apartments. In fact not just frames, you can
consider a shear wall system as well, but we do not go for shear wall on the perimeters as they
will block the view from the building and it will look like a concrete bunker. So basically it was
stuck with a famed structure.
Not this system got a specific name as it was used more and more in tall buildings as a form of
closely spaced columns connected together by deep beams to transfer the shear from one
column to another in case of heavy winds. Deeps beams were necessary or else you will see a ton
of shear lag in the systems and it will perform inefficiently. The most common example of this
system is the world trade center's Tower 1 and Tower 2, also known as twin towers. With a very
closely spaced columns on the outside and a core in the center made of (again) closely spaced
columns, it was kind of acting as a tube in tube system.
The benefit of this system is that it will provide a wide open space in the building, column free
locations. And it will still provide enough rigidity to resist lateral forces. The only disadvantage is
that, as you go taller, the column spacing get closer and you hardy get any view outside the
building. Now these buildings were more than 400m in height but while going any taller, this
system proved to be very inefficient. Sears tower showed an innovative concept. A concept of
bundled tube. Take one stick and you can break it easily but bind 10 of them together and you
get something that not just 10 times stronger but it may prove to be 50-100 times stronger than
a single stick. A similar approach was used in designing this building and it got a term of tube in
tube system.
A tubular structure is one in which the lateral load resisting system (wind, seismic, etc) is located
on the exterior of the structure. The rigid lateral system forms a tubular shape rising from the
foundation. In simplified form, the entire structure can be analogized as a hollow column
situated on its end.
Virendeel structure
The
Vierendeel truss is a structure where the members are not triangulated but form rectangular
openings, and is a frame with fixed joints that are capable of transferring and resisting bending
moments.
Need for Tall Buildings
Tall building as a building type is a technological innovation of the nineteenth century as a

response to the economic, industrial, and social changes. Why should tall buildings be
particularly emphasized in the realm of urban architecture? Among other reasons, two are
paramount. First, the exploding population, largely urban, creates an increasing demand for
tall buildings. The ever increasing population and growing economies in major cities of the
world mean increasing urbanization globally and the continuing rise in population density in
urban areas. Arable land areas are constantly being eaten away by urban spreading through
suburban developments. In countries where arable land is scarce or threatened by
development, disappearing agricultural land must be protected from further development.
Some municipalities have attempted to address the problem of unrestricted outward growth
and suburbanization through so-called “no-growth” policies and improvements in the public
transportation infrastructure. Related to this is the fact that concentration in multi-story
development helps save costs and the energy involved in transportation and urban services.
The tall building can accommodate many more people on a smaller land than would be the
case with low-rise building on the same land. A tall building is in effect a vertical
transformation of horizontal expansion. Second, it is generally expected that there has been
evident neglect of the human factors in urban design at the expense of livability and quality
of life. The outward expansion of cities into the suburbs has resulted in increased travel time
and energy consumption. Clustering of buildings in the form of tall buildings in densely built-
up areas is generally recognized as efficient in terms of transportation and reducing the
carbon footprint. Quality of life is improved by building tall that offers the opportunity for
creating open spaces such as plazas, parks and other community spaces by freeing up space
at the ground level. Besides the impact on the city skyline at their tops, tall buildings
influence the city fabric at the level where they meet the ground. Agglomeration also
reduces the per capita carbon footprint which improves the ecological environment and
contributes to environmental economy. A review of high-rise literature will reveal that tall
buildings generally grew as a building type out of necessity—not based on arbitrary
willfulness [Beedle et al., 2007].
The exploding urban world population creates an increased demand for tall buildings
in areas that are experiencing growth, which consequently poses requirement of economy in
construction, increased urban services, and sensible planning. Table 1 presents population
growth projection by major world areas, and it is evident that the highest growth will occur
in Africa and Asia. Livability and quality of life depend on social factors, and must be
considered in the overall urban development. For commercial buildings, the need for tallness
is a matter of economics and agglomeration. As countries become industrialized and service-
oriented, tall buildings are required to consolidate people and services in order to conduct
business in urban centers. For residential buildings, intrusion on agricultural land, increase in
the cost of energy, and efficiency in the delivery of urban services cause increased demand
for building tall.
The phenomenal increase of the number of tall buildings in the world during the last
century created awareness for the importance, uniqueness, and impact of this built form on
urban life. Evidently, urban areas and tall buildings are interdependent, and the connections
between the two create a unique setting for evolution and development of vibrant,
functional, high-quality environment for living. Integration between the two depend on
many different
factors, such as economy, context, physical systems, infrastructure, transportation,

