A Manual For Northern Woodsmen PDF

A MA NU A L
FO R N O R T HE R N W O O D S M E N
A M A NU A L
FO R
NO R T H E R N W O O D S M E N
A US T IN C AR Y
Recentl y A ss istant Professor of Forestry
in Harvard Umversit y
REVI SE D E DITION
CA MB RID GE
HAR V ARD U NI VER S ITY PRE SS
1 9 18
FI RST E D I T ION
C O PY R I G H T 1 9 0 9
,
B Y AU ST I N CA RY
O ne t h ou san d co pi es issu e di J n anuary , 1 909

O ne th
ou sand co pi es issu e di J n anu ary , 1 9 10
O ne th d
o u san co pi es issu e d in J l y u , 19 1 1
F iv e h nd d
u re co pi e s is su e d in A g u u st , 1 9 15
RE VI SE D E D I T ION
C O Y GH 1 9 1 8
P RI T,
B Y AUST IN CARY
O ne t hous a nd pi issu d in J nu
co es e a ary , 1 9 18
R NTE D
P THE
I AT
HA VAR D U NIV
R TY PR E S E RSI S
CAM DG MA ss U s A
B RI E, .
, . . .
PR E FA C E
THE re c e p t i o n r d e d t his b o o k s in c e it wa s fi rs t
ac c o
is su e d in 1 9 0 9 p a rt i c u l a rly t h e app re c ia t i o n e xp re ss e d
,
by n u mer o u s w o o d s me n ha s b ee n gr a t ify i n g L e t ter s

, .
o f c o mme n d a t i o n ha v e b ee n re c e i v e d fr o m u s er s in
a ll p a rt s o f t h e c o u n t ry It is s ig n ifi c an t t ha t t he
.
fir s t t y p o gr ap h i c a l err o r d i s c o v ere d ( a w r o n g fi g u re
in a l o g a ri t h m i c t abl e ) w a s p o i n t e d o u t by a r an ger
o n t h e l a rge s t t r ac t o f u n s u r v e y e d t i mb er l a n d in t h e
'
Un i t e d S t a t es in Id a h o The s e c o n d c o rre c t i o n Wa s
, .
s e n t in by a C a n a d i a n c r u iser .
The i nc i d e n t s j u s t me n t i o n e d ill u s tr a t e t h e w i d e
d i s t ri bu t i o n o f t he v o l u me a nd e xp l a i n t he p rese n t
e x t e n s i o n o f it A s o rigi n a lly w ri t t e n t h e b o o k d id
.
,
n o t a im a t c ir c u l a t i o n w es t o f t he La k e s t a t e s ; b u t
fr o m t h e fi r s t a l a rge p ar t o f t h e d e m a n d f o r it c a m e
'
f r o m W es t er n er s c h ie fly t ho se e mp l o y e d in t h e
,
Un i t e d S t a t es Fo re s t S er v i c e R e v isi o n s h a v e b e e n
.
g u i d e d l a rgel y by t h i s f a c t a n d t h a t is t r u e es p e c i a l ly
,
o f t he p re s e n t a n d fi rs t c o n s i d er a b le re v i s i o n , fo r
a s i d e f r o m b ri n gi n g t h e w o r k u p t o d a t e a s c o n c er n s
a pp li a n c e s a n d m e t ho d s w h i c h h a v e c o m e i n t o u se
s i n c e t h e fir s t e d i t i o n wa s w ri t t e n t he n e w ma t t er
,
a n d t ab l e s w h i c h h a v e b ee n i n t r o d u c e d a re ma i n l y
i n t e n d e d f o r t he b e n e fi t o f wes t er n wo o d s men A s a.
re su l t ma t eri a l a d d i t i o n s h av e b ee n mad e u n d er t h e
,
h e ad s To p o grap h i c M ap s a n d T i mb er E s t i m a t ing .
vi P R E FAC E
The b o ok h o we v er is n o t ma t eri a lly in c re ase d

, ,
b u lk nor h as t h ere b ee n any c h a n ge in i t s c h ief p u r

,
p ose w h i c h is t o ser v e t he me n who are c a rry ing t he

,
l oa d o f a c t u a l t i m b er w o r k in t h is c o u n t ry To t h ese
.
me n in w h a t e v er se c t i o n t hey are a n d w h a t e v er may

, ,
h av e b ee n t h e ir tr a i n i n g t he au t h o r e x t e n d s gree t i n g
, .
C O NTE NTS
PART I . LAN D S URVEYING

PA G E
S E CTI ON I . T HE SUR VE YO R
’
s C OMP AS S
1 T he I nstrument
.
2 Ad j ustments o f the C o mpass

.
3 Keeping the C o mpas s in O rd er

.
SE C TI ON II . MAGNETI C N E E DL E
T HE
SE CTI ON III M EAS U R EM E NT OF DIS T ANC E
.
1 T he Survey o r s C ha in
’
.
2 T he T a pe
.
3 M arkin g Pins
.
4 C haining Practic e
.
5 Bl eas uring In acces sibl e L in e s

.
6 Sta d ia M e as ure ment

.
7 Units o f D i stanc e and Ar ea

.
SE CTI ON IV S UR VE YI NG PR A CTI C E
.
1 R unnin g a C o mpas s L i n e ( B acksight Picke ting

.
, ,
Need le)
Q T ry L in es
.
-
3 M arking L ine s and C o rn ers

.
4 O rig in a l Surveys a nd R e surv ey s

.
5 Age o f Spo t s or B la ze s
.
6 Not e s
.
7 Party a nd C o st
.
SE CTI ON V C OMPUT ATI ON AN D O FFI C E W OR K

.
1 TTave rse
.
2 A re a
.
3 Plo tting
.
S E CTI ON VI O N T HE B E AR ING OF LINES

.
S E CTI ON VII O N O BTAI NING T HE M E R IDI AN

LAN
.
S EC TI ON VIII T HE UNI T E D STATE S PU B LI C

. D
viii C ONT E NT S
PA RT II . F O RE ST MAPS
S E CTI ON I T HE TR ANS IT
.
1 A dj ustment s
.
2 C are O f t h e T rans it
.
3 Stad i a M easu rement

.
4 Us e s o f t h e T rans it
.
5 Summary
.
S E CTION II T HE L EV E L
.
1 A dj ust ment s
.
2 Use s o f t h e L eve l
.
S E CTI ON III T HE HAND L EV E L A ND C LINOM E TE R

.
S E CTION I V C OM PAS S A ND PA CING

.
S E CTI ON V THE TR AVE RS E B OAR D

.
SE CTI ON VI T H E ANER OI D B AR OM E T ER
.
S E CTI ON VII M E T HO DS O F MAP MA KI NG

.
1 Intro d u ct o ry
.
2 Small T ract s
.
3 L arge T ract s
.
A W ith L and alre ady subdivi d ed

.
B B a sed o n Survey o f R o ad s o r Strea ms

.
C Su bd iv i si o n a nd Surv ey c o mbined
.
D W es t ern To p o graphy Us é o f C l ino m e t er

. .
S E CTI ON VIII ADVANTAGES OF A MAP SYS T EM

.
PA RT III . L O G A ND W OOD M EASUREME NT

S E CTI ON I C U B I C C ONTE NTS
.
S E CT ION II C OR D W OOD RU LE
.
S E CTI ON III NEw HA M PS HI R E RULE

.
SE CTI ON I V B OAR D M E AS UR E
.
1 Genera l
.
2 S crib ner a nd D ec i mal R ul es

.
3 Sp aul ding o r C o l umb ia R i v er R ul e

.
4 D o yle R u l e
.
5 M a i ne R u le
.
6 Ne w B run swick R u l e
.
7 Qu eb ec R u l e
.
8 T he o ry o f Scal e R ule s a nd C la rks I nt ernatio na l

’
.
L o g R ul e
S E CTI ON V NE W YORK STANDAR D RU L E
.
S E CTI ON VI SCALING PR A CTI CE

. .
SE CTI ON VII MI LL TAL L I ES .
SE CTI ON VIII C OR D M EAS UR E.

C ONT E NT S
SEC TION I INTR O DU CTI ON

.
SE CTI ON II INS TR UM ENTAL HE L PS

.
S EC TI ON III HEI GHT ME AS UR EM ENT

.
S EC TI ON I V VOLU ME TAB L ES AN D TR E E F OR M
.
S EC TI ON V PR A C ITC E OF TIM B ER ES TIM ATI NG

.
A Small and Valuabl e T racts

.
B Larger a nd L e ss Valu ab l e T racts

.
1 Type a nd Pl o t Sy st em
.
Q T h e Stri p Syst em
.
3 L in e and Plo t Sy st em
.
D Pa c ific C o ast M e tho ds

.
S E C T IO N I . Ta bl es l
re at n i g t o P a rt s I a nd II
STADI A R E DU C TI ONS
SOLUTI ON OF TR IAN GL ES
T R AV ERS E TA B L ES
LO GAR I T HMS OF N UM B ERS
L OGAR IT HMI C SINES C OS INIS , , TAN GENTS , A ND Co
P
S NATU R AL SINES A ND C OS IN ES
Q NATU R AL TANGENTS AND C OTANGENTS
P S PE CIM EN L ET TEREVG
S E C T ION II . Ta bles re l a tin

g t o P a rts III an d IV
VOLU OF C YL IN DERS (LO GS ) IN C U BI C

ME F E ET
AR E AS OF C IR CLES O R B AS AL AR E AS
C OR D W OO D RU L E
NE W HAMPS HI R E RU L E
SCR I B NE R LOG RU L E LE GAL m MINNE S O TA

,
DE CIM AL RU L E O F THE U S F OR ES T S ER VI C E
. .
DO YLE R U L E
MAI NE LOG RUL E
QUE B EC R U LE
C ONTE NTS
I2 . C LARK S I NTE R NATI ONA L R U L E

’
13 . S PAU L DING R U L E OF C OLU M B IA R IVER

I4 . B R I TIS H C OLUM B IA R U LE
15 . V OL U M E TA B L E S
A . E astern
1 . W hit e Pin e by t he S cribner R ul e 26 1
2, 3 . R e d ( No rwa y ) Pi ne by t he Sc r ibn er R ul e 2 62
W hit e Pi ne as sawe d In M a s sac hu se tt s 2 63
W hit e Pin e in C o rd s 26 4
Sp ru c e in C u b i c Fee t 2 64
Spru c e in Fee t B oard M easur e
, 2 65
Sp ru c e in C o rd s 26 6
Heml o ck by t he S c rib ner R ul e 26 7
10 . He ml ock as saw e d in Ne w Hamp shire 2 68
11 . W hit e (p aper) B irch in C o rd s 268
12 . R e d O ak as sa we d in New Hamp shire 26 9
13 . Peel e d Po p l ar in C o rd s 27 0
14 S ec o nd Gro w th Hard W o o d s in C o rd s 27O
Wd
.
15 . Fo rm Height Fa c t o rs fo r So u thern Ha rd oo s 27 1
1 6, 1 7 . No rthern Ha rd W o o ds in B oard M ea s ure 2 72 , 273
18 . Lo ngl eaf Pine in B o ard M easur e 27 4
19 . Lo bl olly Pin e by t he S cribn er R ul e 2 75
B . W estern; Notes o n W est ern Vol u me Ta bl es 276

20 W e s t e rn W hit e Pi n e in B o a rd Fee t
. 28 1
21 W est ern Y e llo w Pi n e in B o a rd Fee t
. 22
32
22 W es t ern Y ell o w Pi ne ( 1 6 fo o t l o g l engths)
.
-
283
23 Lo d gep o l e Pi n e in Fee t B o ard M ea s u re
.
, , an d
in R a il ro a d Ti es .
24 . W est ern Larch in B o ard M ea s u re

25 . E ngel mann Sp ru c e in B o ard M ea sur e
26 . D o ug la s Fir o f t he C o a st
27 . D o u gla s Fir o f t he I nt erio r
28 . W ashingt o n Heml o ck in B o a rd M ea su re
29 . W ashi ngt o n R e d C e dar in B o ard M e a su re
30 . C alifo rnia S u gar Pi ne in B o ard M easu re
S E C TIO N III . M iscella neou s Ta bl es a nd I nf orma tion
I . RU LE S FOR AR E A A ND V O LU M E OF DI FFER E NT
FI GU R E S
2 . W E I GHT O F MA TE R IA LS .
3 . HA NDY E QU IVA LE NTS

C ONT E NT S X1
PAGE
OF P LANTS PE R ACR E DI FF E R E NT
S PA CI NG
5 . C OM POU ND I NTE R E S T TA
B LE
6 . TIME I N W HI CH A SU M W I LL DOU B LE
7 . TAB LE OF WA GE S A T GIV E N RATE S PE R MO
NTH
8 . THE B I LTMOR E STI C K
PA RT I
LA N D SU RVE YI N G
PART I . LAND SURVEYING
S E CTI ON I T H E SUR V E YOR S C OMPAS S

.
’
l T h e I nstru me nt
.
2 A d j u stme nts o f t h e C o mp
.
pass
3 Kee ping t h e C o mp ass In O rd e r
.
S E CTI ON II T HE MA GNE TI C N E E DL E
.
SE CTI ON III M E AS UR E M E NT OF DIS TAN C E

.
1 T h e S urvey o r s C hain
’
.
2 Th e T ape
.
3 M arking Pi ns
.
4 C hai ni ng Pra cti c e

5 Bl e asur ing I n a c c e s sibleLi ne s
.
6 Sta di a M e asu reme nt

.
7 Units O f D i stanc e a nd Area

.
S E CTI ON I V S UR VE YI NG PRA CTI C E

.
1 R un ni ng a C o mpass L i ne (B acksight Picketing

.
, ,
Nee dle )
2 T ry L i nes
.
-
3 M arki ng L i nes a nd C o rners

.
4 O rig
.
g i n a l S urv ey s a n d R e s u rv e ys
5 Age o f Spo t s o r B laze s

.
6 No te s
.
7 Pa rty a nd C o st
.
S E CTI ON V C OM PUTATI ON AN D OFFI C E WOR K

.
1 T rav ers e
.
2 A re a
.
3 Pl o tti ng
.
S E CTION VI O N T H E B E ARI NG OF LI NE S
.
S E CTI ON VII O N O BTAI NI NG T H E M E R IDI AN

.
S E CTI ON VIII T H E UNI TE D STAT ES P U B LI C LAND

.
A MA NUA L
FO R N O R THE RN W O O DS M E N
PA R T I . L A N D S U R V E Y IN G
S U RV E Y ING in forest land as compared with work done in

towns and on farms is carried out under unfavorable cir
c u mst an ce s .I n the first place timber and brush growth
,
O ffer an O bstruction to sighting ; second the work is O ften ,
done far from a wel l supplied base ; third t he limits O f ,
cost allowed are O ften t he lowest practicable T h e se con .
dit io n s have a strong e ffect upo n the methods employed ,
and they also affect the choice of outfit E quipment for .
suc h work should not usually be expensive it should be ,
as compact and portable as possible an d it should not ,
be so delicate or so complicated as to be likely to get

seriously out of order and so hold up a job .
SE C TIO N I
THE SURVE YO R S C O MPASS’
C omp a s s an dare th e instruments that at present

Ch a in
are most large ly e mployed in forest land surveying and ,
there IS littl e doubt that they will continu e to be so em

ployed T he compass is one of the mainstays of th e
.
practical woodsman H e should thoroughl y understand

.
its capacities and limitations and should have perfect

,
command of all parts of his o wn particula r instrument .
1 T HE INS TR UM E NT
’
T he essential parts of the surveyor s compass are a
mag ne t ic nee d l e for finding a meridian line a horizontal ,
graduated c ir c l e for laying off angles from this meridian ,
and s igh t s attached for use in prolongin g lines on the

ground .
2 A MAN U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS M E N
T heneedle in compasses used for surveying purposes is

commonly between four and s ix inches in length I t rests .
by a jeweled bearing at its center upon a steel pivot screwed

into the compass plate and turning freely in the horizon
, ,
tal plane its e nds traverse the graduated circle T he plane

,
.
of the sights pass e s through the cent e r of th e circle and ,
cuts its circumfe rence at two points marked N and S ,
known as the north and sout h points of the instrum e nt .
°
From these points the graduation of the circle runs 9 0 in
eac h direction to the points marked E and W T h e s e .
P A I N SU
L R VE Y O R S C OM PAS S
’
’
points on the face of the surveyor s compass are reversed
from their natural position for convenience in reading
bearings .
I n u s in g t he c om p a s s p o in t t he n o rt h e n d o f t he
,
c ir c l e f o rw ar d al o n g t he l in e and r e a d f r om t he n o r t h
e n d o f t he n e e d le
.
.
A com p a s s b e ar in g is the direction from the observer at

’
T HE S UR V E Y OR S C O M P AS S 3
th e compass to any given object referred to t h e meridian .
I t is read as so many degr e es from the N or S direction ,
up to as N 1 0 W S 8 8 1 5 E T he graduations on
°
,
°
,
’
.
a surveyor s compass are comm only in h alf degrees but it

’
is usual if necessary to set by estimation quarter degree

, , ,
or courses A bearing can be set however with a

.
, ,
surveyor s compass in first class order to about

’
-
,
A compass ne e dl e that is in good working order

tak e s som e little t ime to settle and its condition may be ,
told by the freedom and activity with which it moves .
T ime can be saved in setting it by checking its motion

with the lifting screw I n its final settlement however .
, ,
it must be l eft fre e For important bearin gs it is well to

.
,
let it settle two or more t imes independently .
A glass plate covers the compass bo x and two small

levels placed at right angles to each other are used to set
the instrument in the h orizonta l plane I t is very de .
sirable that the b o x of a compass empl oyed for w oods

work should be as nearly watertight as possible In .
general make u p the in stru ment is subject to considerable

-
,
variation .
The plate of the P l a in S ur v e y or s C omp as s is prolonged

’
in the north and south direction into arms on which t he

sights are supported at a distance of twelve to sixt een
inches apart T he actual sighting is done thr ough fine
.
vertical slits and round apertures placed at intervals along

,
these are convenient for finding objects and for gett ing t he
instrument approx imately In line .
T he V e rn ie r C om p a s s has t h e cir cle and th e sights

upon separate plates which may be turned on one another
for 2 0 or more I ts advantage consists in the fact that
°
.
declination or a change in declination may be set O ff

, , ,
and the courses of an old surv e y set directly or lines re ,
ferred to the true rather than the magnetic meridian .
T he F o l d in g S ig h t C om p as s possesses the ad v a n
-
tages of light weight and th e utmost compactness and is ,
therefore pop ul ar among woodsmen T he sights are set .
upon t h e edge of the compass box and fold down across ,
its face w hen not in use t he w h ole instru ment wit h its ,
mountings slipp ing into a leather case w h ich may read ily
4 A M AN U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS M E N
be carried in the pack or slung from the shoulder A .
fold ing sight compass with too small a box and needle Of
-
less than full length should not be employed on work of

importance as it is impossible with such an instrument to
,
read bearings and set marks with accuracy .
C ompasses are either mounted on a tripod or fitted for

attachment to a single staff called a J aco b staff which -
,
the surveyor may mak e for himself when needed from a , ,
straight sapling T he former is the firmer mounting and

.
better adapted to accurate work but the latter is much ,
more portable except on bare rocks is more quickl y set u p

, ,
and is generally employed for the ordinary work of t he

forest surveyor .
2 . ADJU S TM E NTS C O M PAS S

O F T HE
A compass in fir st -
class order will meet the fol lowing
tests
a . T he plate must be perpendicular to the a xis of the
socket .
b T he
. plane of the level bubbles must be perpendicular
to the same axis .
0. The point of the pivot must be in the center of the

graduated circle .
d T he needle must be straigh t

. .
e. T he sights must be perpendicular to t h e plane of the

bubbles .
I n these tests it is presupposed that the circle is accurately

graduated and that the plane of the sights passes through
the zero marks T hese are matters that belong to th e.
maker of instruments and in all modern compasses accu ,
rat e adjustment of th e m may be assumed .
T he general principle of almost all instrumental adjust

ments is the Pr in c ip le of R e v e r s ion w he re b y t he e rr or ,
is d ou b l e d an d at t he s ame t im e ma d e mo re ap p are n t .
T horough mastery of t h is principle will generally enable

one to think out the proper met h od of adjusting all parts
of any surveying instrument In t he case of the compass .
the above named te sts may be applied and the instrument

-
adjusted as follows The order of th e ad justments is .
essent ial .
’
TH E S U R V E Y OR S C O M P A SS 5
a . The
plate is e xactly vertical to t h e spin dle in a new
co mpass but t he soft meta l of most instruments is liable
,
in use to be come bent If t h at occurs to a ny considerable

.
degree it w ill be shown by the needl e and the bubbles

, .
The instrument should then be s e nt to the maker for repairs .
b T o make the plane of the level bubbles pe rpendicular

.
to t h e axis of the socket level the instrument turn it , ,
and if the bubbles are out correct one half the move ment
, ,
of each by means of the adjustin g screw at the end of the -
bubble—case Now level up a gain and revolv e

. when
the bubbles sho ul d remain in the center If they do not .
,
adjust for half the movement again and so cont inue until
th e bubbles remain in the center of their tube s for all posi
tions of the plate .
0 d, When the pivot is in t h e center of the c ircle and