environmental effects, history and culture.
Tall Buildings and Cities
Tall buildings are integrally connected with the city because they are responses to
unique development conditions found within an urban environment. Too often tall buildings
have been designed without considering them as part of the larger urban context and vice
versa. To fully understand and appreciate the complex phenomena of both technological and
socio-economic aspects of the built environment organized efforts are needed to bring
together and expand upon our current knowledge of both the tall building as a building
typology and the city.
Most cities just grow. Some of them had urban plans from the beginning and many
had none. Zoning is now fairly common; but except for height limits, it has been a rarity to
find an urban plan that considers the implications of tall buildings in an urban setting. During
the last few decades, however, many city planning authorities have begun to employ the
concentration of tall buildings as an integral feature of their plans for density and
infrastructure utilization, as well as land use. Growth of suburbs and satellite towns is
another recent development where people can live away from the central business districts.
Some cities created a green belt around them to discourage further growth. Local planning
authorities should identify appropriate locations for new tall buildings in the development
plan documents. In addition, the following considerations should be included:
 Spatial, scale and growth requirements;
 Appropriate mix of uses;
 Public consultation;
 Historical context;
 View of the skyline;
 Streetscape and access;
 Sustainable design; and
 Vision for the future of a place.
In the nations of the developed world, urbanization most often takes the form of a
centrifugal force spreading outward from the urban core. In developing countries the
tendency is rather the reverse. The supposed attractions of city life and job opportunities
result in a centripetal force, with crowding to the urban core. In developed nations there is a
tendency for growth of cities in many different areas. In less developed nations, on the other
hand, there is the tendency for one or two cities to become very large and growth is
relatively unchecked unless special controls are used.
The final form and texture of an expanding city depends on a number of factors,
including the choice between high- and low-rise developments. Various factors in the
expansion are as follows:
 The availability of land;
 Preferential balance between public and private transport;
 Population pressures;
 Strength of planning and development regulations;
 The availability of urban services;
 Existing infrastructure; and
 Future plans.
2. The city is a resilient and complex organism capable of absorbing new built intensities
inserted into its fabric. More compelling is the view that the city is a marketplace of ideas, a
place in which the very ideas of congestion and expansion are intrinsic to its functions and its
vitality. Congestion and expansion become not a barrier to its correct functioning, but an
enhancement. A city of tall buildings need not be disturbing so long as congestion is kept
within an acceptable limit and expansion is controlled, and this could in fact be a catalyst to
enliven the city for its inhabitants [Ali and Armstrong, 1995]. Integration of tall buildings
within the urban environment indicates prosperity and activity, as well as platform for future
development.
1. TALL BUILDING DESIGN FACTORS
Contextual Factors
The social, political, psychological and cultural effects influence the design of tall
buildings. Social and political changes such as growing population, development and
transformation of information technology, communication systems and stable political
governments are key elements of social and political environment of a city. Social factors
influencing the design of tall buildings include users and their activities, urban density, and
socio-contextual features of the site. Cultural influence plays a role in the design of tall
buildings. Climate, religion, history, traditions, demography and quality of life are all factors
affecting the culture of a society.
Tall buildings serve a specific function in meeting urban needs. These functions can
be categorized as follows:
 Commercial;
 Residential;
 Industrial;
 Institutional;
 Public assembly;
 Special purpose; and
 Multi-use.
The largest percentage of tall buildings is used for commercial business enterprises, followed
by residential function. Usually tall buildings are clustered according to the function,
providing concentration of use within urban area. Multi-use tall buildings are also very
prominent, where typically commercial and residential uses are mixed. Careful consideration
for building type utilization must be performed, since the building form and organization
depend on the function. For example, residential buildings have different organization than
commercial, since the use affects massing, entrance, and overall form. Users, their traits and
needs, must be investigated in the planning phase.
It is necessary to understand the complex phenomena of both technological and
socio- economic aspects of the built environment in the tall building design. The tall building
is a part of the urban system, and as such depends on the adjacent buildings and street
space. It must be considered within the context of the city block, the street, the pedestrian,
and with regard to its users and the interior spaces they occupy. The impact of the tall
building on the city and its systems is often circulation congestion. Tall buildings may
increase or create congestion of their surrounding movement systems (private and
commercial vehicles, public
transportation, pedestrians on the sidewalk) as well as place additional load on the
infrastructure and utilities.
Tall building developments can also have an impact on the urban fabric, and the
historical heritage of buildings and spaces. Since tall buildings have both a physical and social
impact on their urban environments, their location and design must assure that the impact
not be negative. It is particularly important that they possess aesthetic quality and do not
seem to physically overpower the existing environment. When properly designed, they can
add important elements to the skyline and cityscape that can indeed be attractive and
acceptable to the public.
Dependency on cultural factors, such as local tradition, customs, and style is an
important concern for architectural design. Cultural representation is becoming evident in
the recent examples of tall buildings, especially in East Asia and the Middle East. [McNeill,
2005; Beedle et al., 2007]. During the planning process, it should be ensured that tall
buildings will not jeopardize local environmental quality, existing patterns of street life and
subcultures, the existing townscape, and the landscape. Common planning tools are control
of land use, outline of zoning plans, development controls, percentage of site coverage in
form of open space ratio (OSR), height control, floor area ratio (FAR), building volume and
permissible envelope, required linkages, controls of spaces between buildings, rewards for
particular contributions, and other devices such as transferable floor-space ratios and
sustainable design. The tall building’s contextual relationships, therefore, should be the
subject of paramount importance for the effective urban design plan for the locality.
Environmental Factors
Building environment, such as location, urban topology, topography, climate, wind,
and seismic factors directly affect the architectural design of tall buildings and the quality of
urban life. Building codes depend on the specific information about the project’s location,
and specify the minimum level of safety for structures. External environment affects the
overall design, but internal environment, such as indoor air quality, daylight, and ventilation
are also major considerations in determining the quality of life of occupants.
The local environment and its features have always been one of the most critical
considerations driving the design of the built space. Design of a tall building in an urban
environment requires careful selection of the site in order to define context and the open
space around the building. Also, sensible consideration of the use of urban open spaces
should take into account the larger urban setting on a macro scale [Zacharias et al., 2001].
Tall buildings are capable of creating a significant shadow due to their size, depending
on the shape, orientation, and location. Shadows produced at greater latitudes may cover an
adjacent site throughout the year. At smaller latitudes winter may be the only problematic
time of the year when the sun’s altitude is lowest; but the sunlight is most valuable to
overcome the coolness of the atmosphere. The shape of the building should be dictated by
the sun’s path [Gissen, 2002].
The orientation of buildings must be studied to provide for minimum interference
and to maximize views. Tall buildings can significantly block the views from adjacent
buildings. Shade reduces available natural daylight. This can have a negative impact on
building functions in climates that rely on daylight. Solar issues are especially important in
intense climates where the summer sun makes building for shading a necessity. In temperate
and cool climates planning codes can specify a required amount of sunlight [Zacharias et al.,
2001]. Both the designers of tall buildings and the local authorities must assume that an
adequate amount of sunlight falls on adjacent buildings and open spaces.
Wind influences the design of structural system of a tall building, as well as the shape
and form. There are two principal external effects caused by wind. Turbulence, drafts, and
gusts are created affecting people at street level [Aynsley, 1973; Ali and Armstrong, 1995].
Wind can also create problems for surrounding facilities. Some problems caused by wind
that may affect buildings include difficulty of operation of entrance doors because of the
adverse pressure differences; the ineffectiveness of hoods, screens and awnings; the adverse
pressure effects on air-conditioning and ventilation intakes and exhausts; and pollution of
cooling towers by corrosive exhausts from adjacent incinerator and furnace flues. Other
difficulties include adverse effects on weatherproof seals of joints in materials and window
frames, and wind noise. Projections and the irregularities in the façade surface can reduce
wind effects from the building surfaces can reduce some of the effects.
A research study investigated the existing urban configuration and the impact on the
building environmental issues. The primary topics it examined are the effects of design
parameters, such as building height, urban space width, and building cluster arrangements,
on airflow in typical urban settings in Abu Dhabi [Al-Sallal et al., 2001]. It focused on the
impact of the selected design parameters on airflow path lines and velocity, and analyzed
the result with regard to thermal comfort in outdoor urban spaces. The conclusions and
recommendations of the study are:
 Variation of height between buildings has a great impact on the wind path lines
and turbulence;
 Varying the width of the urban spaces within the range of 20 to 80 meters did not
show much significance on affecting airflow path lines and velocity; however,
when the width was made less than 30 meters, a significant wind shadow was
created;
 The low-rise buildings within the urban context should face the windward
direction to reduce the effect of the wind shadow;
 The staggered arrangement provides a more effective passive cooling design than
the parallel arrangement because of its potential to cool the large building
structures by natural convection in this climate;
 The staggered arrangement is also better than the parallel one in reducing the
effect of the relatively high levels of humidity because of its potential to provide
higher airflow velocity; and
 The parallel arrangement provides a better wind protection for outdoor spaces
existing between windward and leeward directions.
Although there have been many technological breakthroughs for tall buildings, their
architectural quality related to the improvement of urban life has not kept pace with them.
There is still an alienating attitude towards form of high-rise living and working for its
occupants. That mainly aims for increasing the net usable floor area to maximize the
developer’s financial returns on real estate investments. What is needed today to ensure a
more satisfying urban life is to create environments that are connected to the city, that is,
more flexible, less regimented, more diverse, with networks of parks and plazas and
enclosed places within the tall building that recreate human life at the ground plane. Thus
high-rise design should be aimed at urban life involving an integration of socio-economic and
political- environmental and physical concerns with the architectural concerns of design
[Yeang, 2002].
Socio-Economic Factors
The economics of building tall or not is very much a matter of the local condition. It
can be the lowest-cost solution in a developed country in a location with other tall buildings
and when the needed infrastructure and urban services are in place with adequate capacity.
Tall buildings fit in well where business and organizational structures are geared to large-
quantity operations, where building materials are plentiful, and where there is an adequate
force of skilled and semi-skilled labor. But it could be the highest-cost solution in a situation
where those factors do not exist; the negative impact of these missing resources must be
carefully considered.
Tall buildings can project a sense of social power, an image of corporate economic
power, and an image of governmental authority. These have been factors from the earliest
times, and there is nothing inherently wrong with this unless those in permit-granting
authority do not tie to this motivation the requirement that all urban needs be fulfilled at the
same time. Tall buildings attract public attention and advertise the image of a city as a
leading commercial center. They epitomize people’s pride in their cities. They showcase the
achievements of modern architecture and engineering.
Community development in residential high-rises should be the heart of the
strategies for urban development. During any buildings procurement process, the social
needs of the building’s neighbors should be high on the agenda. Any new high-rise
development provides an opportunity to offer facilities and economic benefits for the
surrounding community; it can be an opportunity to employ and to train the local workers to
contribute to the building’s construction phase and to deliver the building’s working
functions after it is built. For those working in and visiting near tall buildings, there can be an
advantage of a prime location by way of transport links, amenities, and opportunities for
banking and athletic facilities as a result of a large number of people in a single building. A
numbers of health, safety and security issues can be raised, appropriate both for occupants,
visitors and neighbors. These issues must be considered by architects, planners and
engineers in the planning and design phases.
In multi-use buildings, social and economic factors may merge because such buildings
accommodate both types of occupancies and their activities. Providing banks, retail,
recreation facilitates, etc. in the same complex facilitates interaction of people in a
community. Providing large lobbies and atrium may encourage more community interaction.
The major contribution of a tall building is its significance to the volumetric
dimensions of an urban space [McNeill, 2005]. A city may be developed according to a
master plan which anticipates its growth. As it grows, however, the need for remodeling
eventually arises for a larger or smaller part of the city. This need could be economic, social,
or environmental in nature. Amin and Thrift [2002] suggest that the traditional view of the
city as a territorial economic engine should be modified to a site of spatially stretched
economic relations to open up a rich ecology of urban life.
The usual major pressure is the decline of the central city. In the developed countries
this decline has often been the result of the suburbanization. In less developed countries it is
usually the result of the incoming stream of migrants. Residential areas may need to be
remodeled. Commercial centers may have decayed, especially around older transportation
terminals. It is all part of the process of the recycling of a city without which urban life would
not maintain itself. The four fundamentals that decide the nature and form of revitalization
are as follows:
 Density of land ownership;
 Employment densities in the urban core;
 Social values in the urban core; and
 Role of public and private sectors.
Two widely different approaches have been used with varying degrees of success in the
remodeling of existing cities—urban renewal and planned large-scale developments [Beedle
et al., 2007]. Urban renewal consists of clearance of large areas of a city, and complete
redevelopment of urban infrastructure. Planned large-scale developments are programs of
major renewal of individual areas in a city that are obviously targeted for adaptation of
existing infrastructure. The role of the tall building for both methods is crucial, since location,
function, and site characteristics depend on services and existing conditions.
High-rise developments may also improve existing dilapidated areas of the city that
often are sources of social inequalities in the form of “social brownfields”. Urban
regeneration is possible in such areas by inserting well-planned and well-designed high-rise
buildings with a beautified surrounding landscape. This is a new trend in some American
cities to attract young couples, empty nesters, and retirees to the city center where many
amenities are available. In some situations social integration of different economic classes is
also possible by high-rise developments and communities [Beedle et al., 2007].
3. URBAN TYPOLOGY AND TALL BUILDING DESIGN Planning
and Change
A tall building has to come to terms first with a city that is already there. For instance,
it needs to resolve the issue of massing and how the scale of the new tower as a whole
relates to the image of the city, to the city block, and to the neighboring structures.
Specifically, it must resolve how it relates to the street, the pedestrian scale, the existing land
use, and the character of the block or district where it is located. These considerations create
a special set of conditions for the architect in such a way that propositions that work at the
upper levels of the tall building may not be at all be effective at its ground or lower levels.
The tall building type presents an entirely new form, user, and technological
problems that cannot be solved by exclusively delving into historical precedents. Although
architects have turned to historical styles for tall building forms and expression, true
innovations in tall building design have been the result of collaborations between architects
and structural engineers, and advances in materials and technology [Ali and Armstrong,
1995].
Clearly, some form of governmental planning control of intensive developments is
essential [Barnett, 1973]. The strategic plan is one mechanism to control tall building
development, to direct intensification of development, and to encourage the city’s overall
urban design policies to be used by some city planners [Zoll, 1974]. The strategic plan defines
planning policies that should govern the exercise of power. It defines the principles of
environmental management, emphasizing the relationships between the city’s urban
activities and their integration within its support systems. More important, it specifies the
practical actions needed to influence events in the city in the direction that city planners and
the public want them to proceed. It fills the gaps that a two-dimensional land-use plan might
have left out, by providing a set of ideas, strategies, and objectives for the future of the
urban area. The strategic plan affects the city’s management, accessibility, diversity, and
environment, and it ensures that new developments will be compatible with the local area
scale, character, and amenities.
The strategic plan can justify measures that limit the extent of development and
ensure that new buildings are broadly compatible with the surrounding land use and
circulation
system. A city’s zoning regulations may attempt to control the following effects of tall
buildings on it:
 Loss of sunlight and air by large, closely spaced towers placed right up against
sidewalk property lines;
 Loss of historic buildings and districts with the rapid proliferation of new
construction;
 Increased congestion on local streets and increased commuter problems;
 Tower massing; and,
 Strict sun and shadow control, in particular projected shadows over important
public or private open space.
Current information technologies allow for improved planning, visualization and simulation of
growth, land use, and infrastructure control. Geographic Information System (GIS) technology
is effectively utilized for research, development, implementation, and monitoring of the
planning efforts. Graphical interface to complex sets of data, mapping, and three-dimensional
visualization offer simplified analysis of complex sets of factors [Brail and Klosterman, 2002].
Virtual cities in conjunction with GIS offer navigable environment and effective digital
simulation of real cities, which give planners and designers an opportunity to visualize unbuilt
spaces and interaction with the existing infrastructure [Dodge et al., 1998]. In that sense,
dimension of height and footprint of a building can be used to generate three-dimensional
models of the cities, which can be enriched with attribute information about thematic data.
The Internet has emerged recently and spread worldwide for the last couple of
decades, and the spread was rapid due to its freedom from the physical restrictions. The
formation of cyber space made it clear that this virtual space is another layer of the urban
realm. Although its is not physically spatial, it has its structure in existence and as its
physicality and locations lose their significance, the “cyber city” fills the spaces with
corresponding elements such as communal locality instead of physical locality [Lee, 2007].
Thus cyber urbanism has distinguishing features from the conventional urbanism.
Connectivity is now the defining characteristic of the twenty first century [Mitchell, 1995].
The so-called cyber city has been created more purposefully than other urban spaces and its
creation is based on human needs. The simulation process in the virtual city is rendering the
parallel existences of the physical and cyber spaces more and more near and connected.
The materiality of the skyscraper--its height, form, massing, footplate, infrastructure