.
the needle is straight the two ends of the needle will cut
,
°
th e circle exactly 1 80 apart in whatever position the in
strument may be set If the needle does not so c u t one
.
,
or both of these conditions is not fulfilled If the differ .
ence between the two end readin gs is constant for all posi
tions of t he nee dl e then the pivot is in th e center of the
,
circle but the nee dl e is bent If t he difference in readin gs .
is variable for d ifi e re nt part s of the circle then t h e pivot is

’
,
off cente r and t he needl e may or m ay not be straight .
T o adjust the pivot first find the position of the nee dl e

,
which gives the maximum difference O f end read ings ;

then using the smal l brass wr e nch commonl y supplied
,
with the compass bend the pivot a little be low the point at
,
right angles to the direction O f the nee dl e un til one half

the difference in end readin gs is corrected R epeat t he .
test and adjust again if necessary W hen the needl e cut s .
oppo site degrees or when it fails to do that by a constant

,
quantity in all parts of the circle the pivot point is in the ,
correct position .
W it h the above adjustment attended to straigh ten the ,
needl e T o do this set the north end of the needle on some

.
,
graduation mark and bend the needl e until the sout h end
°
cuts the C ircle exactly 1 8 0 from it .
e .T o make the sights perpe ndicular to t h e plane of the

bubbles level the instrument carefull y hang a plumb
, ,
6 A MANU AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS M E N
line some feet away and then look through the sights upon
,
it I f the plumb line appears to travers e the forward slit

.
exactly that sight is in adjustment If not file O ff the bas e

,
.
,
of the sight unt il the adjustment does come T hen revolve .
°
the compass 1 80 and test the other sight in the same
manner .
3 . KE E PIN G
COM PAS S IN O R DE R T HE
Shar p e n in g P iv o t T he pivot or center pin of a compass

.
much in use is liable to become dulled so that th e needle

does not swing freely T o obviate this th e needl e shoul d
.
always be raised O ff the pivot wh e n the compass is be ing

carried A much blunted pivot should be handed over to a
.
jeweller to be turned down in a lathe but ordinary sharp ,
e n in can readil be accomplished b the surve or him

g y y y
self with the aid O i a fine Wh e tstone and the smal l wrench
usuall y supplied with a compass or a pair of pliers T he , .
pivot s h ould be removed from the compass box and fix ed

in the end of a small split stick ; the point m ay then be
,
s h arpened by twirling it gently on the stone at an angle of

°
about 30 with its surface When the point is mad e S O .
fine and sharp as to be invisible to the e ye it shou ld be ,
smoothed by rubbing it on the surface of a soft clean ,
piece of leather .
R e m ag ne t iz in g Ne e d l e Dulness of the needle may .
be due to the fact that it has lost its magnetism and needs
to be recharged For this purpose a p e rmanent magnet is
.
required The north end of the needl e S hould be passed

.
several times along that pole of th e magnet which attracts

it and the south end passed similarl y over the opposite
,
pole The passes should be made from cent er to end of

.
the needle and a circle described in brin ging the two e nds
,
successive ly into contact I n order to pr e vent the loss of

.
magn e tism the n ee dl e O f a compass not in use for a con

,
s id e ra bl e time should lie in the north and south direction .
B al an cin g Nee d l e T he ne e dl e is comm only balanced

.
on the pivot by a fine brass W ir e wound aroun d the south

end If chang e O f latitude is made the balance will be
.
,
destroyed and the wir e may be shift e d to make adjustment

, .
Re p l ac in g Gl as s I n case of emergency a piece O f win

.
,
T HE MA GN E T I C N E E D LE 7
dow glass may be cut down with a diamond and ground

on a grindstone to fit its settin g I t may then be set in .
place with putty if possible and the binding ring sprung

, ,
into place over it .
S E C TIO N II
THE MA GNE TI C NEEDLE
All compass surveying is based on the tendency of the
magnetic needle to point north and south T he direction .
of the nee dl e however is V e ry far from being constant

, , .
S e c ular C h an ge T here is a belt of country crossing

.
the United States in a g e neral north and south direction

through the states of M ichigan O hio and S outh C arol ina , ,
along which the needle at the present t ime points due nort h
’
toward the earth s pol e T his be lt is called the a g on ic .
l ine o r l in e o f n o v ar ia t io n
, E ast of this line the needle .
points westward of true north ; west of this line it points

to the eastward of it T he direction from any place toward
.
’
the pole O f the earth s revolution is for that place the tr u e
me r id ian T he dir e ction tak e n by th e needle is the mag
.
ne t ic m e r id ian T he angl e between the two is called the

.
d e c l inat io n of t he ne e d l e west if the nee dl e po ints west of ,
true north e ast if the needle points east O f it T he declina

, .
tion is gr e ater the farther the agonic line is departed from ,
°
amounting to more than 2 0 in the marit ime provinces and
the P uget S ound country T he agonic lin e is not sta .
t io n ary but is moving slowly westward as it seems to h av e ,
done constantly sin ce the begin ning of the last century .
The declination of the ne e dl e therefore is changing from , ,
y ear to y ear and at a different rate in different parts of the
country
T hes e facts affect the work of the land surv e yor impor
tautly and sections on the bearing of lines and on a sce r
,
ta in ing the true meridian are given later on in this

volume .
D a ily Chan gg The needl e when free and undisturbed

.
swin gs back and forth each d ay through an arc amounting

commonly in th e United Stat e s to about E arl y in the
’
mornin g from four to six O clock according to the season
, ,
8 A MAN U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS ME N
the north end of the needle begins to swing to the east ,
reaching its maximum position between eigh t and ten

O clock in the forenoon
’
I t then swings west to a ma ximum
.
’
westerly position reached from one to two O clock P M . .
T hen it swings slowly east again to a mean position reached

b e tween six and eight P M at which point it remains . .
,
practically steady during the night .
T he effect of this variation is suc h that if a surv eyor

starts a line in the morning and runs one course all d ay he ,
runs not a straight line but a long curve T his variation

, , .
,
h owever like the slight variation th a t occurs during the

,
course of the year is in woods work commonly disregard e d

, .
I rre gu l ar C han ge s T he needle is subject occasionally

.
to sudden a nd irregular change s in direction T hey some .
times o ccur during thunder storms and at other times are ,
attributed to so called magnetic storms related perhaps

-
,
to the a u rora bo realis T rouble from this source is not

.
O fte nexperienced b t h e surve or but it is a matter whic h

y y ,
needs to be understood and watched for .
L ocal A t t ra c t ion s All users of the compass are on

.
gu ard against the disturbance caused by iron in its V icinity ,
in the form for instance of chains axes and steel rails

, , , , .
I n addition there are in most countries regions O f greater

,
or less ext e nt where the nee dl e is subject to irregularities .
T hese are due to iron ore or other magnetic material located

in the V icinity or to unknown causes
, .
A local disturbance is indicated when the compass does

not read the same on the two ends of a line and in compass ,
running error from this source is guard e d against by keep

ing careful watch of th e backsight L ocal disturbances .
vary much in intensity W hen Very strong they are r e adily

.
,
detected and if confined in are a present little difficulty to

,
the surveyor who will clear out his line across th e m with
,
1
especial care and either picket through or set the compass
,
by backsight Slight disturbances are harder to detect

. .
If the area of disturbance is larg e particularly if the ground ,
is broken the compass cannot be depended on to carry a

,
line through with accuracy and a transit or solar in st ru ,
ment must be used .
Se e page 2 1 1
.
LI NE S O F UA MAG NE TI C D E C L NA
EQ L I TI O N A N D F E QUAL A NI
O
Unit ed S t t e s C oa
a s
95 Gree nwich 90
A G E IN THE U NI TE D STATES
CH N FO R 1 9 15 .
( Fro m R e p ort of
l G d t i Su v y )
eo e c r e .
ME AS U R E M E NT OF D I S TAN C E 9
E l e c t r ic it y A
little caution is necess ary in h andl ing
.
t he compass in order that t he glass cover s h all not be elec

t rifie d by the friction of clot h or the h and so as to attract ,
the needle to its under surfa c e If however t h e glass does .

, ,
become electric the trouble may be removed by b reathing

,
upon it or by touc h ing different parts of its s u rface with

,
the moistened fin ger .
Diff e re n ce in In s t r ume nt s I t is a well kn own fact th at

.
-
d ifferent instruments do not always give t he same bearing

when read on the same marks at the same time A diff er .
ence of 1 5 is not unco mmon

’
.
S ummar y The magnetic needl e is thus seen to be sub

.
j ce t to numerous variations and irregularities and on t h at ,
account work wit h the needl e compass cannot be expected

to give the most accurate results T he instrument h as .
great advanta ges however and a very large field of l e git i

, ,
mate use It gives an approximately true direction from a

.
detached po int E xcept on open ground it furnis h es t h e

.
,
quickest and cheapest means of turning an angle or pro

longing a line M ost aut h oritative land surveys have
.
been made with the needl e compass and their renewal is

best accomplished by use of the same instrument T he .
special advantages of the compass in forest conditions and

its most e ffective use therein a re discussed under th e h ead
of SUR V EY ING PRA C TI C E .
SE C TIO N III
MEASURE MEN T O F DI STANCE
T HE SU R V E Y O R
C HAIN ’
1 . S
T he word chain in connection wit h land surveying is

used to repres e nt two things : a distance of 4 rods or 6 6
feet and an instrument for measur ing distance T he
,
.
chain in use for general land surv e ying is 6 6 feet long and
divided into 1 00 l inks but woodsmen working in rough
,
ground find the 33 foot or h alf chain wit h 5 0 links muc h

more convenient .
A c h ain for surveying purposes should be made of steel

'
wire and its link s should be brazed to prevent stretching

,
by opening of the joints C hains h ave every tent h l ink

.
marked by a brass tag and these tags have one two three
, , , ,
etc teeth so that the number of links may be rea d ily and
.
, ,
accurat e ly counted .
C hains change in lengt h by use The links may be bent

’
and th e chain thus shortened a matter which can readily ,
be adjusted by hammering ; but more commonly a chain

increas e s in l e ngth from flattening of th e links and w e ar
in the num e rous joints T his may be corr e cted to a limit e d
.
extent by turning up the nuts which hold the han d les .
Further e ff ect may b e had by taking out on e or more of the

r ings which connect the links or better still by hamm ering , ,
each l ink while it is held in a vise and so distributing the ,
correction .
T he chain is so liable to change in length that provision

should be ma d e for testing it frequently A n unus e d tap e .
,
known to be of true length k e pt at home or only taken ,
O ff on long jobs is the best and most convenient safe

,
guard .
2 . T HE TAP E
Steel tapes are in wide us e for general surveying but ,
not usuall y among woodsm e n b e caus e of th e ir liability to

breakage T h e y have howev e r distinct advantages
.
, , .
T hey are light so as to be lev e led readily when m e asure

,
ment is being made on a slope T h e y do not str e tch . .
T here are no links to g e t kinked a nd so cause a false

measur e A tape for field use should b e made of steel
.
ribbon from g to inch wide and No 3 0 to 32 thick . .
W i d er and thinner tapes are a nuisance in woods

conditions .
T ap e s are made of any length and graduated to suit the

work for which they ar e designed O ne 6 6 or 33 f e et long .
,
graduated to link s will best suit the needs of the timber

,
land surveyor .
S ome precaution must be taken with steel tapes When .
in use they should be kept out at full length and never be

,
doubled on th e mselves for if doubled they are e asil y

, , ,
kinked and brok e n W hen done up th ey should be wiped

.
,
clean and d ry and so cared for as to prevent rusting A

,
.
M E A S U R E M E NT OF D I S T AN C E 11
broken tape can gen e rall y be r e paired on the ground if there

are at hand a punch a piece of another tape and some pins
, ,
to serve as rivets .
3 M AR KING P INS .
W oodsmen frequently manufacture t h eir own markin g

pins of wood or wire T hose bought from dealers are .
made O f heavy iron wire are some fif te e n inch e s in length

, ,
with one end sharpen e d and a r ing turned in the oth e r for
convenience in handling Strips of cloth are tied in the .
rings so that they can be readily seen I t is most con

, .
v e n ie n t to use elev e n pins in chaining O ne of them is .
stuck at the starting point the leading man takes ten , ,
and thus there is always one in the ground to start from

when t he tallies are finished .
C HAINING PRA C TI C E
4 .
C h a ins are standardized in len gt h at about ten poun ds

pull with the ir full length supported In woods work it is .
generall y necessary that the cha in s h ould be suspended

above the ground and not lie upon its surface C are must .
be taken therefore in accurat e measurement to give it

, , ,
p r o p e r t e n s io n What tension is proper for a suspended

.
chain , in other words what sag shoul d be allowed to

,
compensate for the str etch of the cha in under the greater
tension may be determined on perfectly smooth and lev e l
groun d and this is a valuable exercise for inexperienced
,
chainmen .
In order to get true chainage between points t he chain ,
should be kept s t ra ig ht an d f r ee f r om k in k s I t must also .
be kept in approximately tru e alignment though a con ,
°
stant error of 1 in that matt e r e quivalent to seven inches ,
error in setting pins e ach two rods of distance short ens ,
th e line by o nl y nin e and a half inches in the mile S imi .
l arly the chain mu s t b e le vell e d so as to give distance in

,
a horizontal lin e not following the contour of the ground

, .
I n this last connection that 18 in gett ing distance correctly

, ,
on slopes and over rough ground are m e t the greatest ,
difficulties in practical cha ining What is necessary is .
first to determine w h en the chain is level and second to

, ,
'
,
carry t he point occupied by t he suspended end of t he ch ain

vertically down to or up from t he mark on t he ground .
T he use of plumb l ines and plumbing rods for this pur

pose is w e ll known from standard works on surveying I t .
is common woods practice to drop a pin from the head end

of the chain and that practice when a pin loaded near the
, ,
lower end is used has been approv e d for United S tates

,
land surveys O nly one such pin is required in a set as

.
,
after it is stuck in the ground another may be substituted

for it S imilarly for the rear end O f the chain wh e n it h as
. , ,
to be held above the ground an ax held suspended beneath ,
the h an dl e with the bit turned across the line enables one
, ,
to do quick and fairly accurate plumbing For d e t e rmin .
ing when the chain is level a hand level or A bney C l in o m ,
eter suc h as is shown on page 9 3 may w e ll be put in

, ,
the hands O f the men T here is a strong tendency on the .
part of unpracticed chainmen to hold the down h ill end of -
t he chain too l o w .
I t is to be O bserved that all the above mentioned sources -
of error work in one direction namely to give too large a , ,
valuation to the distance between two points The young .

,
school trained man particularly with his aspiration after

-
,
exactness is apt to undervalue thes e sources of error and

, , ,
in consequence not give land enough , .
I n view O f all the facts and conditions particularly be ,
cause o f the pressure for cheapness in this class of work ,
many practical wo o ds surveyors have concluded that it is

best and safest not to strive after too great mechanical
exactness but to make a small constant a l l ow ance at the
,
rear end O f the chain O n the other hand the loose practices
.
,
of some O l d woodsmen such as letting the chain run out ,

’
the length of a man s arm beyond the mark have noth ing ,
to be said in their d e fense .
The ge ne r al me t h o d o f p r o ce d u re in c hain ing to be ,
modified as circumstanc e s may require is as follows , .
T he two cha inmen wil l be spoken of as head and rear

man C ommonly the rear man is th e better and more
.
,
experienced of the two and is in general charge , .
W ith one pin set at the start ing point the head man ,
takes h is end of th e c h a in or tape and ten pins and steps

M E A S UR E M E NT OF D I S T AN C E 13
o ffin t he direction of t h e line to be measured Just before

”
t he chain is all drawn out t h e rear man calls out chain
”
or h alt and prepares to hold his end of the c h ain on
,
the mark T he r e ar man lines in t he ot her by t h e com

.
,
pass a head by stakes left or by t he marks and bus h ing

, ,
TAB LE SHOWING E RROR CAU SE D BY C HAIN ING AL ONG

GRO UND O F D IFFE RE NT D E GRE E S O F SL OPE
along t h e lin e Kinks are s h aken out the ch ain is levelled

.
, ,
and proper tension is applied W hen a ll is ready and the .
rear man has his han dl e firmly held on the mark he calls ,
”
out stick to the leader who sets h is pin at once and
”
calls stuck When the rear man hears t h is signal and
.
,
no t befo re he pulls his pin and bot h men move quickl

, y
forward repeating the O peration till the head man h as
,
stuck his last pin or has reached the end O f the line .
Wh en the head man h as stuck h is last pin h e call s

tall y
. T he rear man t h en drops his end of t h e c h ain ,
counts the pins to make sure that none has been lost and , ,
going forward gives them to the head man wh o counts

,
them again T he ta lly is marked down and a stake left at

.
th e point for reference in case of a lost pin or ot her cause

of debate in t h e next tall y P ins should be set plumb and
.
, ,
in general surveying practice the point held to is the point ,

“
at which they enter the ground I n t he brus h and down .
stuff of so me woods lines h owever it is sometimes nece s

, ,
14 A MA N U AL FO R NORTH E RN W OO DS M E N
sary to ch ain by the top not the bottom of the pins No , , .
jerking of the chain should be allowed T he rear man .
should not stop the head man with a jerk T he head man .
must pull steadily on the chain when measuring .
W hen chaining on slopes which are so st e ep that the

full length of the chain cannot be lev e lled at once th e ,
h ead man first draws the chain forward th e whol e length

and in line He then drops the chain and his marking
.
pins and returns to a point where h e can level a part of the

chain T his distance is m e asur e d and one of the rear man s
.
’
pins stuck at the point The rear man then comes forward .
and taking the chain at the same point h olds it to the

, ,
mark while a second section is measured and so on till the ,
end of the chain is reached when the head man sticks one ,
O f h is o wn pins I t is not usually n e c e ssary to note the

.
lengths O f the parts of the chain measured T ake care .
only to measure to and from the same points in the chain

and not to lose the count by getting the marking pins of '
the two men mixed together .
A c c u r ac y T he requirements of woods chainage vary

.
so widely its difficulties ar e sometimes so great and the

, ,
expense permissible for the work is O ften so restricted that

only guarded statements can be ma d e as to obtainable
accuracy Wh e n chainmen measuring the same line
.
,
twice agree almost exactly it does not prove that they

, ,
have given correct chainage for two other men on t he ,
same line may get a result considerably variant R eally .
correct chainage is to be O btained only by strict attention

to the sources of error m e ntioned above their amount and ,
nature I n general it may be said that on smooth and

.
,
level ground free from obstructions chaining may be

, ,
done with error of a very few feet in the mil e O n land as .
it runs however chainage accurate to within a rod in a

, ,
mile is generally called entirely satisfactory .
S ummar y Good chaining consists in keeping t h e chain

.
of right length in true alignm e nt vertical and hori z ontal

, , ,
and in proper stretching marking and scoring I t is a , , .
very important part of all surveying which employs that

method of measuring distance and h as been badly neg ,
lec t e d in much woods work of t h e past I t needs and de .

M E A S U R E M E NT OF D I S TA N CE 15
serves good men to carry it on men who will get down to ,
the ground and take all needed pains in marking level ,
ing and alignment T h e y should be brisk men mo ving

, .
,
quickly and doing t h eir work in a prompt and bus iness

like manner M uch too dep e nds on syst e m
.
,
— o n tall
y , ,
ing passing pins etc from habit and in regular order

, , .
, .
S ome men never will make good chainmen because they

will not take sufficient pains about details A fe w in their .
strict attention to these are liable to make gross blunders .
T he man in general charge of surveying work must give

careful att e ntion to t h is part of the business C hainmen .
must be trained in good methods and watched till the y

are perfectly trustworthy while careful consideration must ,
be given to sources of error and to possible improvements

in method .
5 . M E AS UR ING INAC C E S S I BLE L INE S

P onds bogs and bl u fi s over whic h it is impossibl e to
, ,
’
,
chain are met in the practice O f nearly every surv eyor and
, ,
quick and accurate measurement across them constitutes

one of the problems which he has frequently to solve E ach .
problem of that kind has to b e solved in th e field accord ing

to the ground and circumstances T he methods commonly .
employed in suc h cases are as follows :

1 O ff s e t
. Frequently a short offset squarely to left or
.
right will clear the obstacle .
FI G . A FI G . B
2 . M e tho d b y W ith th e compass at a

45 °
A n g le .
( )
A ,
s e t a stake in the lin e at b across th e O bstruction and , ,
turning O ff an angle of set another stake on that range

16 A M A N U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS ME N
as 33 Set up at b and turning o ff a righ t angle set a

. , ,
stakec in t h e range a 32 T hen a b bc . .
3 M e t h od b y 2 6 3 4 A n g l e ( ) P rocee d as before
° ’
. B .
,
°
making the angle b a c 2 6 3 4 t h en a b 2 b c as
'
,
may be found in the table of tangents .
4 . M e t ho d b y
(C ) 30 °
A ng le .
W it h compass at a set a stake

in line at b and turning O ff an , ,
angle O f set another stake

on that range as it Set up , .
at b and turn O ff a b c =
setting a stake c in the range
FI G 0
a x . T he n a b= 2 a c .
5 . M e t ho d b y Tange nt s . D
( ) W ith the compass at a
se ta stake at b also run out a perpendicular line and set

,
a stake at c visible from b at a ny convenient distance .
Measure a c W it h the compass at b take the bearing of

.
,
c b and t h us get th e angle a b c ; I n th e table of tangents '
a c
look up th e tangent of t h is angle . T h en a b '
t an a bc
FI G E
.
6 . M e th od stake 0 may
b y Ob l iqu e Tr ian g l e .
( E ) T he
be set at any convenient point V isible from both a and b

and the angles at a and 6 measured M easure also the side .
a c or b c whic h ever is easier

, T hen a b may be computed .
as the side of an oblique triangle For formulas ne ce s .
sary se e pages 2 1 2 21 3
,
—
.
7 M e t h o d b y T r av e r se
.
( F) I n t h e case of a
. large lake
or stream several courses may be run along its banks and
, ,
when t he range of t he l ine is again struck as at e t he dis , ,

M E A S U R E M E NT OF D I S TAN C E 17
tance a e may be computed by traverse If a e runs N and .
S the distance a e will be t h e latitude of t h e traverse or

, , ,
stated in other words it will be t he sum of ,
t he products o f the cosines of the several

courses into their respe ctive distances T he .
departure of such a traverse s h ould be zero .
T hus if e is not visible from a or if it is not

, ,
convenient to take the range a e 3 may be ,
set when th e sum of the departures figures

up 0 T his process of surv eying a lake or
.
”
river shore is called meandering I t is the .
method pursued in the United States lan d

surveys on considerable bodies of water T he .
same method may also be employed to get

round a precipitous hill or som e other inac
cessible O bj e ct .
An example of th e computation necessary

for solving a problem of this kind is given on F G F I »
page 3 3 .
8 M e t h o d b y 6 0 A ng le s
°
(G) A precipitous blu ff or
‘
. .
impassable swamp may occasionally be passed most read

il y in the following manner W ith .
° ’
the compass at a l ay O fi a 60 ,
angle and run out a c carefully ,
cha ining Next making an angle

.
,
°
of 6 0 at 0 run out o b to an equal
,
distance T hen if the work has

.
,
been done accuratel y b is in the ,
line and a b a c be : .
I n working by any of thes e

methods it is be tter if possible FI G G
, ,
.
to set b in range by the compass

from a rather than to rely for the range on any process of
figuring or angulation .
6 . STA DIA M E AS U R E M ENT
A
substitute for ch aining which has to some e xt ent ,
been employed in forest land surve ying and wh ich deserves

18 A MAN U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO D S M E N
wider use is stadia measurement or the measurement o f

, ,
distance by wires placed in the focus Of a telescope and

the space which they cut o ff on a graduated rod The .
principles of this method are stated on page 77 .
For this purpose a light telescope ma y be fitted to

the rear sight of the compass as shown in th e illustra,
tion a level and vertical ,
circle being added if th e

instrument is to be u sed
on rough ground T he .
cost of such an instrument

complete is about the same
as that of a compass I ts .
adjustments will readily

be understood from its
construction a n d fr o m
consideration of the ad
justments required for the
transit .
T he advantages of this
instrument in land sur
v e in are as follows
y g
1 S ights may be taken .
on steeper ground either ,
up or down hill than can ,
be covered through com

pass sights .
2 Distances over Very .
s tee p grou n d c an be
measure d more accurately
and quickly than by use
A TE E C O C S G H T
L S
of t
PI
h e
I
chain .
3 Di s t a n c e a c r o s s.
gorges swamps and bodies of water can be O btained

, ,
directly and wit h c ase .
4 I t enables the surveyor h imself to perform all the

.
particular work on a survey and this on short jobs or

, ,
wherever reliable chainmen cannot be h ad may be a very ,
great advantage .
Stadia wires in an instrument used for land surveying

S UR VE Y ING P R AC T I CE l9
s h ould be so spaced that one foot on t he rod will be cut Off

when it is held at a distance of 6 6 feet or if the wires are , ,
fix ed the rod may be graduated to corr e spond For occa

,
.
s io n al use in land surve ying the rod may best be made ,
of pa inted canvas which in case of need may be tacked

, , ,
on any pole that comes to hand .
The S t a d ia Han d L e v e l is a simpler form of the inst ru

ment adapted to the measurem e nt of the width of gorges
,
or ponds I t is readily carri e d in the pack and when in

. , ,
use may be h e ld in the hand or mounted on a staff T he

, .
ready range of this instrument is 2 00— 3 0 0 feet .
7 . UNIT S OF DIS TANC E A ND ARE A
inches 1 link .
2 5 links 1 rod .
1 0 0 links 66 fe e t 1 c h ain .
3 20 rods 8 0 chains 1 mile .
1 6 0 square ro d s 1 0 squar e chains 1 a cre .
640 acres 1 square mil e or section .
The v a ra a measur e of S panish origin prevails in C ali

, ,
fo rn ia and in T e xas T he C alifornia vara is 3 3 inches

. .
l
T he T exas vara is 3 3 i; inches and 56 4 5 3 7 6 square varas ,
make one acre .
I n L ouisiana and t h e P rovinc e of Qu e bec the a rpent , ,
an O l d French unit is th e measure of areas T h is is 8 4 4 9

, . .
acr e .
T he hectare square meters (meter

inches ) or acre s T his is also a Frenc h measure
. .
SE C TIO N IV
SUR VEYIN G P RA CTI C E
T he r t in g p o in t of a surve y is generall y settled for a
st a
surv eyor by outside controlling circumstances W hen this .
is r e cogni z ed the n e xt thing to do m ay be to find out what

,
c ou r s e t o run b an bservation for the true meridian or

y O ,
by finding the bearing of an O l d line W ith the sta rting .
point and cou rse determ ined t he met h od of procedure is ,
about as follows .
20 A MANU AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS ME N
1 . R U NN ING A C O M PAS S L IN E
Set up the compass at the po in t from which the line is to

start ; level the plate : free the needle and when it h as ,
settled set the course to be run I t is desirable on starting

, .
a l ine to let the needle settle two or more times in d e pe n d

e nfly .
An assistant cal led the rodman or fiagman then goes

, ,
ahead with a pointed rod or flag and following him go , , ,
the axemen clearing out the bushes and other obstrue

,
tions in such a manner as to secure both a clear line of

sight and a path for the chain T he rodman may u se an .
a xe . H e guides hi mse lf at first by the compass sights later ,
by signals from the co mpassman or by the range of t h e line .
T he axemen guide their work by him .
Wh en the rodman has gone ahead a convenient distance ,
at signal from the c o mpa ssman or acting on his o wn judg

ment h e selects a spot for a second setting of the compass
, ,
attention be ing paid both to firm se tt ing and clear ground

for th e instrument and to facil ity in getting sight ahead
, .
O n uneven groun d s u mmits commonl y meet best t h is last

requirement .
Wh en setting the ro d t h e rodman shoul d face the com

,
p ass ho l d in
, g the rod plumb and d i
r e c t l in front of him
y H e .
sticks it as d irected by the c o mpa ss man who assures h im ,
se lf at the t ime that everything about the instrument is

right B efore taking up the compass the man in charge
.
,
O f it sets a stake near by and in line to be used in backs ight .
T he n e edle is then lifted and the compass taken up and ,
carried forward to be set up at t he poin t marked by the

rodman I f a Jac o b—staff is used instead O f a tripod the
.
,
compass shoul d be set up ahead of the rod with its cen

ter in line the e xact position of the foot of th e staff being
,
of no consequen ce .
T he compass is then leve l led again with its N mark

a head as before and the sights turned on the object left
at t he starting point T he needle is then freed and if
.
, ,
when it settles the bearing reads the same as before t he

, ,
surveyor is assured that t here is no local disturbance and ,
may proceed c onfidentl y The rod and axemen soo n learn .

S UR VE Y IN G P R A CT I C E 21
to range for the mselves and lose no time waiting for th e ,
set u p of t he instrument The chainmen keep beh ind th e

- .
instrument wh ere they are out of the w ay E ac h man .
learns h is e xact duties and a ll hands particularly th e com , ,
p a ssman and rodm an l e arn to work together , .
R u nn ing b y B a c k s ight T he deta ils of compass survey .
ing vary considerably in accordance with the accuracy re

quired cost allowed and th e make u p of the party doing
, ,
-
the work If local attraction is suspected or on short

.
,
lines if great accuracy is requ ired obstructions are cleared

, ,
completely out of the line and when an assumed or trial ,
course has been started it is prolonged by backsight e n ,
t ire l y reference to the nee dl e not necessarily bein g made

, .
In order to do this either a rear rodman is employed or a

,
stake is se t in line at each station occupied by the compass .
Pic k e t in g T he compass after the start indeed may not

.
, ,
be u sed at all but straight stakes preferably four to five

, ,
feet high and sharpened at both ends may be ranged in ,
one after another along t h e l ine T his method of run n ing .
a line is frequently res orted to and is called picketin g , .
T O clear out in most woods a line open enoug h for con

t in u o u s b a c k s ight in g or picketing is an expensive process ,
and further this method for long distan ces and uneven
, ,
ground is not to be relied on If in those c ircumsta nces .

, ,
close accuracy of alignment must still be had resort must ,
be made to anot her class O f instru ment a transit or solar , ,
which may carry t he work out of t he h ands of t h e woods
R u nn ing b y t he Nee d le . U suall y t h e compass will do

the work r e asonably well and satisfactorily to all inte reste d
parties in which case the nee dl e will be used at nearly
,
every setting I n all compass runnin g it is well to carry a

.
light r od ahead though that is somet imes dispensed wit h

, ,
the c o mpa ss m an going up to a stake or even an axe se t up

by the head axeman in line When trees of so me siz e are .
run into they are not comm onl y cut down but th e com
, ,
passman notes or h as marked the spot at which his line

, ,
of S ight hits them and going forward sets up be yond , , ,
them in the same range as nearl y as h e can For back .
sighting it is not a great trouble to set stakes but in a , ,

country where local attraction is infrequent it is su fficient

precaution to watch the bla z es and bushing back along the
line I n any cas e time is sav e d by setting up the com
.
,
pass approximately by the backsight before letting the

needle go free .
2 . T R Y L INE S
-
Wh en two unconnected points are to be joined it is usual ,
first to run a line without spotting a t ry line so called an d ,

-
,
if the desired point is not hit to measure at right angl e s th e ,
distance between the line run and the point aimed at fig ,
ure the angle O f error and rerun the line T he angle re

, .
quired is obtained from a table of tangents .
T hus suppose a t ry line to have be e n run N 4 E 1 2 0

-
°
rods or 30 chains and to have hit 32 links east O f the mark

aimed at Dividing 32 by 3 000 (th e distanc e run in links )
.
gives 0 1 0 7 and the angl e of which this is t ange nt is

.
,
found in the table of natural tangents to be The com

pass may therefore be set N 3 23 E and the line rerun
° ’
, .
R esults near enough for most purpose s may be had by

rememb e ring that the tangent of 1 is 0 1 7 5 (i e 1 7? feet in
°
. . .
,
1 0 0 or I f links per chain ) and that the tangents of small

,
angles are in proportion to the size of the angles T hus .
°
with t he case abov e the tangent of 1 be n 0 1 75 and
, .
t h at of the angle required 0 1 0 7 0 1 0 7 divided by 0 1 75 .

, . .
equal s 6 1 of . or
b
Fin al Li ne
a T ri a l Lin e
5 c h. 10 ch . 1 5 ch . 20 ch. 25 c h. 30 c h .
D IA G AM S H O W I N G
R THE ME T H O D B Y O FF SET
O r instead of using the compass to rerun the line its ,
position may be fix e d by ofi s e t that is by m e asuring at , ,
right angl e s to the t ry line at diff er e nt points along it the

-
, ,
distance required to place points in the d esired range For .
this purpose stakes should be left in the t ry line at equal -
distances apart say every 5 chains and the length of each

, ,
O ffset may be figured by tangents or as a simple problem
in proportion .
SU R VE Y IN G P R AC T I C E 23
T h us wit h th e case in h and The tangent of t h e .
angle between the t ry l ine and t he true line has been fig -
u re d as 0 10 7
. T h is decimal multiplied by five chains
.
or 5 00 links gives 5 % link s the O ffset from the 5 chain ,

-
point S imilarly 1 0 chains mul tiplied by 0 10 7 gives

. .
links and so on unt il all the offsets have been computed

, .
B y proportion the problem is even simpler In the case .
in hand the O ff set at the 1 5 chain ma rk should evidently be -
half that at the fin is h or 1 6 l ink s A t the 5 chain mark it

, .
-
1
is of it or 5 3; links as found before In the same way
, .
O ffsets for a n
y length of line and an
y error in closing m a
y
be figured When the points have be e n put in the line
.
,
may be blazed through by e ye or with th e aid of the ,
compass .
3 . MAR KI NG L INE S A ND C O RNE R S

C or ne r s . P ermanent corner marks are especially v al
u ab l e in mainta ining bounds and protecting property

rights ; and th e desirability of stone monuments or fail , ,
ing these of earth mounds iron rods or charcoal is not

, , , ,
to be disputed Forest land is occasionally subject to

.
great mischances as from cl e an cutting wind and fire and

, , , ,
marks which can survive these have distinct and peculiar

valu e .
O n the ot her hand posts of durable wood and trees that

, ,
are likely to r e main in place a long time are generally

handiest are easy to mark on and frequently meet better
, , ,
than more elaborate and e xpensive marks the ideas of ,
owners and the customs of the country S upplemented .
by blaz e d and marked witness trees suc h markings for ,
corners are now in wi d e use on for e st property and t here

can be little doubt that their use will continu e M arks on .
living trees should be placed in most cases on a peeled or

blazed surface of th e wood though bark marks much dis , ,
t o rt e d it is true have been known to remain legible for a

,
Ve ry long time .
C orners in every case should be plainly inscribed so t h at

an
y inter e sted person m a
y readil y ident ify them I t is .
usual in woods practice for the surv e yor who establishes a

24 A MAN U AL FO R NORTH E RN W OO D S ME N
corner to leave t here h is initials or some mark peculiar to

him which will identify it as hl S work together wit h t h e ,
ear in which the surve was made T he same thing ma

y y y .
be done by a succeeding surveyor .
P ractice in all these matters however varies a good deal

, ,
in different parts O f the country T he methods pre sc i ibe d .
for use in the United S tates land surveys will be found on

later pages of t h is volume .
L ine s A propert y line in the forests of Germany is kept

.
cleared out several yards wide and blocks of cut stone are
deeply set along it near enough together so that one may be
seen from another I n addition the range of a transit line
.
,
is inscribed upon them T his renders the property limit

.
prominent and durable and further defines it to wit h in a

, , ,
quarter of an inch .
S uc h ideal marking is seldom to be looked for in this

country but the ends to be aimed at which in the fore
, ,
going case were attained; should be in the mind of every

man who h as to do with forest boundaries A property .
owner s interests are first to h ave h is bounds promin ent so

’
,
that he and other parties may know where they are and so
that there will be no excuse for trespass ; second to h ave ,
them du ra bly marked for obvious reasons ; and third to ,
h ave them so closely defined that all possible caus es of

dispute may be avoided .
Stone walls ditches and fences are the common bounds

, ,
O f propert in settl e d and half settled countries and each

y
-
,
of these methods of delimitation has its grade of efficiency ,
considered from the above points of View I n large forest .
areas blazed trees are the means almost universally em

ployed for the purpose T hat system has been reasonably
.
satisfactory in the past I t would have been more so had

.
care and system always been employed in t he marking and

more attention paid to renewal .
T he directions for marking lines in timbered lands as ,
contained in the M anual of I nstructions for the S urvey

”
of t he P ublic L ands of the United S tates are as follows ,
All lin es o n which are t o be e st ab lished the legal co rner bo un

d aric s w ill b e mark ed after this metho d viz : T ho se tree s which , .
may be int ers ect ed by the line wi ll have t wo cho ps or no tches cu t

S U R VE Y IN G P R AC T I C E 25
on sides facing the line without any other marks what ever
t he , .
The s e ar e call ed sight tr ee s o r line tree s A suffici ent numb er o f .
o ther t rees stand ing w ithin 5 0 links o f the lin e o n e ithe r si d e o f ,
it will be bla ze d o n t wo si d es d iago na lly o r quart erin g to ward th e

,
line in o rd er t o rende r the line co ns picuou s and read ily t o b e

, ,
traced in either d ir ec tio n the blazes t o be O ppo s it e ea ch o ther

, ,
co incid ing in directio n with the line where the trees stand very
,
near it and t o appro ach nearer ea ch o ther to ward the line the
,
'
farther the line passes from the blazed tree s .
Due care w il l ev er be t aken t o have t he lines so well marked

as to b e r ea il y fo ll o w ed and t o c u t th e b la ze s d eep eno ugh t o
d ,
l eave re co gniz able sca rs a s lo ng as the tree s stand This can b e .
attain ed o nly by bla zing thro ugh t he bark t o th e woo d Tree s .
mark ed l ess tho roughly will no t b e co n id ered suffici ently b lazed s .
W here tree s t wo inches o r mo re in diamet er occur along a line ,
the required blazes w ill no t b e o mitt ed .
L ines are also t o b e mark ed by cuttin g away en o u gh of th e
und ergrowth o f bu shes or o th er vegeta tion t o facilitat e co rrect

s ighting o f instruments .
directions are ample h ave been tested by use and

T hese , ,
are practically the same as those issued for l and survey

work in the Dominion of C anada P lainly h owever they .
, ,
are adapted to sparsely wood ed land for in real timber , ,
growt h blazed trees two rods away from the line would be
,
a source of confusion I n fact the narrower a line is blazed

. , ,
so long as it is clear and durable the better A good , .
general rule to be applied in tim ber is to blaze those trees ,
and only those wh ich a man can reac h wit h h is axe wh en

,
standing directly in the line .
A line in ordinary woods well blazed according to this

met h od is prominent and reasonably durable while the
, ,
”
quartering of the spots and sp e cial markin g of the line
trees render it reasonably well d e fined If decent care is .
used in maintenance and if wh e n it h as become dim or

,
doubtful it is thoroughly and carefully renewed there need ,
be no great trouble or expense involved in that process ,
an d no trespass or dispute meanwh ile C ertain id e nt ific a .
”
tion O f the line trees of a previous authoritative survey
is a great help in r e newal I n the United States system t h at
.
is secured by notching those tre e s ; in the province of Ne w

B runswick they are blazed and the blazes hacked three
times upward T he same t h ing migh t be secured and in
. ,
addition the work of t he individual surveyor identified ,

26 A MA N U AL FO R NORTH ER N W OO DS M E N
by a personal mark suc h as a stamp cut on t h e p oll of the ,
blazing axe .
4 . ORI GINAL S UR V E YS A ND R E SU R V E Y S
The woods survey or has two broad classes of work to do ,
the runn in g of n e w lines outlinin g p ro p erty for sal e or ,
administration and the work of relocation The first , .
cla ss of work constitutes an ori g inal survey which the sur ,
v e y o r must carry out with due re g ard on the one hand to ,
accuracy on the other to cost H is ordinary dut y h e re

,
.
consists of thr ee p arts : first to duly outl ine and measure

‘
the tract in q uestion ; secondly to mark the bounds of it ,
in satisfactory fashion ; third to take notes of what h e ,
does for record and the b e nefit of t h ose who come after .
R e s u rve y s Wh en a boundary has once be e n surveyed

.
,
marked on the g roun d an d acc ep ted it b e comes a u t ho rit a , ,
tive and the usual dut y O f the man who com e s after is
,
sim p l y to locate the work O f th e ori g inal survey or H e .
uses the com p ass commonly as the best means of findin g

the old lin es and corners H e may use the chain for the .
same p urp ose or to satisfy h imself about area B u t h is

, .
business so far as the boun dary itsel f is concerned is to

, ,
find and remark the old one not set u p a n e w one a c ,
cordin g to his notions of p ro p riet y In relocatin g t h at .
boundary the marks of the earli e r survey or are a more re i
liable g uide than his notes : they must h owever be clearly , ,
identified and not confused with those O f irres p onsible

p arties On the other hand where monuments cannot be
.
,
found reliable verbal testimon y is admitted while it has

,
”
,
furt h er to be reco gnize d that p ro p ert y boundari e s may b e

come sanctioned b y use or a g r ee ment even thou g h they ,
are crooked and astray from their ori g inal location 1

.
5 . A GE OF S P O TS OR B L AZ E S
A sub j ect o f s p ecial in terest to the forest survey or is
t h e determin ation O f the a g e o f s p ots on tre e s This means .
1
For b o th l egal
p rac ti c al guidanc e in resurv ey
and
”
wo rk se e
.
R es t o ra ti on o f Lo s t o r Oblit era t ed C o rners by , t he Lan d

Offic e a nd Ho dgma n s La nd S u rv eyi ng
’ “ ”
.
,
S U R VE Y ING P R AC T I C E 27
2 0 25 17 30 5 2 35 4 0 43
6
A B B LA ZE F Y E AR S AFTE R C U T W A S MADE A FR O NT V IE W
IV E :
S H O W I NG R I M O F C L U s ; B C R O S S SE CTI O N
. . ,
A L ,
C . B LAZE T WE NT Y THRE E YE ARS AFTE R CU T W A S MADE

-
’
of identifying a surveyor s work is recognized by all t he
courts T he h andling of t he problem in the field may be
.
made clearer by the accompanying figures reproduced ,
from C ircular No 1 6 Division of Forestry United S tates

.
, ,
Department of A griculture .
6 . N OT ES
Notes s h ould be full and exact so as to furnis h for t he
benefit of later comers a complete record O f the work done .
I n the case of resurveys they s h ould be particularly clear

as to the O l d marks found so that t he evidence wh ich gov ,
erned in the resurvey may be a matter of record T his .
rule h olds especially in regard to starting points and

corners .
T he date of a survey is an important t h ing to record

clearly along wit h t he meridian wh ich was used w heth er
, ,
magnetic true or one assumed for the occasion