and neighbourhood--endows it with a special place within urban territories. Socially, it
opens up numerous questions about the nature of transnational knowledge flows, and
how barely visible material transactions are housed. Collectively perceived as a skyline,
it is able to horizontally define cities in a convenient representational frame, exploited
by film-makers, politicians and architects alike. Its sheer verticality raises questions
about urban futures, and the art and work of living high, but also demands an attention
to roots and the invisible cities of service areas and underground transport.
Integration Factors for Tall Buildings and Cities
Tall building as a building type is a viable solution for land scarcity and increasing
population density. However, as stated before, it also poses increased demand for urban
services and infrastructure, so careful consideration of positive and negative consequences
should be addressed. The complexity of the factors is shown in Figure 2, where urban
factors, such as economy, environment, climate, infrastructure, population, and
governmental and political decisions regarding the location, size, function, structural system
type, building systems, and type of envelope are demonstrated. The interrelationship of
these factors is not regimented and could be intricate.
Presence of tall buildings within urban environment is the dominant physical
characteristic of the integration. Skylines are urban signatures and determine urban identity.
Radical transformations of the urban skyline through time have altered the identity and
hierarchy of urban skylines from power invested in religious institutions to secular ones. The
modern city has inverted the hierarchy of past symbols and reconstituted their meanings in
tall buildings reflecting the dominance of private enterprise and its global aspirations. In
some cities a single feature can dominate the skyline and encapsulate the city as whole.
A number of design criteria can be isolated that determine the physical character of
the urban skyline including height, shape, and approach [Kostof, 1991]. Evans et al. [1982]
developed a model of landmark form and urban recognition in order to understand how
people perceive buildings and cities. Following building characteristics are significant in
constructing a skyline:
 Movement: The number of persons and other objects moving in and around the
building;
 Contour: The clarity of the building contour, ranging from blurred, partially
obscured to free-standing;
 Shape: The complexity of the shape, ranging from simple block shape to more
complex multiple shapes;
 Use intensity: The extent of building use, from limited use by a small segment of
the population to daily use by large numbers of people;
 Use singularity: The uniqueness of building function, ranging from only one
function to many building with shared functions;
 Significance: The extent of cultural, political, aesthetic, or historical importance of
the building; and
 Quality: The amount of physical maintenance, the upkeep of the structure.
Stamps et al. [2005] developed a methodology for pre-construction validation of urban