, , .
Notes sh ould be so plainly and clearly written th at any

fairly intelligent man can understand them T hey should .
be honest as well not concealing actual errors Wh en the

, .
lines of a survey do not close in e xactly it may not be worth ,
while to rerun them but there ought at least to be no d o d g

,
ing of the facts I t 18 onl y an in competent surveyor who

.
will not acknowledge his errors E rrors are normal and .
to be expected T hey grow out of imperfections in

.
method that are imposed on the surveyor by l imitations

in the matter of e xpense E rrors are not to be confused with
.
mistakes or blunders .
T he not e s of a timber land survey sh ould also be f ull as

regards topography S uch notes O ften give great assist
.
anc e in the relocation of lines and corners T h e y are also .
of value to t he owner and operator of such property .
7 . PAR TY A ND COST
great advantage s of compass and chain surveying
T he
for woods work are that it is su fficiently accurate for most
purposes and that the cost involved is very moderate Six
, .
SU R VE Y ING P R AC T I CE 29
30 A MAN U AL F OR NORTH E RN W O O DS M E N
C O M P U T A T I ON AN D O FFI C E WORK 31
en fo rm a usual part y for line work in the nort hern woods ,
and from one to t h ree miles a d ay can commonly be run

wit h it according to the ground and growth T he usual e x
, .
pens for such work ranges be tween $ 6 and $ 1 0 per mile

e
.
A reliable transit line on the other h and cannot be cleared

, ,
out and run for twice those figures .
T he work of the forest surveyor may be done for t h e fol

lowing purposes and the party required for e ach sort of
,
work outside of maintenance is noted in conn ection

, , .
1 Ne w work for t he purpose of sale or administration

.
, .
P arty requ ired : co mpas sman two ch ainmen enough men , , ,
commonl y t hree ahead of the compass wit h axes and a

, ,
rod to keep the rest of t h e part y busy

, .
2 R esurvey for the sake of re e stablish in g lin es and

' '
.
,
Co rners also for getting area

, P arty : same as above ; or .
it may be more economical in some cir cumstances not to

employ ch ainmen but for t h e surveyor himself with one
, ,
O f his part y to go back and do the chainin g

, .
3 C areful resurvey with the compass of O l d lines no

.
,
chainage required P arty to correspond . .
4 R emark ing lin es where no great difficulty is expe cted

.
,
but where the l ines need freshen ing T he man in charge .
and two axemen form an economical party A small fold .
ing sight compa ss may be used as needed .
B alance in the party is one element large ly influencing

cost The main t h ing is to have su fficient axemen to give t h e
.
rest of the party enough to do S ubsistence is an important .
problem in some circumstances A chainman can carry a .
pack on h is work and frequently chainmen are employed

,
on long jobs in the backwood s to carry a portion of t h e

supplies or outfit .
SE C TIO N V
COMPUTATI O N AND O FF I C E WORK
1 . TR AV ER S E
To traverse a line or route is to survey it by an
y
meth od that ascertains direction and distance T he . c ir
cuit of a farm s boundaries by compass and c h ain is a

’
traverse SO is t he survey of a road by usual methods

. .
Wh en a survey h as been made in this fas h ion the notes

are for some purposes best worked up after a method
”
cal led computi ng by traverse the principles and a ppli ,
cations O f which are developed in the following paragraphs .
If a course is run out N 3 0 E 2 0 chains a certain dis

°
,
tance is made in a nort herly direction also a certain dis ,
tance in a direction east The distance made in the former

.
direction is called l at it u d e in the latter d e p ar t u r e I n this ,

.
case it is north latitude and easterly departure T hese .
elements may be made evident on a plot by drawing a

meridian and base line through the starting point and
lines perpendicular to these from th e point reached T hese .
distances are also to be obtained from t rav e r se t ab l e s .
T he same is true of a course run in a ny direction and

for any distance Any course not run e xactly east and west
.
makes northing or southing T he former is reckoned as .
positive latitude with the S ign

, T he latter is negative
or latitude S imilarly distance made in an easterly
.
,
dire ction is departure ; that made towards the west

departure If several courses are run in succession
. ,
the sum algebraically reckoned of their latitudes and

, ,
their departures gives the position of t he point finally

attained .
T his met h od of reckoning using traverse tables for the

,
purpose has a wide use in connec t ion with land surveying

,
.
T he traverse table given on pages 2 14 2 1 9 furnishes the

—
elements for 1 5 cours e s those usuall y e mployed in com

’
,
pass work T he followin g is a simple problem illustrating

.
their use .
I n running a section line due nort h the surveyor come ,
to a lake shore Setting th e re a post duly marked he runs

.
, ,
round t h e lake near the s h ore by t he following courses

N 50 E
°
12 ch ain s .
N 9 30
° ’
E 20
N 40 W
°
9
S 80 W
°
R eckonin g up h is courses by T
he traverse table h e finds ,
C O M P U T A T I ON A ND O FFI C E WOR K 33
that h is E and W departure s balance hence he should be ,
in line The difle re nce between nort h ing and southing

’
gives him the distance H e may then set a second post

.
.
,
add the distance to his previous chainage and proceed wit h ,
h is survey .
C OMP U TE D TRAVE RSE
Wh en a closed survey is made that is to y when, a sur sa ,
v e o r starts and finishes at the same point it is evident that

y ,
its and departures should be equal also its ,
and latitudes O wing to the errors unavoidable in

.
survey work it is very seldom that they do so reckon up

exactly T he amount by which the two ends fail to meet
.
,
wheth er plotted Or reckoned is the e rr or of cl osur e and the

, ,
p e rc e n t age o f e rr o r is the ratio O f this distance to the total

length of th e surve y A certain percentage of t h is error
.
,
sa
y 1 in 5 0 0 or 1 in 3 0 0 m a
y be allowable
, in an ordinary
woods survey For plotting and for area h owever it may
.
, ,
be desirable to distribute the error through the different

courses and this when the traverse has been reckoned out
, , ,
is readily done T he error in both latitude an d departure

.
'
is usuall y distributed to the d ifl e re n t courses in proportion

to the length of each but if any course was more difficult of
,
ch ainage t h an t he ot hers it may be given e xtra weigh t in

,
34 A MAN U A L FO R NORTH E RN WOO D S M E N
the distribution I n any case the correction is applied so

.
as to help clos e the survey and not the reverse T his pro .
cess is called B al an cin g a S urv e y .
The field notes of a closed surve y the latitudes and de ,
partures as they reckon out and the sam e balanced are , ,
given herewith T he reckoning is also given and all is in

.
,
convenient arrangement T he latitud e s and departures .
C OMPU T ING LAT IT U D E S A ND DE P ARTU RE S

C o u rs e . C o u rs e . C o u rs e . C o u rs e . C o u rs e .
A —
B B — C C —
D D — E E — A
log s in
l og dis t .
l o g d ep .
D p t
e a r u re
log co s
log di t s .
l og la t .
L a t it u de
in this cas e have be e n reckoned out not from the trav e rse
tabl e but from the tabl e O f logarithmic S in e s and cosines
, .
A little consid e ration Shows that the latitude O f a course is

the cosine of its b e aring multiplied by its d istance while ,
th e departur e is the product of th e S in e multiplied by the

distance No w a table of S ines and cosines gives values
.
to single minutes instead of for 1 5 bearings L ogarithmic ’

.
computation too shortens the process T his is therefore

, , .
, ,
th e more convenient way of r e ckoning for transit work or ,
for accurate compass surveying .
When all but the final course has be en run it is in ,
some circumstances d e sirabl e to ascertain what course

to set in order to hit the starting point T his too may .
, ,
readily be done by means of the figured latitudes and

departur e s .
T h us suppose that four courses of t he above survey h ave

,
C O M P U T A T I ON A ND O FFI C E WORK 35
36 A M AN U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS M E N
been run out and t h e latitude and departure computed as ,
given T he result shows that the point reached is north

.
FI GU RE D LAT I TUD E S A ND D E PA RT U RE S
and east of the start ing point much further north th an

,
east ; hence a course somewhat west of south

E must be set to reach it I n the figure E X
.
represents the latitude reached and A X t he

departure .
No w to fin d the be aring of E A we h ave

A X
tan . A E X
7
E m . 34 1 1 .
°
A E X from the table of tangents 1 8
S 1 8 5 0 W is therefore the bearing required
° ’
.
T he length O f E A may also be found since ,
it is the hypothenuse of a right angled tri

angle whose base and altitude are the latitude and de
parture given
,
the distance required T hat t h is value and that for t he

.
angle d iffer somewhat from the true ones is due to the

errors of compass surveying .
I n a s imilar way the course and distance of an inacce s

sible line may be computed or omissions supplied in notes .
C O M PU T A T I ON A ND O FFI CE W ORK 37
Th at is a very undesirable t h ing to do however as it , , in

fringes o n the tests whic h serve to verify the work .
R e c t angl e s . T he
woodsman in h is land work h as
most frequently to do with recta ngular figures and com
’
putation of area is simple If the average of the chain ed .
east and west sides of a rectangu lar piece of land is 20 1

rod s or C hains and th e north and south dimension
,
4 0 chain s the area equals

, X 4 0 I 1 0 (the numbe r of
-
square chains in an acre ) or 2 0 1 acres SO wit h a rect , .
angular piece o i any dimensions .
A re a b y Trian gl e s T he area of a tr iangle of kn own

.
base and altit ude is half the pro duct of thes e dim e nsions ,
and an irregular figure when plotted may be cut into tri

angles the dimensions o f e ach m
, easured and t h e areas ,
computed T he same process in case of necessity may

.
be pe rformed on the ground .
When as is frequently the case it is easier to O bta in the

, ,
t h ree sides of a triangle than the base and altitude the area ,
may be O bta ined from the formula
wh e re a b and c are the three sides and s is half t h eir sum

. . .
O r lastly an irregular figure when plott e d may be re

, ,
d u ce d graphicall y to the triangular form and the area O b

t a in e d at one computation by either o f the methods just
given .
T he relations between units of distance and of area are

given on page 1 9 .
B y O ff se t s I n surveying around t h e borders of a body

.
O f water and in some cas e s wh e n the e xact bord e r O f a

,
property presents great diffi culties it is customary to run ,
as near the border as is practicable and to take re c tangu

lar O ffsets to it at select e d in tervals along the line T hese .
offsets should be measured to angl e s in the border or

'
placed near enough together so that the bo rder between

O ffsets ma be considered a straight line Th e area of
y .
t he figu re between each t wo o fl se t s may then be computed

by multiplying the distance along t h e base by h alf t he .
sum of the two O fl se t s .

38 A MA N U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS M E N
A not her way is to take the O ffsets at regular distances

along the base 1 0 rods apart for instance
, I n that .
case the rule for th e area is z Ad d together all th e in

—
t e rme d iat e O fl se t s and half the end offs e ts and multiply

’
,
the sum by the constant interval be tween them .
B y C r o s s Se c t io n in g T he m e thod of ruling O ff an area

.
on a map into squares of equal and kn own S ize 1S very

convenient especially for irregular areas like bodies of
,
water The whol e squares can be counted up and the

.
fractions of squares estimated I n such cases it m ay be

.
best to do the ruling not on the map itself but on a de

t a c he d piece of tracing cloth or of paper If the map is
.
opaque the rul e d tracing cloth may be laid over it and

,
held firmly till the work is done I f it is t raiispare nt the

.
,
ruled sh ee t may b e laid underneath .
B y Pl an im e t e r T he area of a ny surface may be

.
quickly and accurately ascertained by an instrument called

the planimeter T h at instrument is not however in the
.
, ,
hands O f most woodsmen .
Fr om T rav e r s e T he area .
enclos e d by a bal anced sur

ve
y m a
y be accuratel y com
u t e d from the latitude a n d
p
departure of its courses .
T he general scheme will be

grasped at onc e from the
figure in which A B C D E
,
’
represents th e surv ey whose

notes ar e given on page 3 5 ,
e b is a meri d ian through its

'
most west e rly point b B c C , , ,
d D and e E are lines drawn

vert ical to it from th e angles ,
and B m D n and E 0 are

, ,
parallel to it or vertical to c C
and d D I n this figure it is
.
evident in the first plac e that

the area of the figure b B D E e minus the ar e a of the
two triangles A E e and A B b equ als th e area of A B C D
E and seco ndly that the figure 1 B C D E e is made up of
,
3
C O M PU T A T I ON AND O FFI C E WOR K 39
t he t h ree trapezoids b B C c c C D d and d D E e ’

, , .
T he area of these trapezoids and triangles is easily com

u t e d from their dimensions A ll that is necessar is to
p y .
e xpress those dimensions clearly in terms of latitude and

departure .
O ne dimension of these figures the altitude is t h e lati , ,
tude of the course in qu e stion T hus for the triangle A B b .

,
the altitude A b is the latitude O f the course A B and in ,
the same way e A the altitude of th e triangle A E e is t he

, ,
latitude of E A T hese latitudes it is to be noted are

.
, ,
negative and to correspond the areas O f A B b and of

, ,
E A e are to be deducted from b B C D E e to give the area ’
of A B C D E which we ar e after B m the altitude O f

'
.
,
t he trapezoid b B C c is the latitude of th e course B C and

,
’
is positive D n and E 0 have the same relation to the two

.
succe eding courses .
T he bases of th e se triangles and trapezoids are clearly

related to departure b B is the departure of the course .
A B , an d A b X bB t wice t he a re a O f A B b bB + .
b B C c,
’
c C the two bases of the trapezoid
, twice t he
Of B C d D
’
departure O f A B the departure c C .
’
the same expression as the last the departure of B C
the departure O f C D which last however be ing west , , ,
erly is reckoned negatively No w a general expression

, .
for these values is d oub l e meridian dis tan c e meridian dis ,
tance being perpendicular distanc e from the meridian .
T he D M D of a course is the sum of the meridian dis

. . .
tances O f its two ends For a course starting on the me .
rid ian it equals th e departure of the course For any .
succeeding course it e quals the D M D of the prec e d ing . . .
course plus the departure of that c ourse plus the departure ’
of the new course easterly d e partures being reckoned as

,
positive and westerly d e parture s as negative .
A c h eck on the reckon ing of the D M D s is in the

’
. . .
last one which should be numerically equal to the de

,
parture of the last course .
T hese elements for convenient working out of the area

surrounded by a closed survey are embo d ied in the follow
ing rule : T wice the area of the figure en clos e d by a sur
ve
y is equal to the alg e braic sum of the products of the
D M D
. .of the several cour ses multiplied b y t he corre
.
’
s
s o n d in
p g latitudes north latitudes
, being reckoned po si
tively and south latitu d es negativel y I f t he tract is kept .
on the right in the course of the survey the result comes ,
out with a minus sign .
An operation of this kind starting wit h the balanced ,
latitudes and departures may b e conveniently arranged ,
as follows
C o u rs e . D . M . D .
sq . ch .
A rea a cres .
3 . P LO TTING
T he computation of traverse if it aids in testing t he ,
accuracy of a survey gives also data for plotting it wit h

,
e ase and accuracy T aking the initial point of the survey

.
as t he starting point for a meridian and a base line vertical

to it the position of the second point O f the survey may be
,
fixed by measuring O ff its latitude on the Vertica l line its

'
departur e on t he hori z ontal and from these points draw ing ,
lines parall e l to the base and the meridian until they inter
sect T he latitude O f the second course may then be added
.
to that of the first and the two departu res also added to
get her w hen the third point of the survey may be fixed in
,
the same w ay as be fore and so on unt il the survey is ,
finished T he points thus fixed may th e n be join ed by

.
l ines representing the courses The position of the points .
in the above survey as ta ken from the balanced figures on

C O M P U T A T I ON A ND O FFI C E WOR K 41
page 35 is given in th e table , and below is a diagra m

s h owing the method of plotting .
P o in t .
I t is not h owever the most common practice to plot a

, ,
survey after this fashion The more usual w ay is to.
plot the angles and distances directly from the notes T o .
do this select a point on the paper for the initial point of

t he survey and draw a meridian through it in pencil T hen .
by means of a protractor mark the bearing of the fir st
FI G . 1 FI G . 2
ME TH O DS OF PL O TTIN G A SU V Y R E .
IG . 1 BY LATI TU DE S A ND D E PAR T U RE S . FI G 2B Y COU

. RS E S A ND D IS TAN C E S.
course and draw a line of indefinite lengt h through it O n .
th is line l ay O ff to scale the length O f the course th us ,

42 A MAN U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS M E N '
establishing the second corner T hrough this draw another .
meri d ian In p e nc il and proceed as before If the survey .
and the plotting are both p e rfect the last course should ,
hit t he initial point I f it does not so hit there is error in

.
,
one or the other .
T o plot on e course from another by means of the figured

angles betw ee n th e m is not good practice because by that ,
method errors accumulate .
T HE E S S E NT I AL I NS R U M
G T E NTS FO R P LO TT I N
A straight edge a scale a protractor a pair of dividers

, , , ,
and a parallel ruler or a pair O f triangl e s are the ess e ntials

for ord inary plotting .
T he lettering on a woodsman s map ought to be pla in

’
.
T he size of the letters should be varied according to the

importance of th e obj e ct d e signate d I t is a goo d rule to .
use e rect lett e rs in general and slant capitals and italics in

,
connection with wat e r .
T he usual practice is to repr e sent waters and swamps

with blue ink contours with brown and all other O bj e cts
, ,
with black C ommon brown and blu e inks however do

.
, ,
not blu e print well so black is ordinarily used for tracings

, .
V arious syst e ms hav e been devis e d for r e pres e nting the

character an d density of timb e r growth A system of that .
kind if one is required is best devised for each forest

, ,
r egion or propert
y .
M aps m ay be rendered plainer by the judicious u se of

O N TH E B E A R I NG OF L IN E S 43
topographic symbols A number t hat ar e in com m

.
. on use
and generally agreed upon are given herewith .
TO O G A
P R P HI C SY M B OL S
SE C TIO N VI
O N THE B EARIN G O F LIN E S
T he surveying work O f the woodsman O f the present d ay
is mostly O f the natur e of resurveys or the subdivision ,
of tracts whose boundary lines are on the ground T o .
ascertain correctly the present bearing of old lines is there

fore a problem of great importance and one very fre
quently met with .
1 B e ar in g D ire c tl y O b se r v e d
. T he best and surest
.
way to find that dir e ction is the d irect one of running a

piece O f the line For e xample s u ppose a section of land
.
,
was run out in 1 8 4 5 with lines stated to run north east , ,
so uth and west by the tru e meridian T he surveyor com

,
.
ing on to retrace it in 1 9 1 5 may pay no attention to the

nort h star or referenc e meridians but finding th e southwest
,
corner of the tract pla in and running northerly find by trial

t h at N 4 20 E runs t h rough the O l d spots H e figures

° ’
.
now that the courses h e will have to run in order to repro

duce the lines O f the square are N 4 20 E S 8 5 4 0 E
i
° ° ’ ’
, ,
S 4 20 W and N 8 5 4 0 W H e may run them so or

° ’
,
° ’
.
turn the vernier of his compass 4 °

so as to read N E , ,
S and W like the compass of t h e original surveyor I n any

, , .
case he will not be able to reproduce the old line all around
exactly E ven if no errors are made in either survey th e
.
daily variation of the needl e w ill be pretty sure to cau se

some divergence I n remark ing the line h e will follow as
.
closely as possible the marks O f the O ld surveyor .
2 B y R e f e re n ce M e r id ian
. T he change in bearing of
.
O l d lines ma O ften be ascerta ined b reading on a refer

y y
ence meridian If the compass in use be so tested and if
.
the compass which did the work to be reviewed was tested

on the same marks at the time of the original survey then ,
t he d ifl e re n ce in the two bearings will hold closely for a

’
considerable region arou nd .
E xample : O n a county meridian in P enn sylvania in

1 8 50 a surveyor s compass read N 2 3 0 E and in t h e
’ ° ’
°
neighborh ood a line was run bearing S 55 E I n 1 90 5 .
another compass on the meridian reads N 6 20 E show ° ’

,
° ’
ing a Change of 3 5 0 in the time elapsed T hen S 5 1 1 0
° ’
.
E ought to re p roduce the line .
3 B y T ab l e s
. The fol lowin g tables derived from
.
,
p ubl ications O f t h e United S tates C oast and Geodetic

S urvey are very convenient for determinin g chan g e in
,
declin ation They g ive for man y local ities w e ll d is t rib

.
u t e d thr ou gh out t h e United S tates declination at ten
y ear intervals as far back as it h as been recorded The .
c h an g e found to have taken place at a g iven localit y

between an y t wo dates may then be a pp lied t hrou gh a con
s id e ra b l e re g ion around it I t should be understood ho w
.
,
ever that this means O f determination does not obviate

,
the c h ances O f error due to d ifl e re n c e between ins t ru ’
ments I t is well kn own that t wo com p asses on the

.
same line at the same tim e may n o t read ex actl y alike .
E xample : A land line in the A dirondacks was run out

in 1 8 00 on the magnetic m e ridian Wh at course sh ould .
be set in 1 9 1 0 to reproduce it ?
ON T HE B E AR I NG O F L IN E S 45
po
r T AB LE G IV ING SE CU LA R C HANGE O F THE MAGNE T IC DE C
VE L INA T IO N I N T HE U N I T E D S TAT E S
,
(F m U S C
ro .t nd G o d t i S urv y R e p t s)
, oas a e e c e or
Y ea r R h d
o e
C
( Ja n 1 )
. I l nd
s a
onn .
T AB LE GI V I NG SE C U LA R C HANG E O F THE MAGNE T I C DE C

L I NA T IO N I N T HE U N I TE D S TA TE S
( Fro m U S C
. . o as t a n d G d
eo e t ic S u rv e y Re p o rt s)
Y ea r Ne w h
O io I n diana I llin o is I o wa
( Ja n 1 )
. Je rs e y
3 1 3E
1 1 OW 7 57E
Min n e s o t a Minn e s o t a
( Ja n . 1) No r t h S out h
4 1 0E
9 17
8 03 E 9 OOE
O N T HE B E A R I NG OF L I NE S 47
B LE G IV ING SE C U LAR C HANGE O F T HE MAGNE T I C D E CL INA

T I ON IN THE U N I TE D S TATE S
.
(F m U S C
ro . t nd G
. d ti S
o as a y R p
eo t )
e c ur v e e or s
1 4 1W 3 0 5W 1 1 3W 0 1 8W 1 3 1E
0 08E 0 1 8E
0 0 5W
0 2 GB
0 1 7E
0 1 0E 0 3 0E 0 1 9W
0 29 W 0 1 2W
0 51
0 1 3E
0 23 W
[9 1 0 4 51W 6 1 5W 4 1 3W 2 5 3W 2 39 W 3 2 5W 0 4 7W
a
t
l
a
o ah a
m
a
m o )
d t
m
d c p
s a g y
i
a
i
r e r u b t
r
W
s
o o o n e
l n l
S
a a
o
T
l
F e F
P ( A M
3 1 6E 2 2 7E 2 52E
0 ME
0 12 W 1 52 E 4 Z ZE 2 0 6E 2 4 5E 6 08 E
48 A MA N U AL FOR NORT HE RN W OO DS M E N
TAB LE G IV ING SE CU LA R C HANGE O F THE MAGNE T IC D E CL IN
T I ON IN THE UN I TE D STATE S
.
( Fr m U S C ast n d G d t i Su
o . . o ay R p t )
eo e c rv e e or s
5 0 7E 4 22E 6 3 2E
9 37E
1 8 70
1 8 80
1890
1 9 10 1 1 2 153 4 18E 0 I QE 3 3 GB 6 5 0E 8 0 5E 9 0 9 53
8 1 3E
1 8 70
1 880 10 48
1 8 90 1 0 24
1 9 00 10 18
19 10 1 0 5 0E 6 49E 8 55E 7 4 6E IO 0 8 E
O N T HE B E AR ING OF L I NE S 49
B LE G IV ING SE CU LA R C H ANGE O F THE MAGNE T I C D E CLINA

T I ON IN THE U N I TE D S TATE S
( Fro m U S C o t nd G o d t i S ur y R ep t )
. . as a e e c ve or s
A t a.) l >l I O C
‘
.
c
E g
63 <3 d d
t:
S g
A on
g 8
88
n
d 41
a Q
J:
0
v
fl
. C
a 9
5)
Q
? g ;
i9
o
28
s 9 2 3
°
3E
°
3<
“
43 0
2 v
1 83 5 88 3
( O Jd-
x
0 0
5
H
2 5 2
1 3 0 6E 1 8 O9 E 1 8 S3 E
1 5 2 7E 13 06 16 26 13 14 3 1E 1 7 3 7E 18 27 19 18
18 6 0 15 27 12 57 16 26 14 21 I7 3 7 18 36 19 36
18 70 15 18 12 39 I6 16 14 O2 17 27 18 36 19 45
1 88 0 12 07 15 50 13 31 18 21 19 34
18 90 1 4 20 11 25 15 17 12 43 16 2 1 17 53 19 23
1 4 10 11 07 15 07 1 2 24 1 6 10 19 3 1
19 1 0 1 4 3 1E 1 1 2 SE 1 5 2 7E 12 4 4 E 1 6 3 6E 1 8 1 7E 2 0 O2 E
2 1 3 3E
50 A MAN U AL FO R NORTH E RN W OO DS M E N
TAB LE G IV ING SE CU LAR C HANGE O F THE MAGNE T IC D E CL INA
T I ON IN THE UN ITE D STATE S
( Fr m U S C
o . t n d G d t i Sur
. o as y R p
a t ) eo e c ve e or s
19 10 1 7 58 13
l o d
c: 0
8 92-5 gg
;
A
i
a
£99 0 c: t
20
a
°
C
g3 33 3
8 if? 5 s
3 z w
13 4 713 16 0 7E 12 4 3E 13 26 E 13 3313 1 3 1 9 13
13 50 16 15 12 47 13 33 13 44 1 3 33
13 46 16 16 12 43 13 34 13 47
13 31 16 04 12 29 13 22 13 40 1 3 36
13 00 15 40 12 03 13 02 13 25 1 3 32
1 5 39 1 1 59 13 02 1 3 29 13 44
1 3 1 9E 1 6 1 OE 12 2 9E 1 3 3 6E 1 4 05 E 1 4 2 5E
ON O B T A IN IN G T HE M E R I D IAN 51
From the table for chan g e O f dec l ination and for the ,
l o c alit y eastern Ne w Y ork the values 5 2 8 and 1 1 3 1

° ’ ° ’
,
are obtained showin g that the needle in the 1 10 y ears

,
° ’
s wun g 6 0 3 to the westward The des ired bearin g .
t h erefore shoul d prove to be N 6 E nearl y °

.
SE C TIO N VII
ON OBTAINING THE lV
IERIDIAN
Wh en for any reason it is necessary to determine a true

meridian t h at is best O btained from the north star T his
, .
star easil y identified by the range O f t h e pointers is n o t

, ,
° ”
ex actly at th e pole O f the heavens but in 1 9 0 8 was 1 1 1 4
’
,
”
from it T his angle is called the polar distance O f t h e
.
star I t is decreasing at t h e rate O f abo ut one third O f a

.
minute yearly .
T he north star like ot h er stars is t h us circling around

, ,
t he pole once in about 24 hours Wh en directly over Or .
under the pole it is said to be in cul mination upper or ,
lower as the case may be T he star is then in the meridian

.
,
and bringing it down with plumb lin e or transit gives the

meridian directly .
When the north star is fart h est from the meridian it is

said to be in e l ong a tio n east when the star is east O f t h e
,
meridian west w hen on t he opposite side A plane through

, .
t he O bserver the zenith and the nort h star w hen at elonga

, ,
tion prolonged downward to the h orizon makes an angle

, ,
with the meridian which is called the az imu th O f the star

at t h at time T his angle may be O bta ined for any t ime and
.
po sition from tables and setting O ff the angle the true

, ,
meridian is found U pon t h is meridian the needle can be

.
read o r marks can be left for reference at a n future time

y .
T he operation O f bringing down t h e star may be pe r

formed either with the plumb line or more accurately and ,
conveniently wit h a well adjusted transit Wh en the

,
-
.
transit is used it is necessary to illuminate t h e cross wires .
T h is may O ften be done by hold ing a lantern or candle

in front O f the transit tube and a little to one side when ,
the field s h oul d appear ligh t wit h th e cross h airs s h ow

5 92 A MAN U AL F OR NORTH E RN W OO DS M E N
ing as dark lines I f light enough is not so O btained

.
,
a tin reflector may be made of the design shown or a ,
piece O f tracing cloth or greased paper

with a hole cut in it may b e bound be ll
shape over the front O f the instrument
with a string or rubber band .
Directions for O btaining the true merid

ian which involve an accurate knowledge
O f time are not adapted to the use O f the
R F C O E woodsman T he following directions do

LE T R .
not impose that very difficult requirement .
( From U nited S tat e s M anual O f I nstructions for S ur
ve O f the P ublic L ands

y .
T O O BTAIN A M E RI DIAN A T CULMINATI ON OF POLARIS

A v ery close approximation t o a merid ian may be had by re
me mbe ring that Po lari s v ery nearly reache s the meridian when
it is in t he same v ertical plane with the star D elta ( 3) in the con
st ellation C a ssio pe ia T he v ertica l
.
wire O f t he transit sho uld be fixed

u po n Po laris a nd o ccasio nall y b ro ught
,
d o wn t o t he star D elta t o O bserv e it s

,
approach t o the same vertica l line Gre at B e ar . c
W hen b oth stars are seen u po n the

w ir e Po l aris is v ery nea r the meri dian
, .
A small interval O f time (as 6 min in .
1908 ) wil l then be allo wed t o pass ,
while D elta mo ves rapi dly ea st a nd

Po laris slightly ea st t o the a ctual me
ridian At that moment the cro ss wire
.
sho u ld be placed upo n Po laris a nd th e ,No t h P o l e r

meridian firmly marked by stakes and PO I iS ar
tack head s
-
.
This method is practica bl e o nly

when the sta r D elta is belo w the po le
durin g the night ; when it passes the
merid ia n abov e the po le it is t o o near,
the zenith t o be Of service in which .
ca se t he star Zeta ( i) the la st star but

.
,
o ne In the ta il O f the Grea t B ea r ma

y ,
be used instead .
D elta ( 6) C assiope iae is o n the me

ridi an be l o w Po lari s a nd the po l e at Cassi ,
mid night abo u t April 1 0 and is there , ,
fo re the proper star t o u se at that date and for so me t wo o r

,
t hree months befo re and af ter .

ON O B T A IN ING T HE M E R I D I AN 53
Six month s late r t he st ar Ze ta ( i) in th e tail o f the Great B ear , ,
Will supply Its place and W ill be u sed in precis ely the same manner
.
, .
T he diagram draw t o scal e exhibits t he prin ci pa l sta rs o f

n , ,
the co ns tella tio ns C ass mpe ia a nd Great B ear with D elta ( 6) C a s ,
s io pe iae Z eta ( f) Urs ae M a j o ri s

, (also ca ll ed Miz ar) and Po lari s ,
o n the meridian r epresent ed b ,y the stra ight lin e ; Po laris be ing

at lo wer cu lminatio n .
I n the above process the inte rval

waiting time , Of
be found for the proper year from the following data

1 9 10 min a nn u a l
Ma )
.
Fo r Z e t a U rs . . 1 9 20 in c reas e
1 93 0 4 1 min
. .
1 9 10 min
D lt C
.
Fo r e a as s . 1 9 20
1 9 30
D at a furnis h e d b y P o f r . R o bt W . . Will son .
I nstead the transit t h e plumb line may be used for

Of
this O bservation in much the ma n ner described l ate r on .
At certain times O f year it is inconve nient to O bserve

P olaris at culmination and for other reasons as well it is ,
more usual to O bserv e the star at elongation T he L and .
O ffi c e instructions follow and the table for azimuths O f ,
t h e star and for time O f elongation whic h are required .
To ES TAB LIS H A M ERI DIAN A T E LONGATI ON BY TELES C OPI C

INS TR UMENT
Set a sto ne or dr ive a woo d en peg firmly in the gro un d a nd
, , ,
upo n the t o p thereo f mak e a small distinct mark , .
Abo ut thirty min u t e s be fo re the time O f th e eas te rn o r w e stern

elo ng atio n O f Po lari s O bta in ed fro m the tabl e set u p the transit
, ,
firml y with it s v ertical

, exactly o ver the mark and car efully ,
lev el the instrument .
I lluminat e the cro ss wires by t he light fro m a suitabl e lantern ,
t he rays be in g d ir ect ed in to th e O b j ec t e nd O f th e t e le sco pe by an

assis ta nt ; w hil e grea t ca re will be tak en by pe rfec t l e v e ling t o
.
, ,
insur e that t he line O f co llimatio n d escribe a trul y v ert ica l plane .
Place the v erti ca l wir e u po n the sta r w hich if it has n ot rea ched , ,
it s el o ng ati o n w ill mo v e t o the right fo r east ern o r t o the left for

, ,
western elongatio n
W hil e t he star mov e s to ward it s po int O f elo ngati o n by m
.
eans O f ,
t he tangent screw O f the v ernier pl at e it Will be rep at d ly co v ered

.
e e
by the v ertica l Wire until a po int is rea ched where it Wil l appear t o
,
rema in o n the wir e fo r so me t ime then l eave it in a d ir ec tion co n

m
,
t rary t o it s fo rmer mo ti o n ; thu s indica t in the ti e O f e longatio n

‘
.
T hen Whil e the star appears t o thr ea d e vertica l Wire d epress ,

54 A MAN U AL F OR NORTH E RN W OO DS M E N
t he telesco pe horizo nta l po sitio n ; fiv e chains no rth Of the

to a
p lac e O f O b serv ation set a sto ne o r dr iv e a firm peg u po n which ,
by a stro ngly il luminat ed pencil or o ther sl e n d er O bj ect exactly ,
c o i n c i d e nt with the v erti ca l Wir e mark a po int a nd dr ive a ta ck ,
in t he li ne O f s ight thu s d et ermin ed ; then t o eliminate po ssible ,
erro rs O f c o llimation o r imperfec t verticality O f the mo tio n o f the

telesco pe quickly rev o lv e the vernier plate
,
d ir ec t the glass
a t Po lari s a nd repe a t the O b s erv atio n ; if it g ive s a diff erent r e sul t
find a nd mark the middl e p o int b etween the t wo re sul ts T his .
mi ddle po int with the po int marked by the plumb bo b O f the

,
transit will d efine the trace O f the vertical plane thro u gh Po lari s
,
at it s e as t ern o r w est ern e lo ngati o n a s th e ca se may b e , .
B y d aylight l ay O ff t o the ea st o r w e st a s the ca se may requir e , ,
t he pro per a z imu th taken fro m th e fo llo win g t ab l e ( page the

instrument will then d efi ne the meridian T he need le may b e .
r ea d then giving t he magnetic d eclinatio n ea st o r w e st a s th e ca se

, ,
may b e O r t he li ne may b e permanently marked fo r referenc e

.
at ano ther time o r with ano ther ins trument .
TO DET ER MINE A M ER I DIAN O A TE LES C OPE W I T H UT
Atta ch a plumb lin e t o a su ppo rt s ituated as far ab o ve the

ground as practicable su ch as t he limb O f a tree a p i ece O f b o ard
, ,
n a il ed o r o therw is e fast ene d t o a t el egraph po l e a ho u se b arn , , ,
o r o ther buil d ing affo rding a cl ear view no rth a nd s o uth

, .
T he plumb b o b may co ns i st O f so me w eighty material such as ,
a b rick a p i ec e O f iro n or sto ne

, w eighin g fo ur t o fiv e p o un d s , ,
which will ho ld the p lumb line vertical full y as w ell as o ne O f ,
fini shed metal .
Strongly il lumin at e the pl umb line j u st b elo w it s support by a

lamp o r candle ca re b eing taken t o O bscure the so urce o f light
,
fro m the Vi ew O f the Ob server by a screen .
Fo r a peep s ight c u t a slot ab o u t o ne sixt eenth O f an inch wid e

,
-
in a thin piec e O f b o ard o r na il t wo strips O f tin with straight

, ,
edges t o a square blo ck O f woo d so arranged that they w ill stan d

, ,
vertical when the blo ck is placed flat o n it s base u pon a smo oth
ho riz o ntal rest which w ill be placed at a co n enient height so u t h
, v
O f the plu mb l ine a nd firmly secu r ed in an ea st a n d w e st d ir ec tio n ,
in su ch a po sitio n that when view ed thro ugh the peep sight Po

, ,
laris wil l a ppear ab o u t a fo o t b elo w the su ppo rt O f the pl umb lin e .
T he p o sitio n may b e pra ctica l ly d et ermin ed b y t rial the night

prec eding that set fo r the O b serv ation .
Abo u t thirty minu tes be fore the t ime O f elo ngation a s Obtained ,
fro m the t ble b ing the peep sight into the same line O f sight with
a , r
the plumb lin e and Po lari s .
T o rea ch elo ngation the sta r wil l mo ve O ff the plumb line t o

,
t he ea st for e ast e n elo ngati o n o r t o th e w e st for w s r elo nga

r
e te n , -
tio n ; therefore by mo ving the peep sight in the pro per d ire ctio n ,
east o r west as t he case may be keep the star o n t he plumb line

, ,
u ntil it a ppe ars t o rema in st atio nary thu s in dicating that it has
,
reached it s po mt Of elongation .
ON O B T A I N IN G THE M E R I D IA N 55
T he pe e p s ight w il l n o w be s ecu re d in plac e by a clamp o r

weight with it s exact po sitio n mark ed o n t he rest and all further ,
O pe rat io n will be d eferr ed u n t il the n ext mornin g

s .
B y d ayhght p la ce a slend er ro d at a dis ta nce O f t wo o r t hr ee

,
hun dr ed feet from the pee p sight and exactly in range with it a nd ,
the plumb line ; carefull y measur e this dista nce .
T ake fro m th e tabl e o n page 5 6 the a z imuth O f Po la ri s c o r

re spo nding t o the latitu d e O f th e sta ti o n a n d y ea r O f O b s e rv a tio n
;
fin d the natural ta ngent O f sa id a z imuth a n d mul tiply it by t he
d ista nce fro m the peep sight t o the rod ; the prod u ct will expre s s
the distanc e t o be la id Off fro m the ro d exactly at right angle s t o
the directi on a lrea dy d et erm ined (t o the w est for ea st ern e longa
tio n o r t o the ea st fo r we st ern elo ngati o n) t o a po int which With , ,
the peep sight w ill d efi ne the directio n O f the meridian with suifi
,
cient ac curacy for the need s O f lo cal surveyo rs .
E x amp le : in l a titude 45 N lon g itude

S ep t . 10 , 1 9 1 5,
°
,
0
71 W it is desired to O b ta in t h e declination O f the needle
, .
Fro m the t a bl e giv ing time s Of el ongatio n it is fo und tha t

Po l ar is is a t east ern el o ngatio n o n Sep t l st a t minut es p ast .
8 P . M .
C orre c ti o n A is n o t requ ir e d in thi s c a s e

_ .
C o rrec tio n B f o r the 9 d a y s elap se d sin c e Sep t 1 st is

, min .
, .
,
t o b e s u b t rac t e d .
C orrec ti o n C fo r 7 1 l o ngitu d e is 1 6 min t o b e s u b t rac t ed

°
.
, , , .
C o rr ec ti o n D fo r 4 5 l a tit u d e is min t o be a dd ed
°
.
, ,
C o rr ec ti o n E is min t o b e a dd ed .
, .
8 hrs . min . min . 16 min . . 85 min . . 2 min .
8 hr s 3 . min
time O f elo nga ti on by the wat ch
.
, .
The s ta r ha ving b een O b serv e d a t t he t ime in d ic a t e d a nd bro ught

d o wn t o the ho riz o n it s a z imu t h is asc erta ine d fro m the tabl e O f
,
a z imu t h s Fo r 1 9 1 5 a nd l a tit u d e this v al u e is 1 °

. a nd
there is nO app rec iabl e co rrec tio n fo r app arent place The merid .
ian then is tha t mu c h t o t he we s t o f the li ne d e t ermine d In t hi s .
c a se wit h the in st rument o n t he a zimu t h l in e t he n ee dl e was

,
all o w e d t o s e ttl e a n d a r e a d ing O f N 1 7 5 0 E O b taine d

° ' ° ’
17 50 .
l 37 4 is ther efo re t he ma gn e ti c d ec lin a ti o n

o ' ° °
16 . 16
fo r t he p l ac e a nd time o r 1 6 1 5 as ne ar as a nee dl e c an b e
° ’
,
rea d
In pract ice co rrectio ns D and E may usuall y be neglect ed .
Usmg the ta bl e fo r time O f el ongatio n with co rrectio ns A B a nd C , ,
a pphe d t o it th e surve yo r will a sce rta in w hen t o b e o n ha nd fo r

,
the o b se rvatio n Then watching th e star w hen satisfied by it s

.
, ,
mo tio n that it has reach ed elongatio n h e will bring his in strument

d own Witho ut regard t o time In fact Po lari s traverses less than .
,
4 Of az imuth in the ho ur b efo re and the hour aft er elongation

’
.
56 A MA N U AL F OR NORTH E RN W OO DSME N
ON O B T A IN IN G THE ME R I D IA N 57
The table on the preceding page was computed wit h

mean declination O f Polaris for eac h year A more ao .
curate res ul t will be had by appl ying to the tabular values

the following correction which depends on the difference
,
O f the mean and the apparent place O f the star T he .
deduced azimuth will in general be correct wit h in
L OCAL C IV I L ( NO T STAND ARD ) T I NIE O F T HE E L ONGAT I ONS

O F P O LA R I S I N T HE YE A R 1 9 15 ( C O MP U TE D FO R L A T I
‘
T U D E 40 NORTH A ND L ONG ITU D E 90 O R 6 h WE ST

0 °
O F GRE E NW I C H )
( F o m U nit e d S t a t es C
r t a n d G e o d e t ic S u rv e y )
o as
D at e E as t e rn E l o n ga t io n W es t e rn E l o n ga t i on
A . To f
re er t he a bove t a bu l ar qu a ntities to years s u bs e
qu e n t to 1 9 1 5 :
Fo r y e ar
up to M arch 1
o n an d a ft er M arc h 1
up to M ar c h 1
o n an d a ft er M ar c h 1
up to M arch 1
o n an d a ft er M ar ch 1
B . To f
r e er to a ny ca lendar d ay ot her t ha n the first a nd
fif te enth of each mo nth s u btract th e q uantities below from

,
th e tabular quantit y for the preceding date .
Day Of M o nt h M inu t e s NO . of D ay s E l ap s d e
For t h e tabular y ear t wo eastern e lon g ations occur on