design guidelines, mainly dealing with the features of skylines. The methodology tests
skylines for three prominent factors—overall skyline shape, number of turns in the skylines,
and the level of variance in building height, width, depth, and setback. The shape defines
whether the skyline is convex, concave or flat. Level of variance in building attributes has the
strongest effect on the perceived qualities of a skyline, and the complex skylines are more
preferred. It suggests that for planning purposes, these building attributes should be the
driving forces for the creation of a city’s skyline.
Urban living condition is directly related to social services like security, health care,
recreation, education, and fire safety. They are factors that are of major significance in the
viability of a city and may vary from region to region. A city’s inhabitants are impacted by all
these issues. Therefore, while designing tall buildings these social services in their context
must be duly considered. In establishing design standards, public health and safety are of
basic importance, as well as two other major factors which are water supply and sewerage.
When these standards are appropriately accounted for during the design process, the urban
life is dramatically improved.
4. CASE STUDIES
Four case studies are discussed to illustrate the differences in need, context,
reciprocity and equivalence in the development of tall buildings and cities. Both reciprocity
and equivalence define the interdependence of tall buildings and cities to generate a
harmonious balance between them which results in better urban life. Previously presented
design factors, integration of tall buildings and urban habitat, and relationships between the
two are treated distinctly in each case. Chicago, Jakarta, Dubai and Song Do City are chosen
to convey the diverse perspectives and requirements of cities and their vertical architecture.
Chicago: Birthplace of Tall Buildings