,
January 14 an d t wo west e rn e lon g ations on July 13

, .
C To ref er the t a ble t o s tandard time : A dd to the tab

.
ular quantiti e s four min ut e s for ev e ry deg ree O f lon g itude

the p lace is w e st O f the standard m e ri d ian and s u btract
wh e n the p lace is e ast O f the standard meridian .
D To.
f to any o ther than the t abu l ar l atitu de bet ween
re er
t he l imits No rth: Add to the tim e O f w e st

°
of 2 5
°
a nd 5 0
min for ev e ry de g ree south O f 4 0 and

°
elon g ation .
ON O B T A IN IN G THE M E R I D I AN 59
su bt ract from t h e time O f west elongation min for .
every degree nort h of For eastern elongations su b

t ract min for every degree sout h O f
. and add
min for every degree north O f
.
E T0 refer to a ny other t han t he t a bu la r b ngit u de A dd

.
min fo r each 1 5 east O f the n inetieth m e ridian and sub

.
°
°
tract min for each 1 5 west O f the n inetieth meridian
. .
T he deduced time O f elongation will seldom be in error

more t h an min .
F or E v e nin g Ob s e rv atio n S tudy of the tables will

.
show t h at at certain times O f the year a choice O f methods

is O ffered S ince however ev e ning O bservation is us ually
.
, ,
most convenient the following directions have been ar

,
ranged wit h that ih V iew T he time limits for these

.
O bservatio ns it will be unders tood vary somewhat wit h

, ,
the latitude .
O n the tenth O f January O bserve western elongation

at midnight and for each fifteen days thereafter earlier
by one h o u r T h is may be done until late M arc h
. .
From late M arch to early June use lower culmination ,
with the help O f Delta of C assiopeia O n A pril l st the .
cul mination occurs at and after that for each fifteen

days earlier by one h our .
From early June to early O ctober use eastern elonga

tion. O n June 1 5th it occurs at 2 A M . .
From early O ctober to middle January use upper cul

mination wit h Zeta O f the Great B ear .
SE C TIO N VIII
THE UNITED STATE S P UB LI C LAN D SURVE YS
I n the original States there is a great variety O f system ,
or lack O f syst e m in th e division of land for ownership

, .
L and which has ever be en a part O f the P ublic Domain O f

the Unit e d States and that embraces in general th e
territory north of the O hio R iv e r and from th e M ississippi
R iv e r west to th e P ac ific coast has be e n surveyed with ,
small exceptions und e r a common system the S O call ed

, ,
-
”
System O f R e ctangular S urveying An account O f this .
,
so far as it concerns the woodsman follows , .
C hapter III of the P ublic L and L aws contains t h e fol

low ing sections
S EC 9 9
. The publi c l and s shall b e divi d ed by no rth a nd so uth
.
lines ru n acc o rd ing t o the true merid ian a nd by o thers cro ssing ,
them at right a ngles S O as t o fo rm township s O f six mil es squ are

, ,
u nl e ss wher e t he li n e O f a n I n d i a n re s erv atio n o r O f tract s O f l a n d

,
heretofo re su rvey ed o r patent ed o r the co urs e O f n avigabl e riv ers

, ,
may rend er this impracti cabl e ; a nd in t hat case this ru le must

be d epa rt ed fro m no further than su ch p articular circumstanc es
re qu 1r e .
Se co nd T he co rners O f the t o wn ships mu st b e marke d with

.
pro gressiv e numbers fro m t he beginning ; each d i stanc e O f a mil e

b et wee n su c h corn ers mu st b e als o d i stinctly mark ed with marks
d ifferent fro m tho s e O f t he co rn ers .
.
T hird T he to wnship sha ll b e sub d ivi d ed into se ctio ns c o n
.
,
taini ng a s nea rly a s may be six hu n dred a nd fo rty a cres each

, , ,
by ru n ning thro u gh the same e ach way p arall el line s at the e n d

, ,
O f e v ery t wo m il e s ; a n d b
y maki ng a c o rner o n ea ch O f s u ch lin es
at t he e n d O f ev ery mil e T he s e ctio ns shall be numb ered re
.
,
s pe ct iv e l
y b egi nn i ng w ith t he nu mb er o ne in t he no rt he ast se c ti o n
, ,
a nd proc ee d i ng w e st a n d e ast a lt ernat ely t hro u gh t he t o wns hip
With pro gressiv e numb ers till the thirty six b e c o mpleted -
.
Fo urt h T he d eputy sur v ey o rs r es pe ctiv ely shall c au s e t o

.
, ,
be marked o n a tree n ear e a ch c o rn er establi shed in t he mann er

d escrib ed a nd withi n t he se cti o n the nu mb er O f s u ch s ecti o n
, ,
a nd O e r it the nu mb er O f the t o wnship within whi ch s u c h s e cti o n
may l e y .
Fifth W here the ext erio r li nes O f t he t o wnships which may

.
be su bd i v id e d into sectio n s o r half-sectio ns exceed o r d o no t ex

t end S IX miles, t he excess o r d efici ency shall be specially no t ed
U N I T E D S T A T E S P U B L I C LAN D S UR V E Y S 61
a nd add ed t o o r d educt ed from the west ern and no rthern ranges

O f s ecti o ns or half s ectio ns in such t o w nshi ps acco rd in g as the
-
,
erro r may be in running t he lin es fro m east t o west o r fro m north ,
t o s o u th ; the s ectio ns a nd half s ec ti o ns b o un d ed o n t he no rthern -
a nd w est ern li n es O f s u ch t o w ns hips sha ll be so ld as c o nta ining
o nly th e qu antity exp re ss ed in t he retur ns a nd plat s re s pe cti v e ly , ,
an d all o thers as co nta ining t he c o mpl et e leg al qu antity .
S ixt h All lin es shall be plainl y marke d u po n t ree s a nd meas

.
,
u red with cha ins co nt a in ing t w o pe rc he s O f sixt ee n a n d o n e ha lf

,
-
feet each su bdivid ed into tw enty fiv e equal links ; a nd the cha in

,
-
sha ll be ad j us t ed t o a stand ard t o b e kept fo r tha t pur po s e .
SE C 1 00 . T he b oun d ari es a nd c o nt ents O f the s ev era l s ec ti o ns

.
,
half sections a nd qu art er s ectio ns O f the pu blic land s shall be as

-
,
-
ce rt a in e d in co nf o rmity with the fo ll o w ing prin c i ple s :

First All the co rners mark ed in th e survey s return ed by the
.
s urv ey o r general shall be esta b lished as t he pro per co rners O f

-
s ec ti o ns o r s ubd i v isi o ns O f se cti o ns which they w ere int e n d ed t o

, ,
d es ignate a nd the co rners O f half a nd qu art er s e cti o ns not marked

,
-
,
o n t he sur vey s sha ll b e pla c e d as n early a s po s sibl e equidistan t

,
fro m t wo co rners which sta nd o n the sa me lin e .
Seco nd T he bo und ary lin es act u a lly run an d mark ed in t he

.
,
s u rvey s returned by th e s u rv ey o r genera l sha l l be e s ta b lis h ed as

—
,
t he pro pe r bo u ndary li nes O f t he s e c ti o ns o r s u bdiv i si o ns fo r which

they w ere int end ed and the leng th O f su ch lines as retu rn ed shall
,
be held and co ns id ered as the true length t hereo f An d the .
bo u ndary lines which hav e n o t b een act u all y run a nd marked

shall be a sce rta in ed by running st ra ight lin e s fro m the e sta blish ed
co rners t o the O ppo sit e co rrespo nding c o rners ; bu t in tho se po r

tions O f the fractio nal to wnships where n o such O ppo sit e co rre ,
spo nding co rners hav e b ee n o r c a n be fixed t he bo un d ary line s ,
sha ll be as ce rta in ed b
y ru nning fro m the e sta blished co rn ers d u e
no rth and so uth o r east and west lines as t he ca se may be t o the , ,
wat er co ur s e In dian bo u nd ary lin e o r o the r ext ernal bo un dary

-
, ,
o f s u c h fracti o na l t o wns hip .
T hird E ach se cti o n o r su bdivis io n O f se cti o n th e co nt ent s

.
,
where of hav e been retur n ed by the sur vey o r genera l shall be -

,
held and co ns id ered as co ntai ni ng the exa ct qu a ntity expre ssed

in su ch return ; a nd the ha lf s ecti o ns a nd qu art e r sec ti o ns the - -
,
cont ent s whereo f shall no t hav e b ee n thu s returned shall be held ,
and co ns i d er ed as co nta ining th e o ne ha lf o r the o n e fo urth part

- -
,
re s pec tiv ely O f th e ret ur n e d co nt e nt s O f th e se c ti o n O f w hich they

,
may make p art (Ac t O f Fe b 1 1 1 805 a n d R S. .

, , . .
,
SE C 1 0 1
. I n ev ery ca se O f the d iv i sio n O f a quart er sectio n
.
-
the line fo r the div i si o n t hereo f shall ru n no rth a nd so u th a nd the ,
co rners a nd co nt ents O f half qu art er sectio ns which may there - -
aft er be so ld shall be ascert a ined in the mann er and o n the prin

c ipl es d irect ed an d pr es cribed by th e sec tion preced ing .
62 A MA N U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOOD S M E N
I n elaboration of the law are the following rules laid

down by the Federal L and O ffice :
24 . E xi sti ng l aw requ ire s that in general the pub lic land s O f
t he Unit ed State s shall b e d i vid ed by no rth a nd so u t h lin e s ru n
“
a cco rding t o the t ru e meri d i an a nd by o thers cro ssing them a t

,
right a ngl e s S O a s t o fo rm t o wns hi ps six mil e s s qu ar e

”
a n d t hat ,
the co rners O f the to wns hips thu s sur v eyed must be ma rked with
“
pro gress iv e nu mbers fro m the beg in nin g .
Also that the to wnships hall be

,
s s u b di v i de i t t i ty six sec
d n o h r
-
tio ns each Of whic h shall co nta in 640 acres as nearly as may be

, , ,
by a system O f t wo sets O f parall el lines o ne go v erned by tru e ,
merid ia ns a nd the o ther by parall els O f latitu d e the latt er inter ,
s ect ing th e fo rmer at right a ngl e s at int erva l s O f a mil e

, .
25 . In the execution O f the pu b lic sur veys u nder existing law ,
it is appa rent that the requirements that the lines O f sur vey shall
conf orm t o true meridians a nd that the to wnships sha ll be six mil es
,
square , tak en t o gether i n v o lve a mathematica l imp o s sib ility d u e

,
t o t he co nv ergency O f the meri dia ns .
Therefo re t o co nf o rm t he meridio nal to wn shi p lines t o the

,
tru e meridians pro du ces to wnships O f a trapezo idal fo rm which

d o no t c o ntain the precis e area O f acres required by law,
a nd whi ch discrepa n cy i n crea se s with the in crea se in th e co n
v ergency O f t he meri d i ans a s the survey s atta in the higher latitud e s

‘
26 . In Vi ew O f thes e facts, a nd u nd er the pro vi sio ns O f Sec

tio n 2 Of the Act O f M ay 1 8 , 1 796 that sectio ns O f a mile square
,
shall co nta i n 6 4 0 a cre s , as n early a s m a

y be “ a n d a lso und er tho s e
,
O f Se cti on 3 O f th e A ct O f M a
y 1 0 , 1 80 0 , that in a ll c as es where the
ext erio r li nes O f the to wns hips, thu s t o be subd ivid ed into sectio ns
a nd ha lf-s e cti o ns , shall excee d , o r shall no t ext end six mil es , the
exc ess o r d eficie ncy shall be specially no ted , and add ed t o o r d e

d u cted fro m the w estern o r no rthern rang es O f s ectio n s o r ha lf
s ectio n s in s u ch t o wn s hip , acco rd in g a s the e rro r ma
y be in ru n
ning line s fro m ea st t o w e st o r fr o m so u th t o no rth ; the s ecti o ns
,
a nd half s ecti o ns b o u nd ed o n the no rt hern a nd w est ern lin es O f

-
s uch t o wnships shall be s o l d a s co nta ining o nly the qu antity ex
pressed in the returns and p lats, respectiv ely , and all others as
c o n a i ning the co mpl et e l eg al quantity
”
t , th e p u b lic la nd s o f the
Umt e d Sta t es shall be sur vey ed un d er the metho d s O f the sy st em
O f recta ngu l ar sur v eyi ng which ha rmo ni ze s the inco mpatib iliti es
,
O f t e requ i reme nt s O f l aw a nd pra ctice as fo ll o ws

h ,
Fi rst . T he e stablishment O f a princi pal meri d ian co nf o rming

t o the tru e meri dian a nd , at right angle s t o it , a base line co nf o rm
,
ing t o a parall e l O f l atit u d e .
S econd T he esta blis hm ent O f stand ard parall els co nf o rming

.
t o p arall els O f latitu d e initi at ed fro m the princ i p al meri dian at

,
interval s O f 2 4 mil es a nd extend e d e a st a nd w e st O f the same .
Thi rd T h e e st a blis hme nt O f guid e meri d i a ns c o nf o rmin t o

.
true meridians , initiated upon the base line and succe ssiv e stan ard
. o
U N I T E D S TA T E S P U B L I C LAN D S U R V E Y S 63
p r llel
a a interv l
s at miles re su lti ng in tracts o f land
a s of t enty fo u r
w -
,
twenty fo ur mil es squ are as nearly as may be which shall be sub

-
, ,
s equently d i v i d e d int o t ra cts O f l and six mil es square by t wo s ets
O f lin e s o ne co nf o rming t o tr u e meri d i ans cro ssed by o thers co n

, ,
fo rming t o parall els O f latit u d e at interv als O f six miles c o nta ining ,
a cre s as n ea rly as may be

, a n d d e s ignat ed t o wns hi ps , .
Such t o wns hips shall be su b div i d ed into t hirty six tra cts call ed -
,
s e cti o ns ea ch O f which shall co nta in 64 0 acres as n early as ma

, y ,
b e by t wo sets O f p arall el line s o ne se t pa ra llel t o a true meridian

, ,
a nd the o ther co nfo rming t o pa rall e l s O f l atit u d e mu t u a lly int er ,
se ct ing at int erv als O f o ne mil e a nd at rig ht angl e s as n ea rly as ,
may be .
27 . A ny seri es O f co ntiguo us to wnships o r sect io ns situat ed

north and so uth O f each o ther co nstitut es a R ANGE w hil e such a ,
s eri es s ituat ed in a n east a nd w e st directi o n co nstitut e s a TI ER .
28 . B y the t erms O f the o rig in al law a nd by general pra ctice ,
s ecti o n lin es w ere survey e d fro m s o u th t o no rth a nd fro m ea st t o

w est in o rd er t o unifo rml y pl ace exce ss o r d efici en cy O f measur e
,
ment o n the no rth and w est sid e s O f the t o wns hi ps B ut und er .
mo d ern co nditio ns many cases ari se in which a d epartur e fro m

this method is necessary W here the west o r the no rth bo u ndary
.
is su ffici ently correct as t o course t o se rv e as a bas is fo r rec ta ngul ar

,
subdiv i s i o n a n d th e O ppo sit e l i n e is d efective

, the s ec tio n lines ,
sho ul d be run by a r evers ed metho d .
Fo r co nv enience the w e ll surv ey e d lin es o n which subdivi -
si o ns are t o be b as ed will be ca ll ed g o v e rning bo und ari es O f the

to wns hip .
29 . T he tiers O f t owns hips will be numbe red t o the no rth o r ,
s o uth co mm e n cin g with NO 1 at the b as e lin e ; a nd the ranges

.
,
O f the t o wnships t o th e e ast o r w est beg innin g with NO 1 at the

, , .
,
principal meridian O f the syste m .
30 . T he thirty six s ecti o ns into which a to wns hi p is su bdi

-
vid ed are numb e re d co mmencing with NO 1 at the no rth

, .
east angl e O f the to wns hip and pro ceed ing w est t o number six
, ,
a nd thence pr o ce eding ea st t o num be r tw el v e a nd so o n a lt er , ,
nat e ly t o num b e r thirty six in the so u theas t a ngl e

,
-
In all case s .
O f fracti o nal t o wns hi ps th e s ectio ns w ill b ea r the sa me ,
numbers they wo ul d hav e if the to wns hip was fu l l ; and where

d ou bt ari ses as t o which se c ti o n numb ers sho ul d be o mitt ed the ,
pro per s ectio n numbers wil l be us ed o n the s id e o r s id es which

are g o v erning bo u nd arie s lea ving a ny d efici ency t o fall o n the
,
o ppo sit e s i d es .
31 . Sta nd ard parall el s (fo rmerly ca ll ed co rrectio n lines ) shall

be e stabli shed at interv als Of tw enty fo u r miles no rth a nd so u th O f
-
,
the base line a nd gu id e meridians at intervals Of t enty four miles,

,
w -
eas t a nd w est O f the princ i pal meri dian ; thu s c o nfining the erro rs
re sul ting fro m co nv ergen c e O f meri d i a ns a nd in accuraci e s in meas
ure me nt within comparatively small ar eas .

64 A MAN U AL FO R NORTH E RN W O O DS M E N
I n pursuit this system during the course O f the pub

Of ,
lic land surveys tw e nty four init ial p oint s h ave been -
established a p rin cip al m e ridian has be e nrun due nort h

,
and south from e ach O f these and a b a s e line east and ,
west E ach twenty—four miles north and south O f the

.
initial point s tan d ar d p arall e l s or c orr e c tion lin e s have

been st arted on which as th e y were run east and west , ,
marks have been left each s ix mil e s for the starting O f

township lines T hese are run due north to the next
.
standard parallel ; each fourth one being run first and
d d S t an d dP
ar aral l e l
S t an ar Paral l e l
S tan d dPar aral l el
F RS SU D
I T ON
B LANDIV IS I D V O N N O TO WN H
op I IS I I T S I PS
most accurately as a g u id e m e r idian O n the nort h and .
south lines township corn ers are fixed each six mil es by
measurement and e ach pair O f corners is later connected
, .
A township corner is common to four townships except on a

standard parallel T her e owing to conv e rge nce O f merid
.
,
ians th e corn e rs of the townships north are farther from the

,
principal meridian than those O f the town ships south farth er

east or west as the case may be T he ranges O f townships
, .
connected with a ny given initial point ar e numbe r e d east

and w e st from the principal meridian and the townships ,
themselve s are numbere d north and south from the base

'
line T hus the sixth township north O f a bas e line in the
.
fourth range e ast O f a principal meridian is designated as

t ownship 6 north range 4 east E ac h towns h ip contains
, .
UN I T E D S TA T E S P U B L I C LAN D S U R V E Y S 65
t h irty six square miles or

-
acres neglecting t h e nar ,
rowing effect of t h e converge nce of the meridians T h ese .
relations are indicated clearly in the diagrams .
As t h e township lines are run corner marks are left eac h ,
mile and the township is divided into thirty six se ct ion s by

,
-
beginning on the south side at eac h mile mark and running

nort h markin g eac h mil e or section corner also each h a lf
, ,
mile or q u art e r s e c t ion corner A t the nort h end these

-
.
lin es are made to clos e on the mile marks left in survey in g

the north lin e O f the townshi p with the exce p tion O f those
,
on a standard p arall el H ere the section lin es ar e run

.
strai g ht out to the p arall e l which thus serves as a cor

,
“
”
rection line for the sections as well as for t h e township s
-
.
SE C T I O NS I N A T O WN S HIP SU B DI V I S I O N O F A SE CT I O N
The east and west section lines are run betwee n corre
sp o n d in g corners on the north and south lin e s alwa y s ,
markin g the half mil e or q uarter s e ction p oin t

-
The -
.
eff ect on ar e a O f converg ence O f m e ridians is localized in

the case O f sections in th e first p lace by chainin g t h e
,
latitudinal townshi p lines always from the east end t hus ,
confinin g an y defici ency O f width to the westerl y board

O f sections ; in th e second p lac e by runn in g t h e nort h and
south lines not due nort h exactly but wit h a westerl y ,
bearin g suffici e nt at one two three four and fiv e miles

, , , ,
from the east lin e to kee p them at e q ual distances a p art

t hrou gh out their len g th S hort area is thus confin ed to
.
th e westerly board O f sections in each towns h i p when

survey s are accuratel y made For t h e same p urp ose .
,
reduction in the number O f irre g ular units quarter corners ,
for the nort h an d west tiers O f sections are p laced exactly

fort y chain s from the interior corners not at the mid dl e ,
p oint of the section lin es .
The L and O ffice instructions to surveyors conta in

several articles on the marking O f line s of which thos e O f ,
interest to the woodsman are quot e d on page 24 of this

work I nstructions for establishin g corn e rs and e r e ctin g
.
monuments ar e also giv e n but ar e far too elaborat e to be

,
here quot e d in full C orner monuments consist O f an O b

.
j e c t marking the corn e r itself and its accessories T he y .
are to be set u p at the intersection O f all the lines noted

in the instructions q uoted above and at some other p oints
to b e mentioned hereaft e r S everal app roved forms O f .
corner monuments are descri be d below An y one may .
be used for a township a section or a quart e r section

, ,
-
corner t h e marks u p on it in dicatin g wh at the corner is

, .
1 . S tone wit h p its and moun d O f eart h .
2 . S tone with moun d O f stone .
3 . S tone with bearin g trees .
4 . P ost with p its and mound O f earth .
5 . P ost with he arin g tree

6 .M ound O f earth with marked stone , c h arcoal
p osited inside and stake in p it, .
7 T r e e with p it and moun d O f stone

.
.
8 Tree wit h bearin g trees

. .
P osts O f W ood and stone and bearin g trees h ave been

emp loyed larg el y as corner monuments in timber e d
coun try The p ost is set not to e xcee d one foot out O f th e
.
g roun d A t a stan d ard closin g or quarter corn e r it is set

.
, ,
facin g cardinal directions dia g onal ly at a corner common

,
to four townshi p s or sections Plain fi g ures and initial .
letters inscrib e d on the faces g ive the location and this in ,
the case O f s e ction corners is also in d icated by notches cut

in the ed g es or by g rooves on fac e s These notches on . ,
accoun t Of their d urab ility are , Of much service in id e n t i

UN I T E D S T A T E S P U B L I C LAN D S U RVE Y S 67
fic a t io n Of
section corners They are p laced on t h e sout h
.
and east an gles O f the p osts one for each mile to the town ,
ship boundary in the g iven direction Qu arter corners are .
not notched ; townshi p corners are cut six times on each

face or an g le .
E q ually serviceable are the bearin g trees These are .
blazed rather close to the g roun d so that the stum p can

be ident ified if the tree is cut down The blazes face th e .
corner and that on each tree at townshi p or section corners

,
is p lainl y scribed wit h the to w ns hip number a n d ran g e and

t h at O f the section in which it sta nds T hus T 10 S R .
,
6 E S 24 B T (B T for bea rin g tree) .
T here are several e xcep t io ns t o t h e sy st e m o f r e ct an

gu l ar s u rv e yin g and the re g ular sch e me O f monuments
res ul tin g therefrom which it is necessary for the woodsman
,
to unders t a nd .
1 . To wns hip a nd S ectio n Corners on S ta nd ard Paral le ls .
I t will be noted after careful readin g O f the above t h at

town shi p or section corners are common to four townshi p s
or sections with th e e xce p tion O f those on th e standard
,
p arallels which are four townshi p s a p art H er e the corners .
for the town s hip s north O f the p ara llel are not the same as
for thos e south but are further from the p rin ci p al mc
,
” “
ridian The form e r are call ed standard co rn e rs and are
.
marked S C in addition to other marks p laced on them for

their identification In a si milar wa y the corners relatin g
.
to land sub divisions l y in g south O f the p arallel are marked

”
C C ,closin g corner This last tei m is also a pp lied in
.
'
other connections as when a recta n g ul ar survey closes on

,
the boun dary O f a state a reservation or a p revious lan d

, ,
claim while occasions for its a pp lication have O ften been

,
foun d in conn ection with errors or de p artures from in st ru c

tions in t h e s ystem O f surveyin g .
2 .M ea nd er Lines a nd Corners .
Own ers hip of considerable streams or lakes wit h t h e ,

”
ex cep tion of certa in ri p arian ri g hts is not convey ed ,
with a land t it l e t he le g al limit bein g hig h water mark or

'
-
, ,
t h e lin e at which continuous ve g eta tion e nds and t h e sandy

68 A M AN U AL FO R NORTH E RN W OO DS M E N
or muddy shore begins T h is line is su rveyed in connec .
tion with a United States land survey the process being ,
called meandering .
At eve ry point where a standard towns hip or section , ,
l ine intersects the bank O f a navigable stream or other

me ande rable body of water corners are established at the ,
time O f runn ing these lines T hese are called meander .
T hey are always marked M C in addition to any

3,
corners .
other marks left for their identification .
I n the same way when a line subdivid ing a section runs

,
into a considerable body Of water a special meander ,

”
corner is established and marked in t he same way .
3 . W itness C o rne rs a nd W itness Points .
A ke y to the location and meaning of t hese will be foun d

”
in t he following sections from the I nstructions .
49 . Und er circumstance s where the survey o f a to wnship o r

se cti o n line is O b struc t e d by a n impassab l e O b stacl e su ch a s a ,
pond swamp o r marsh (not me ande rab le ) the lin e will be pro
, , ,
lo nged a cro ss such O b structio n by making t he nece ssary right

a ngle O ffs et s ; o r if such pro c ee d ing b e impra cticab l e a trav e rse
, ,
line will be run o r so me pro per trigono metrica l O pe ration e m

,
plo yed t o locat e the line o n the O ppo site sid e O f the O bstruct io n
nd in case the line e ither meri dio nal o r latit u d inal thus rega in ed
a ,
is rec o v ered b ey o nd the nt ervening O b stacl e sa id lin e will be sur

, ,
i ,
v eye d b ac k t o the margin O f th e O b structio n .
50 . As a guid e in ali gnment a nd me asurement at e ach po int ,
where the line intersect s the margin O f an Ob stacle a Witne ss po int

will be est ablished except when such po int is less than t wenty
,
chains distant fro m the true po int for a legal co rn er which fall s in
the Obstruction in which case a witne ss corner will be established
,
at the intersecti on .
51
-
. In a ca se where all the po ints O f intersect ion with the Ob
st a c le t o measur e ment fall mo re than twenty cha in s fro m t he pro pe r
plac e fo r a legal co rner in the O b stru ction and a W itne ss co rner ,
ca n be plac e d o n the O ffset line within twenty cha ins O f the inac
cess ibl e c o rne r o int such Witne s s c o rner will be e stab li she d
p , .
97 . The po int for a co rn er fall ing o n a railro ad str eet o r , ,
wagon ro ad w ill be pe rpetuat ed by a mark ed sto ne (charred stake

,
or quart Of charco al) d epo sit ed twenty four inche s in the g

, grr0 und
-
,
a nd witn e ssed by t wo witne ss co rn ers o ne O f which will be e stab ,
lishe d o n ea ch limit ing lin e O f t he highway .
In ca se t he po int fo r any reg l ar co rner fall s at th e int ersection

u
O f t wo o r mo re stree ts o r roa d s i t will be e r e t u at e d by a m ark ed
p p ,
s tone (charred stak e o r qu art Of charcoal ) d epo site d tw enty four -

,
inches in t he ground an d witnes sed by t wo witn ess co rners estab

,
U N IT E D S T A T E S P U B L I C LAN D S U R VE Y S 69
lis he d on O pposite side s O f t he corner po int and at t he mutual in ,
io ns O f t he lin es limiting t he roa d s o r stree ts as t he ca se

té
t e rse c ,
may l
94 . W hen the
true po int for any co rner d e scribed in these
ins tru ctions falls Where preva iling conditio ns wo ul d insure it s
d es truct io n by n atural ca use s a Witne ss co m er will be e sta bl ish ed
,
in a s ec ure po sitio n o n a survey ed lin e if po ssible and within

, ,
twent y chains O f t he co rner po in t thus w itne ss ed .
95 A witne ss co rner w il l bea r t he same marks that woul d be

.
placed u po n the co rner for w hich it is a w itness and in add ition , ,
wil l have the lett ers W C (for witne ss co rner) co nspicuously dis
la y d a bo v e t he regular mark ing s o n t he NE fa c e whe n w itn ess
p e .
ing in t o wns hi p or se cti o n co rner ; such w itne ss co rn ers wil l be

e stablished in all o ther re spects like a regu lar co rner mar
, , ,
bearing tree s with the pro pe r numbers fo r the sections in whi

they st a nd .
W C will a lso be cut in to the woo d o f ea ch bearing t ree above

the o ther markings .
98 W itne ss po ints will be pe rpetuat ed by co rners s imilar t o

.
t ho se d e sc rib ed for uarter sect io n co rners w ith the m arking W P

-
q ,
(for witne ss po int) In pla ce O f i o r i S as t he case may be

, , , .
If bea ring trees are av ailable as accesso ries t o witness po ints ,
each t ree W Ill be marked W P B T .
4 . Fractional S ections Lots , , etc .
section or q uarter section made O f less t h an full size by

A -
” “
water is called fractional and in some cases is subdiv ided ,
accordin g to s p ecial rules laid down by the Land Office .
The sections on t h e westerly board O f a towns hip into ,
which under the plan O f survey s hrinka g e O f area due to

, ,
converg ence O f township lines toward the north is crowded ,
are called fractional as well W ithin t h ese sections a g ain . ,
the westerl y q uarters and forties will be fractional for the

same reason The final subdi v isions O f irre g ul ar area
.
the s y stem is followed next the nort h as well as th e west

” “
lin e O f t h e townshi p s —
are called lots In a re g ular .
townshi p there are four to eac h section numbered from ,
1 to 4 for each be g innin g with the east or north wit h seven

, ,
lots for S ection 6 In timbered country however t h ey .

, ,
are seldom run out on the ground .
W hile t h e above are us ual features O f t he pub l ic land

survey s num e rous exce p tions were made as for instance
, ,
in case of a defective east or sout h boun dary in a townshi p ,

when subdivision was be g un from t h e o pp osite side .
S omewh at different rules also were in force durin g t h e

very earl y survey s T hen in addition irre g ulariti e s due
.
to the errors of survey in g and t h ese sometimes O f an

,
ex treme nature are sometimes foun d

, .
PA RT II
FO RE S T M APS
F O RE ST MA PS
S E CTI ON I . T HE TR ANS IT
1 Ad j ustment s
.
C are o f the Trans it

.
2 .
3 Stadia M easur eme nt

.
4 Uses O f the T ransit

.
5 Summary
.
S E CTION II T HE L E VE L
.
1 Ad j ust ment s
.
2 Us es O f t he lev el
.
S E CTI ON III T HE HAND LE VE L AND C LINOME TER

.
SE CTI ON IV C OM PAS S A ND PA CING

.
SE CTI ON V T H E TR AVERS E B OAR D

.
SE CTI ON VI T HE ANE R OI D B AR OM ET ER
.
SE CTI ON VII M E T HO DS O F MAP MA KI NG

.
1 Intro d u ctory
.
2 Small T rac ts
.
3 L arg
. ge T racts
A W ith L and a lready subdivi d ed
B B ased o n Survey O f R o ad s o r Streams
.
C Su bdivisio n a nd Survey co mb ined

. .
D W est ern To pography Use O f the Cl ino met er

.
.
S E C TI ON V III ADVANTAGE S OF A M A P SYS TE M

.
PA RT II FO R E S T M A PS
S E C TIO N I
T HE TRAN SI T
T HE transit in general engineering work Is t he most
useful and most fre quently employed O f surveying inst ru
ments I t is commo nl y used to measure horizontal and
.
vertical angles but having a magnetic needle it may be

, , ,
used to take be arings and when provided wit h stadia , ,
wires to measure distances I t may also be use d as a

, .
levelling instrument A cut O f a transit is sho wn here

.
with also a sectional V iew through t he axis O f the same

,
instrument .
’
The essential parts O f an engineer s transit are d es cribed
below The t e l e sco p e is a t t a c he d by means O f a ho ri
'
z o n t al axis and s t an d ar d s to the upper of two c ir cul ar
pl at e s T he two plat e s move freely on one another the

.
,
lower being graduated while the uppe r has a v e rnie r,
whic h allows readings to be made wit h accuracy A .
c omp as s cir cl e is also attached to the upper plate A .
clam p fixes the upper to the lower plate and a t an g e nt ,
s cr e w secures a slow adjusting mov e ment between the
two A similar arrangement is placed between t he lower

.
plate and the head O f the instrument .
T he whole instrument is supported on a trip o d l e v e l ling

scr e w s serve with the aid O f c r o s s l e v e l s to fix the plates in
a horizontal position ; and a finely turned sp in dl e an d so ck e t

arrangement guides the plates in their movement on one
another B y means of a p l umb lin e attached to the lower
.
end of the spindl e the instrument may be set with its a xis
exactly over any desired point .
1 . A DJU S TM E NT S O F T HE TRANS IT
T he bject O f these adjustments is to cause ( 1 ) the
O
instrument to revolve in a horizontal plane ; (2) the line

O f sight to generate a vertical plane when the telescope is
73
revolved on its axis ; (3 ) the axis of the t e l e scope bubble

to be parallel to the lin e O f sight thus e nabling the in st ru
,
ment to be used as a level ; (4 ) the vernier on th e vertical
T HE T AN
R S IT
c rcle to be so ad juste d as to giv e the true altitude of the

i
l ine O f sight T h e se r e sults m ay be secur e d as follows
.
‘
a T o ad j u st t h e p l at e l e v e l s s o t ha t e a ch is in a p l an e
.
TH E T R AN S I T 75
tical axis of t he ins t rument Set

p e rp e n dicul ar t o t he v er .
up the transit and bring the bubbles to the center O f t heir

respective tubes T urn the plate 1 8 0 about its vertical
.
°
axis and see if the bubbles remain in th e center If they

, .
mov e from the center turn the capstan headed screws on ,

-
the bubble tube until the bubble moves hal f way back to -
the c e nter or as nearly so as this can be estimated E ach

, .
bubble must be adjusted independently T he adjust .
ment S hould be t e sted again by re le v e ll ing and reversing

as before and the process continued until the bubbles re
,
ma in in the center when reversed W h e n both levels are .
adjusted the bubbles S hould remain in the center during

,
the entire revolution abo ut t he vertical axis .
C R OS S -
SE CTI O N O F T HE T AN
R S IT HE AD
b . To mak e t he lin e of si g ht p e rp e n dicul ar t o t he hori

'
z ont al axis so t ha t t he t e l e s c o p e w he n r e v ol v e d will

g e n e ra t e a p l an e
do this choo se open and nearly level
. To
ground Set up the transit carefull y over a point A sight
. ,
accurately at a point B at about the same level and 200 or

3 00 feet away and clamp both plates
,
R evolve the tele .
scope and set C in line with the vertical cross hair at abo ut
’ -
’
the same distance and e levation B A and C should then .
, ,
be in a straight lin e T O t e st this turn the instrument. ,

about the vertical axis until B is again sighted C lamp t h e .
plate r e volve the telescope and O b serve if point C is in

, ,
line If not set a third point D in the new line T hen

.
, .
,
to adjust the cross hair ring must be moved until the

,
-
vertical hair appears to have moved to th e point E one ,
fourth the distance from D toward C since in this case '

, , ,
a double reversal has been made .
T he cross hair ring is mov e d by loosening one of the

-
screws which hold it in the telescope tube and tightening

the opposite screw T he process O f reversal S hould be
.
repe ated until no further adjustment is required W hen .
finally adjusted the screws s h oul d hold the ring firml y but
,
without straining it .
c. To m ak e t he horiz on t al axis of t he t e l e sc op e p e r
p e n dicul ar t o t he v e r t ic al axis of t he in s trume nt s o t hat ,
t he t e l e sc o p e in it s r e v o l u t ion will ge n e r at e a v e r t ical

p l an e Set up the instrument and level it carefully S us
. .
pend a fin e smooth plumb line twenty or thirty f e et long

,
some twenty feet away from the instrument with a weight

on the lower end h anging freely in a pail O f water Set the .
line O f sight carefully on the cord at its upper end C lamp .
bot h plates and bring the telescope down until it reads on

the lower end O f the cord I f the line O f sight does not cut
.
the cord raise or lower the adjustable end O f the horizon

,
tal ax is until the line of sight does revolve in a vertical

plane C onstant att e ntion must be given to the plat e
.
bubbles to see that they do not indicate an inclined Verti '
cal axis .
If more convenient two points in a vertical line may be

used as points on a building Set on th e top point and turn
, .
down to the bottom on e marking it care fully R evolve ,

.
both plate and telescope 1 8 0 and set again on the bottom

°
point R aise the telescope again and read on the top point:
.
T he second pointing at the top point should correspond

with the first I f it does not adjust as above for half th e
.
,
difference .
d. To mak e t he t e l e sc op e b u b b l e p ar al l e l t o t he lin e of
sight T his adjustment 1 8 performed in the same way as
.
for a level as explained on pages 8 9 and 9 0

, .
e. T o m ak e t he v e rnie r of t he v e rtic al c ircl e re a d z ero

T HE TR A N S I T 77
whe n t he lin e of sight is horiz on t al H aving made the .
a x is O f the telescope bubble parallel to t he line O f sight ,
bring the bubble into the center O f the tube and adjust the
vernier O f the vertical circle until it r e ads zero on the limb .
If t h e vernier is not adjustable the reading in this position , .
is its in dex error to be applied to all read ings

, .
2 . CAR E O F T HE TR ANS IT
The transit should be protected from wet and d ust as
much as possible a waterproof bag to cover it be in g use ful
,
for that purpose T he t ripo d legs should move freely but

.
'
not too fre e ly ; there should be no lost motion about their

s h oes or elsewhere Dust or water should be removed from
.
t he glasses by a camel s hair brush or the gentle use O f a

’
clean handkerchief ; grease may be removed by alcohol .
C are should be taken not to strain the parts O f the in st ru

ment by too great pressure on the screws when using or
adjusting it B efor e the transit is picked up the levell ing
.
,
screws should be brough t approximately to their mid po

s it io n the telescope should be turned vertically and lightly
,
clamped and the clamp of the low e r plate should be loos

,
ened T hen if the instrument strik e s anything while being

.
,
carried from point to point some part wil l move easily and
,
severe shock will be avoided .
3 . STAD IA M E AS U REM E NT
Measurement O f distance by stadia is secured by simply
sighting with a transit at a graduated rod held on any de
sired po int and noting the space on the rod included
between t wo special cross ha irs set in the fo cus O f the in
-
strument T his is a very rapid method O f m e asurement

. ,
being especially handy and eff ective over broken land ; it

gives a d e gree of accuracy su ffici e nt for very many pur
poses ; it allows the computation of the difference in ele
vation between t wo points T hus for many purposes it is.
the most eff ective method of survey and it is coming ,
into general use .
The I ns t r um e nt A transit intended for stadia work is

.
provided wit h two additional horizontal hairs usuall y fas ,
ten e d to the same diaphragm as the ordinary cross hairs -

,
and plac e d at a known distance apart T he space be .
tween th e se t wo extra hairs is pre ferably fixed but in ,
some transits th e diaphragm is so arranged that it can b e

adjusted T he instrum e nt must also be provided with a
.
level on the t e lescope and a circle or a re for m e asuring

vertical angles sinc e the tel e scope is sel d om lev e l wh e n
,
m e asurem e nts are taken .
S t adia r od s are usually 1 0 or 1 2 feet long T h e y are .
plainly painted in such a design as to be r e ad at long dis

tances E ngineers generall y use I O d S graduated to f e et
.
‘ '
and tenths the hairs cutting O ff on e foot on the rO d at a

,
distance O f 1 00 f e et H un d r e dths O f a foot are ge nerally

.
estimated For use in connection with a land surv e y it may

.
be more conveni e nt to graduat e the rod or adjust the hairs

SO that one un it wil l be cut O ff at a distance O f 6 6 feet or
one chain .
I n c lin e d Sig ht s T he distance between in strument and

.
rod is m e asured directly if th e sight is tak e n horizontal ly ,

°
and a vertical angle between them O f 5 or l e ss does not SO ,
affect th e sight as to matter particularly in many kinds of

work If however a sight O f gre ater inclination is taken
.
, , ,
a reading is O btain ed that represents a greater distanc e

than the horizontal one between in strument and rO d If .
for an inclined reading the rod is also inclined so as to be ,
perpendicular to the line O f sight the reading repres e nts ,
the incl ined distance and the hori z ontal distance is th e

,
cosine O f th e angl e O f inclination multiplied by th e inclin e d

distance S imilarly the differ e nce in el e vation is the in
.
,
c l ine d distance multipli e d b the sine O f the angl e

y .
I t is usual how e ver and b e tt e r to hold th e rod plumb

, , , ,
and here th e computation of hori z ontal and V e rtical e l e

ments is not so simpl e T ables howev e r have be e n com .
, ,
u t e d which give thes e e lem e nts horizontal distance and

p ,
differenc e O f elevation directly A compact s ta dia tab l e

, .
will be found on page 2 1 1 O f this work and an e xampl e

sh owin g the method O f its us e is given on page 8 0 .
What has been written above needs however on e , ,
qualification Stadia wires to read truly at all dis t ance s

.
T HE TR AN S I T 79
must cut off the unit distance on the rod not at a distance
O f 1 00 or O f 6 6 feet but at a greater distance equal to the
,
distance from the center O f the instrument to the O bjective

lens the distance from the cross wires to the same lens -
when focused on a distant O bject T his correction (f c) .