Chicago is the birthplace of tall buildings. Located strategically on the Great Lakes,
the city begun as an important transportation connector between the eastern and western
United States. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, connection between the Great
Lakes and Mississippi River made Chicago a prominent economical center for manufacturing,
trade and retail. During the nineteenth century Chicago expanded immensely, with
population growing from 30,000 to 1 million by 1890 [Gibson, 1998]. Today, the City of
Chicago has close to 3 million inhabitants, with metro area of about 9 million [US Census
Bureau, 2006].
Figure 3: Concentration of tall buildings in Chicago urban core (Source: Google Earth).
Initial plan for Chicago was created by James Thompson in 1830, which was organized
into rectangular blocks and uniform streets. Majority of the buildings were constructed by
light wood framing, thus the results of Great Chicago Fire of 1871 were devastating. The fire
destroyed a third of the city, including the entire business district. The redevelopment efforts
requested increased fire protection and safety, as well as improved construction methods.
Material innovations and technological advancements, such as elevator and steel framing
allowed for the development of tall building as a reaction to the soaring land prices in
Chicago. The first steel framed building was Home Insurance Building of 1885 designed by
William Le Baron Jenney, which initiated the construction of steel-framed buildings.
Tall buildings have advanced greatly since the earliest efforts, and Chicago has been
one of the major focal points, as seen in Figure 3. Today, it is one of the leading cities for
sustainable urban growth. Revitalization, infrastructure improvements, and development are
evident as the quality of urban life is constantly improving. Two supertall buildings under
construction now are the Trump International Hotel and Tower and the Chicago Spire.
Jakarta: Megacity in Developing Country

Jakarta is one of the largest cities in the world, having population of more than 20
million. It is located in island-country Indonesia, thus land scarcity is the major issue that
limits the development. It is an example of developing city that struggles with
overpopulation, inadequate housing, employment, transportation and environmental quality
[Cybriwsky and Ford, 2001]. The post-colonial period for Jakarta initiated massive
development efforts, undertaken by various agents, such as governmental institutions, large
and small private companies at local, regional, national, and global level.
Figure 4: Dispersed locations of tall buildings in Jakarta and relationship to low-rise

(Source: Google Earth).
Tall buildings have been widely used for commercial and residential functions in
Jakarta to address the issues of land scarcity and enormous population, as seen in Figure 4.
The investments consisted of combinatory funds, where the local government, private firms,
and often foreign funds were used. The transfer of knowledge was evident in the stylistic
expressions of forms, where modern, postmodern, regional and traditional characteristics
have been used.
Three economic sectors are rapidly developing in Jakarta—manufacturing, which is
mostly located in the periphery; finance, which is located in the urban core; and property,
including large-scale housing and new town development projects in the outskirts, and
offices, hotels, residential tall buildings and retail in the center. The development efforts
have been “highly supported by the existing infrastructures, including the international
airport, seaports, telecommunication, electricity, water supply, local transportation, and
social amenities”
[Firman, 1998]. The development of large-scale housing projects and new towns in the
periphery has intensified the interaction with the urban core, since the new developments
are socio-economically dependent on the center. This has increased transportation problems
and congestion.
Dubai: International Commercial Center

Dubai is located on the Persian Gulf and is one of the fastest growing cities in the
word [Al Marashi and Bhinder, 2008]. Over the last thirty five years it has transformed from a
traditional to modern economy due to the oil industry. Especially during the last ten years,
rising prices of oil have resulted in immense influx of commercial activity in this region,
resulting in unprecedented growth and expansion. Davids et al. [2008] state:
A casual observer in Dubai would say that this was simply a shallow display of
wealth fuelled by selling oil. However, living and working in Dubai we discover
a more startling reality, that it is an act of Nation Building. For a nation being
born, these built forms can be as important as grains of sand to an oyster.
They provide a sense of place where such a sense did not exist, and
something to share where a wider sense of community has no roots.
Evidently, development of Dubai as a major commercial center required the identity of this
urban environment to represent prosperity, prominence, wealth, and globalization. In this
context, urban development is a major concern for policy makers, planners, public officials,
and environmental advocates [Al Marashi and Bhinder, 2008]. Tall buildings are dominant
element in Dubai today, as seen in Figure 5. Combination of factors, such as rapid
development, economical growth, low construction cost, and globalization, has caused this
particular type to be widely adopted. Mixed use towers are mostly developed, providing
commercial, office, hotel and residential functions.
Figure 5: Tall buildings in Dubai and current developments (Credit: Paul Armstrong).
Some people have observed that the City of Dubai is buildings supertall buildings
(such as Burj Dubai) and planning other mega-projects (such as the Waterfront City) too
rapidly without adequate consideration to the infrastructure to its future sustainability. The
consequences, however, remain to be seen.
A reference may be made for the cities near Dubai. Abu Dhabi and Bahrain are to a
lesser extent following Dubai’s lead. We will witness more tall buildings in these cities. The
city of Amman has pursued distinctive development that demonstrated both the interactions
of global market forces and local conditions. The global and geopolitical force stems from the
competitive environment that pushes the city towards being an attractive venue for foreign
investment in conjunction with reducing restrictions for free enterprise [Abu-Ghazalah,
2008]. Such attitudes are reflected in the proposed strategic plan for Greater Amman City
2007-2025.
New Songdo City: Sustainable City

New Songdo City is located in Incheon around sixty kilometers from Seoul. It is a new,
master planned development designed and planned as an international business district on
reclaimed land. It is currently under construction, and will be connected to Incheon
International Airport. It has been designed for 75,000 residents and 300,000 commuters.
Being the first international real estate development in South Korea’s history, it is poised to
help South Korea at becoming the commercial epicenter of North Asian regional markets,
among China, Japan, and Russia.
Figure 6: Tall buildings and open space in Song Do City
(Credits: Gale International/KPF Associates PC).
Prior to the development of Songdo City, Korean government initiated a plan to

develop International Free Economic Zone (IFEZ) that links Northeast Asia to global
economies. Convenience and accessibility in transportation were the key elements for site
location. The plan for the city includes commercial, residential, mixed and green space, as
seen in Figure 6. The city includes forty percent of open green space, where about one half
of that area is located in the center, and the other on the outskirts.
The master plan promotes technology, sustainability and internationally-designed
buildings. The quality of life has been the central factor in the design. Whitman et al. [2008]
state:
In a region dominated by a boom of large scale urban growth and a new order
of magnitude of pollution and congestion issues, the need to accommodate
the trend towards urbanization in a more sustainable fashion is increasingly
paramount. Adapting sustainability onto existing urban landscapes can be
extremely challenging, which is why the opportunity to create a new city from
the ground up represents such a significant opportunity.
The major factors influencing Songdo City development are sustainable development
practices, integration of urban planning, infrastructure engineering, and architecture. Long-
term sustainability is considered to be future-oriented design, where systems should be
adaptable to changing needs, such as site planning, energy, waste and the impact on larger
environment. Social aspects are also important, since the effort is to design transit-oriented
development that creates social vibrancy and connectivity, embraces culture, and creates
economic creativity.
The planning of the city is well thought out. It encompasses a variety of densities,
ample green space, streetscapes with character and rhythm, sustainable transportation and
adequate infrastructure. The neighborhoods of the city extend out from both sides of the
city center. Mixed-use projects and lower scale commercial development buffer the outlying
residential neighborhoods. The transition of land use from high-rise commercial to mid-rise
residential/commercial to low-rise residential/amenity is designed to create a vibrant urban
environment and an enjoyable urban life.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Well planned cities contain tall buildings at appropriate locations, since this particular
building type reduces the demand placed on natural resources. Integration of cities and tall
buildings is a crucial factor for cities that are experiencing population increase, land scarcity,
and even economic prosperity. The performance of both tall buildings and cities can be
enhanced by appropriate measures, such as resource conservation, waste reduction, and
infrastructure planning. Improved urban life depends on a city in balance based on the
holistic design methodology, where the following factors should be considered:
 Reasons for building tall;
 The availability of land;
 Socio-economic factors;
 Environmental factors;
 Contextual aspects;
 Population growth;
 Cultural and social context;
 Urban character and skyline; and
 Historic character and heritage.
In terms of planning, following considerations should be addressed:
 Strength of planning and development regulations;
 The availability of urban services;
 Upkeep and expansion of existing infrastructure;
 Sun and shadow control;
 Resource distribution patterns;
 Transportation and communication developments;
 Levels of local and national development;
 Development policies and strategies; and
 Future projections.
Tall buildings have a major role to play in a city. They must cater to a city’s needs
and respond to the context. Both tall buildings and cities should demonstrate
reciprocity in which they mutually benefit each other and equivalence in which one of
them does not outpace the growth of the other. Tall buildings are essentially a vertical
progression of a city. The combination of urban environment and tall buildings is an
interdependent relationship as each helps define the other. Integration of tall buildings
and cities is the key to a better urban life.
Tall buildings give cities an identity, while cities determine how a tall building will
be viable and be constructed giving it a meaning. As a land-use strategy, tall buildings
maximize building area with a minimum physical footprint. Extreme compactness drives
environmental economy. When developments expand vertically, public space,
agricultural lands, and wilderness remain untouched. Commercial and residential
towers free the ground plane for the development of ample green space within density
that supports connectivity and social vibrancy. For a city to be sustainable, it must
consider how it will grow and develop planning guidelines for the efficient utilization of
its land mass. Cities cannot afford to grow horizontally without jeopardizing agriculture
and other industries that support the inhabitants. This is particularly true in developing
countries where megacities are already placing greater pressure on existing land, water,
economic, and environmental resources. What is needed now are new ways of
integrating city design with the process of economic and social change [Barnett, 1986].
A sense of well-being in tall buildings is associated with the availability of ample
daylight, connection with outside environment and the view. The ability to control the
immediate environment improves overall satisfaction of occupants. For high-rise
buildings in particular, transportation, safety, and feeling of being part of the natural
environment on the ground are keys to an enjoyable and satisfying urban life.

Slender Columns

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Slender Columns

Reinforced concrete wall

Reinforced concrete wall is designed as a compression member. Reinforced concrete wall is

 Plain concrete wall, when reinforcement < 0.4%

 Axially loaded wall

Classification of Concrete Walls:

 Plain concrete wall

 Reinforced concrete wall

Braced and Unbraced Concrete Walls:

Strut-and-Tie Model Analysis

 Struts and ties are proportioned to resist their design forces.

Difference Between Deep Beams & Simple Beams

 Stiffness Matrix Method

Direct Strength Method

• Practical advantages of DSM:

– no effective width calculations,

– no iterations required, and

– uses gross cross-sectional properties.

• Theoretical advantages of the DSM approach:

– explicit design method for distortional buckling,

– includes interaction of elements (i.e., equilibrium and compatibility between

– explores and includes all stability limit states.

• Philosophical advantages to the DSM approach:

– encourages cross-section optimization,

– provides a solid basis for rational analysis extensions,

– potential for much wider applicability and scope, and

• Limitations of DSM (as implemented in AISI 2004)

– No web crippling provisions

– No provisions for members with holes

– Limited number/geometry of pre-qualified members

– No provisions for strength increase due to cold-work of forming

• Practical Limitations of DSM approach

– Overly conservative if very slender elements are used

– Shift in the neutral axis is ignored

• Limitations of finite strip method

– Cross-section cannot vary along the length

– Loads cannot vary along the length (i.e., no moment gradient)

• members • sheeting • sandwich panels

If compared with conventional metallic member, thin-walled CF elements are mainly

1. the constant thickness of the formed section

2. the relatively high width-to-thickness ratio of the elements

3. the variety of cross-sectional shapes.

• local buckling of the compression parts

• interaction between local and overall buckling modes

• shear-lag and curling effects

Rectangular flat element with: • length L • width b • uniform thickness t

 Before reaching the elastic buckling is uniform in the element

Post buckling behaviour : Nonlinear theory : EFFECTIVE WIDTH METHOD

The effective width method takes the post-buckling capacity into account.

Design of Steel Beams

The following points should be considered in the design of a beam.

LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

14.5 DESIGN OF LATERALLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

In the beginning of design, the permissible bending stress in tension, σ bt or in

Example 14.1 The effective length of compression flange of simply supported beam MB

Step 1: Permissible bending stress

Mean thickness of compression flange tf =T= 17.2 mm

Thickness of web tw=10.2 mm

Step 2: Load supported over beam

Step 3: Load supported over beam

Example 14.2 Design a simply supported beam to carry a uniformly distributed load of 44

Step 1: Load supported, bending moment and shear force

Uniformly distributed load = 44 kN/m