,
as it is call ed is about 1 foot in common transits

,
In testing the instrument on measured bases therefore , ,
these should be measured out from the plumb l ine or

center O f instrument to the r e quired distance the
consta nt above described and for accurate determina
,
tion O f distance the constant should be added to the

distance O bserved I n workin g out inclin e d sights from
.
the table this constant may be added to the rod reading

before the reductions for horizontal distance and elevation
are made .
In the practice O f woodsmen however work will generally

, ,
be accurate e n d u gh if this constant is neglected all the ,
more so s ince this error tends to be compensated by that

arising from neglect O f the smal l vert ical angles note d above .
T her e ar e indeed a few transits so constructed t h at no

, ,
such constant correction as that above stated h as to be

considered .
A ccu r acy T he accuracy of stadia measur ement de

.
pe nds largely o h t he state O f the atmosphere I f that is .
ha zy or unsteady from the effects O f heat lo ng shots can

, ,
not be taken and meas urements on shorter distances

ca n not be accur at el y O btained T here is fu rthermore the
.
possibility that the line of sight by th e lower hair w hen

passing over very hot ground may be refracted more than
the other and thereby give too small a reading O ther .
wis e than here and above stated the onl y sources O f in

accuracy are due to errors in rod readings w hic h for small
e rrors are as apt to be as and so mainl y balance one
another T hus while on single shots stadia measurement
.
may be appreciabl y inaccur ate the relative error decreases

,
with the lengt h O f t he lin e run .
I n general it may be said that sta dia measurement gives

satisfactory results for very many purposes and that it has ,
great advantages in the way O f rapidity and cheapnes s

‘
W it h good instru ments and clear air it can be employed

on distances from one quarter to one third O f a mile givi ng ,
results which are accur ate to within a fe w fe et .
E x am p l e an d R e d u c t ion o f R e a din g s
’
1 on rod cut off .
at distance O f I n computation correction made for ,
1 ins trumenta l constant

’
T rue horizontal distance and .
difference O f el e vation between points b oth worked out .
Height O f ins trument over station O btained at e ach setting

and center hair for vertical angle read at same height on
rod .
O b s e rv e d C o mp u t e d
B ea rin g R e a ind g E l ev .
N . 5
°
E .
N . 5
°
E .
4;
N . 5
°
E .
N . 5
°
E .
C ompu tation First sho t with v a O f 1 rod r ead ing

°
. . . .
Add 0 1 fo r ins trument co nsta nt m aking

’
. fo r co rrect ed rod ,
reading Fro m t abl e the ho ri z o nta l d ista nce for 1 ro d rea ding is
.
’
foun d t o be the d ifference O f elevatio n For ro d
rea d ing the el ements are X a nd X or

a nd as abo ve .
Se co nd shot 01 ,co rrected ro d reading

.
, .
Fo r v a 4 1 0 and rod read ing

° ’
. . ho riz ontal d istance
and diff el e v are fo und in th e tabl es
. . and .
X a nd
Simil arly for succ eed ing sho ts
4 . US E S O F THE TR ANS I T
T o T a k e t he B e ar in g Set up over the first of a L ine .
po int level th e instrument fre e the ne e dl e and turn the

, , ,
t e lescope toward the other point R ead the bearing in th e .
sam e w ay as with a compass .
When set up on th e forward one O f two points exactl y ,
the same bearing may be read as if the instrument were

T HE TR AN S I T 81
se t up on t h e rear po int if the telescope is re volved before ,
t he pointin g is mad e and t he bearin g taken .
T o M e a s ure a Ho r iz o nt al A n g l e Set up t h e in st ru .
ment center it by m e ans of the plumb line over the vertex

,
O f the angle required set the zeros O f the two plates to

,
get her clamp them and turn the telescope toward one O f
, ,
the po ints making the final adj ustment by means O f the

,
lower tangent scr e w T hen loosen the upper clamp turn

.
,
toward the other point clamp again and set finall y by the , ,
upper tangent screw R e ad the angl e turned by means O f

.
the vernier If th e instrum ent has two verniers bo th may

.
,
be read and the average ta ken .
M e a su reme n t b y R e p e t it ion A more accurate meas .
u re me n t m a be had b turnin g t h e angle several times t a k

y y ,
ing the final read ing and dividing it by the number O f ,
t imes the angle has been turned If the final reading is .
about possible errors in the graduation O f the in stru

fn e n t will have no effect on the angle read and if later the ,
telescope is inv e rted and the angle turned in the opposite

direction from the first turning other sour ces O f error will ,
h ave been eliminated T he exact program for an O bse r .
vation O f this k ind is as follows

1
a . T elescope
direct .
1 C lamp plates on zeros and set on left sta tion

. C lamp , .
below .
2 U nclamp above and set on right st at io n

. .
3 Unclamp below and set on l e ft station

. .
4 Unclamp above and set on right station

. .
C ontinue until the desir e d number of turn ings h ave been

mad e wh e n th e final read ing may be ta ken
, .
b T elescope
. invert ed .
1 C lamp plates on zeros and set on righ t sta tion

. .
C lamp below .
2 Unclamp above and set on left station

. .
3 U nclamp below and set on right station

. .
4 U nclamp above and set on l e ft station

. .
C ontinue for the same number O f turn ings as before
1
That is , with the l evel tube underneath the telesco pe .
and rea d the final angl e I f the instrument has t wo v e r .
niers both should be r e ad I t is customary to r e cord th e .
r e ading afte r turning the angle onc e as a ch e ck on ,
the repeat e d r e a d ing T he true reading is the average of

.
th e values O btaine d for th e angle with telescope direct

a n d t e l e scop e inv e rt e d .
T o P r o l o n g a S t ra igh t L in e Set up the instrument O ver .
the forward point and sight the t e lescop e on the rear one .
Set both clamps r e volv e the t e lescope on its axis and set a
, ,
n e w point as far ah e ad as conveni e nt or d e sired .
M ore A c c urat e l y W ith the telescope in its natural

.
position turn on the rear point clamp revolve the tele

, , ,
scope as abov e and s e t a stake and tack at the forward

,
pointing T h e n leaving the telescop e inv e rted as it is

.
, ,
swing th e plates around half a circl e and s e t on the rear

point again R e volve the t e l e scope and again sight at
.
,
th e forwa rd point I f the two pointings ahead d o not

.
coincide set a tack half way between the two and it will
,
-
be in the line desired .
T o M e a s ure a Ve r t ic al A n g l e For this purpose the V er .
tical circle must be a d justed so as to read zero when the

t e lescope is lev e l or if it is not adjustabl e the error O f its
, , ,
r e ading must be O btained as explained under a d justmen t s ,
O f the transit T hen the angle O f el e vation or depression

.
to any point may be m e asured by sighting the t e l e scope

upon it and r e ad ing the V ertical angle by means O f the
vertical circle and its v e rnier .
T o S urv e y a Pie ce o f Gr o u n d w it h t he Tran s it : Set

up on the initial point O f the surv ey turn to th e second ,
point read th e b e aring O f the line recording it for a check

, ,
on later angles an d measur e the line Se t up over the

, .
second point set the two plat e s to rea d zero and clamp
, ,
them together ; th e n turn the t e lescope at a rod h e ld v e r

tical an d care fu lly cent e red ov e r the first point Set the .
lower clamp and loosen the upper one swing the tele ,
scop e with the upper plate aroun d until the third point is
S ighted and r e a d the angle so turned
, R e ad the bearing .
for a ch e ck a n d m e asure th e line P roceed in this way

, .
until all the angl e s hav e be e n turned and all the sid e s
measured I n t e rio r angl e s should always be read though
.
,
T HE TRAN S I T 83
t hey may be more than T he magnetic bearings

may be used to figure out the angles as a c h eck on
measur e ment ; they also help to locate an error if one
exists but a more accurate ch e ck is the sum O f all t he
,
angles which should equal twice as many right angles

less four as th e figure has sides .
C omputed bearings are worked out by applyin g the

angle m e asurements to the bearing O f the first line C o m.
u t e d not O bserved bearings should be used for plotting

p , ,
or for computing traverse Notes may be kept as follows :

.
S K C H O F SU R Y
ET VE
I nstead O f interior angles d e fl e c t ion an gl e s may be

,
read a deflection angle being the angle which a ny course

,
makes with the prolongation O f t he one preceding T O .
get this aft e r the instrument has been turned on the rear
,
point revolve th e t e l e scop e o n its axis and turn to th e point

,
ahe ad T he d e fl e ction m ust be recorded as right or l e ft

. ,
along with the amount Of the deflection . Notes may be

kept as follows
I n any case a sketch kept on the right hand page O f t he

,
-
note book wil l be an aid to c l e am e ss T he whole survey .

,
indeed may be record e d in that form

, .
A S ur v e y or Tr av e r se b y A z imu t h s A zimuth is t h e .
angle which a line forms with the meridian or wit h any ,
other line wh ich is select e d as a basis I t is similar to bear .
ing but is measured in one direction comm only from

, ,
south around through west north and east up to , and ,
transits are co mmonly graduated so as to be read directly

in this way T he method O f work is as follows :
.
Set up on the initial po int O f the survey set the zeros O f ,
the t wo plates toge ther clamp them and turn until the
, ,
telescope po ints south as shown by the needle C lamp

, . .
below loosen above and point the tel e scope at the second
, ,
point of the survey recording the an gular reading and the

, ,
bearing for a check upon it C lamp above and loosen .
below M easure the l ine

. .
Set up ov e r the s e cond point revolv e the telescope and , ,
turn on the first point making sure not to start th e upper

,
clamp at any time during the process C lamp below ; then .
revolve the tel e scope into its natural position loosen above , ,
and turn on the third point O f the surv e y T he azimuth of .
this line m ay now be read O ff th e plate and be aring by the

needle for a check M easur e the second line P roceed in
. .
this way until the survey is completed I f the surve y is a .
closed one when the transit is fin ally set up again at th e

,
initial point the azimuth of the first line s h ould be the

,
same as it was at the b e ginning .

THE TR AN S I T 85
Notes may be kept as follows :
A zi mu t h B ea rin g Di t s an ce
1 62
°
12
'
30 N . 17
°
45 ’
W . ch .
2 23
°
30
’
N . 43
°
30 E
'
. ch .
280
°
25
'
S . 79
°
30 E ’
. ch .
”
W
° ’
5 43 30 8 . 5
°
45
’
. ch .
C au t ion I n transit surveying where angles are read

.
, ,
eac h line is referred to the one that goes before and in ,
consequence an error in reading one angl e is perpetuat e d

throughout the survey Furth e r than that som e O f th e
.
,
errors arising from lack O f adjustm e nt O f the instrument

are multiplying errors increasing as the work proceeds
.
, ,
and unl ess every precaution is taken they may though ,
individuall y small mount up to a Very considerable siz e

,
in the course O f a surv ey .
W it h compass surveying on t h e other h and t h ough , ,
bearings cannot be read with great exactness and single

angles are not so accurat e ly dete rmined as with the transit ,
e t errors have not the same O pportun it to accumulate

y y
because each course in the survey is r e ferred anew to the
meridian .
The man w h o is not in constant practice t herefore will , ,
be likely to find t h at he attains be tt e r r e sults with the

n e e dl e than by turning angl e s and in that case unl e ss th e , ,
telescope is wanted for stadia m e asuremen t s the compass ,
is th e instrument to use T he matt e r O f cost is in woods

.
,
conditions strongly on th e side of the compass for it is

, ,
usually e xpensive to cut away for the long clear sights ,
requisite to th e running O f a r e liable transit line .
T ypical examples O f stadia surveys suc h as th e woods

man may have occasion to perform are as follows
S t adia S u rv e y of a P o n d as carri e d out on th e ice .
T he needle was r e lied on in this case but it will readily be ,
understood that angles might b e read instead O f bearings

and the surv ey so r e nder e d ind e pendent O f the magnetic
nee dl e
. I f the survey were to be made in summer points ,
and islands would have to be used for O bserv ing stations ,
and it might be necessary to do a good deal of traversing

of the shore .
B ase l in e s r e ad on f o r e an d
b ac k Sigh t f o r ch e c k
Sh ots to l o c at e s h o r e
Sc al e of Fee t
0 200 600 1000
S ta dia S ur v e y of R o ad
foot on rod cut O ff at dis
. 1
tance O f one chain I ns trument set up at alternat e stations
.
onl y except wher e a check on local attraction of the needl e

,
is desir e d V e rtical angl e s of less than 5 neglected as hav

.
°
ing no material effect on horizontal distance .
on f ly/s co u rs e é moA cr os s es
iv [ as /1
T HE L E VE L 87
5 . S UMM ARY
The transit O f late y e ars has g ained a considerable field

of use amon g workin g forest e rs for ma p makin g and other
p ur p oses . The instrument has for woods work g r e at
a d vanta g es over the p lane table in that it is more p ortable ,
is less liable to accident an d is not so easil y driven off the

,
field by bad weather .
The uses for it p res e nt and p ros p ective are as follows

, ,
( 1 ) I t is the instrument for land survey s when g reat ac

curacy is re q uired o r th e needl e is seriousl y disturbed .
W hen it is so em p loy e d the stadia wires in some cas es

afl o rd the most e ffective means of distance measurement .
( 2) I t ma y be used as a level in dam an d road buildin g

or for to p o g ra p hic p urp oses .
(3 ) Two men usin g transit and stadia can traverse roads ,
streams or lake shores V ery ra p idl y usin g the ne e d le and

, , ,
exce p t for a check on local attraction settin g u p the in s t ru

,
ment on alternate p oints only .
(4 ) U ses ( a) an d (3 ) may be combined allowin g a ,
traverse and a p rofil e to be run at the same t ime b y the

same p art y .
(5 ) A skeleton O f accurately run lines embracin g bot h ,
horizontal and vertical an g l e s may b e made the basis of

,
to p o g ra p hic surv e ys and the m e thod is in fact hi ghl y

,
serviceable in some kinds O f country .
( )
6 W it h its various ca p acities a g ain utilized t h e ,
transi t is sometimes emp lo y ed to work out the detail

O f small tracts re q uir in g g reat accurac y .
SE C TIO N II
T HE LEVEL
T he engineer s lev e l consists of a telescopic line of sigh t

’
joined to a spirit l e vel the whol e properl y supported and

, ,
revolving on a vertical axis T he outside part s O f th e fram e

.
which support the t e lescope are called the wyes and the ,
corres p ondin g bearin g s on the telesco p e tube t h e p ivot ,
rin gs The tel e sco p e can be lif ted out O f t h e wy es by lift

.
in g u p the cli p s over the rin g s The attached bubble .
enables the lin e O f si ght in t h e telesco p e to be brou ght

into a horizontal p osition .
T HE LE VE L
1 . ADJU S TM E NTS O F T HE LE VE L
( )
a M a
. k e t he lin e of n sightwit h t he ax is o f
c o i cid e
t he piv o t rin g s P ull out the pins which hold the clips on
.
the telescope and turn the clips back so that the telescope
is free to turn in the wyes S ight the intersection of the.
cross hairs at some well d e fin e d point T hen rotate the

- -
.
°
telescope 1 8 0 in the wyes so that the bubble tube is abov e
,
the tel e scope T he intersection O f th e cross ha irs sho u l d

'
-
.
still be on the point If not move the horizontal cross

.
,
hair half way back to its first position by means of the

-
upper and lower adjusting screws O f the cross hair ring - .
T hen move the vertical cross hair half way back to its - -
first position by the oth e r pair of screws R epeat t he test .
until the adjustment is perfect .
( )
b .P la c e t h e lin e o f s igh t an d t h e b u b b l e in t h e s am e
v e rtic al p l an e B ring the bubble to the center of the tube

. .
R evolve the telescope a few degrees in the wyes a n d not e

the action O f the bubble I f it runs to one end bring the
.
,
tube unde r the axis of t he telescope by means of the lateral

T HE L E VE L 89
adjusting screws W hen the two axes are in the same

.
plane t he bubble will remain in the center w h ile t he

,
telescope is revolving .
(.c ) M ak e t h e l e v e l t u b e p ar all e l t o t he lin e o f si ht

g .
T his may be done in two ways The first or in dire c t .
me t ho d is as follows
C lamp the in strument over a pair of levelling screws ;
then bring the bubble to the center of the tube lift the tele ,
scope out of the wye s turn it end for end and set it down, ,
in the wyes aga in T he e ye end now is where the O bjective

.
was originally T his op e ration must be performed with

.
the greatest care as the slightest jar O f the instrument will

,
vitiate the result If the bubble returns to the center of the

.
tube the axis of the tube is in the correct position I f it does .
not return to the center t he end O f the tube provided wit h ,
the vertical adjustment should be moved un til t he bubble

moves half way back to the center T his test must be
-
.
repeated to make sure t h at the mov e ment is due to defee

tive adjustment and not to the jarring O f the instrument .
For the second the dire ct or pe g a d j u s tm e nt select the

, ,
points A and B say 2 0 0 feet apart T he distance need not

, .
be measured Set up the level close to A so that when the

.
rod is held upon it the eyepiece O f the telescope w ill swing

W ithin about half an inch of its fac e B ring th e bubble to .
the mid dl e O f the tube and looking through the telescope

w rong end t o put a penc il mark on the rod at the center
,
O f the small field of V iew Note th e rod reading thus O b

.
t a in e d T hen turn the t e lescope toward B and take a rod

.
reading in the usual way making sure that th e bubble is ,
in the mid dl e of th e tube T he difference between these.
two rod readings is th e diff er e nce in elevation of the two

points l or -
the error of adjustm e nt Ne xt take the .
level to B and repeat the above operation T he result here .
gained is the diff e rence in elevation or the error

'
O f adjustment and the mean of the t w o r e sults is the difl e r

,
ence of e levation b e tween points A and B Now knowing .

,
the d ifl e re n ce betw e en A and B and the height of the in

strument above B the rO d reading at A which will bring
,
the targe t on the same level as the instrument may be com

pu t e d . W ith the horizontal cross h air on the target the -
,
adjustable end of the level tube is raised or lowered by

means of th e adjusting scr e ws until the bubble is in the
middle T he a d justment should then be correct but it
.
,
will be well to test it .
E X AMP LE
In t m nt t A s ru e a
R d d in g n A o re a o
R d din g n B o re a o
D iff l f A nd B . e ev . o a
In t m nt t B s ru e a
R d din g n B o re a o
R d din g n A o re a o
D iff l f B nd A . e ev . o a
Me an o f t he t wo r es u lt s t ru e diff . in l
e ev .
2
In s t ru me n t is n o w 5 0 76 ab o v e B
g h ld gi
. .
'
R0 d re a din at A s ou b e 5 0 76 . 1 0 08
. to v e a l ev e l
S ig ht .
T his method O f adjustment may be used for the transit

with this diff erence that instead of adjusting the level
tube to the line of sight the level tube is first made hori ,
z o nt al and then the line O f sight is mad e parallel with it
by adjusting the cross hair T he same is true O f a dumpy -

.
level .
( )
d M a
. k e t h e ax is of t he l e v e l t u b e p e rp e n d icul ar t o
t he v e rt ical axis o f t he in s t r ume n t .
B ring th e t wo clips down over the telescop e and fast e n

them Level the instrum e nt bring the bubbl e precisely to
.
,
th e mid dle of the tube ov e r on e set of levelling scr e ws an d ,
th e n turn the t e lescope 1 8 0 about the vertical ax is f If

°
the bubble mov e s from t he center bring it half way back ,

-
by means of th e adjusting screws at the foot of one of the

wye supports .
S ince the bubble is brought to the center O f the t iIbe each

time a rod r e ading is tak e n this last adjustm e nt in no way ,
'
afl e c t s the accurac of l e v e lling w rk bu t it is a con

'
y o ,
v e n ie n ce and a saving of time .
2 . US E OF T HE LE VE L
L evelling
is employe d to ge t the diff e rence in elevation
between points W ith the lev e l set up and th e rod h e ld on
.
TH E L E VE L 91
a po int wh ose elevation is kn own or assumed t he reading

,
that is O bta ined is called a or b a ck sig ht S imilarly

.
,
a read ing on a point ah e ad or unkn own is called a or

f o r e sight A point occupied by the rod in this way but
.
,
not recorded or used further is call ed a t u rning p oint

,
-
.
W h en two po ints have b e en connected by a series O f read

ings of this k ind the sum of th e backsights m inus the sum
,
O f the foresights gives the d ifl e re n ce in e levation

’
If the
.
backsights are gr e ater the second point is th e higher of the

,
t wo . If the foresights are greater it is the lower A brief

, .
set of notes is given and worked out illustrating this

matter W ork of this kind is called diff e r e nt ial l e v e lling
. .
W hen levelling is employed to get t h e elevation of a

large number O f points in a region several or many fore
,
sights may be taken from one position O f th e instrument .
I t is customary t hen to note the he ight of in s t ru me nt and

“
the elevation O f any point O bserved will be that height

less the foresight to the point .
A b e n chmar k is a point whose elevation has been deter

mined and which is mark e d and left for reference I t is .
not e d B M in l e vel notes

. . .
T he follow ing set of notes illustrates those c o mm o nl v

kep t in runn ing profil es of a road or rail way T he form
.
m ay be easily modified for an y other class of work .
S ummary L evell ing is comparatively simple work

. .
E ven though a level is somewhat out O f adjustment accu ,

rate results may neverthel e ss b e had by taking backward

and forward sights O f e qual length and this ch e ck it is e asy
,
to s e cure by pacing I t is important that th e rod should

.
be h e ld plumb during the levelling operation T his positi on

.
is secured by careful attention on th e part of the rodman

and by waving the rod slightl y T he length of sight varies
.
with the instrument the condition O f th e air and the a c

, ,
’
curacy desired A bout 3 0 0 feet is stated to be in general

.
the best length on th e score O f accuracy but speed will

,
O ft e n require that much longer shots be taken I n accu .
rate work it should be remembered that error may be

,
introduc e d by the slightest causes such as disturbanc e O f

,
the tripod.
L eve lling is employed by woodsmen in constructing

dams and ascertaining th e area of flo wage in layin g out ,
roads and railroads and for the basis of topograp h ic work

,
.
C O M B IN E D H AN D L E V E L A ND CL INO M E T E R 93
For these uses a light and cheap form O f the level some ,
times called the architect s level cost ing about h alf as

’
,
much as one adapted to railway work is commonly ,
su fficient .
SE C TIO N III
C OMB INED HAND LE VE L AND CLINO METE R
A pocket instrument capable of a great variety of uses
is s h own in the accompanying figure The e ye is placed.
at a peep hole at the right e nd (a ) of the main tube .
T he cross wir e is O ver ( b) in the figure and beside it

-
, ,
occupying h alf the orifice O f th e tube is a mirror set at,
an angle O f Dir ectly over the wire and m irror is a

spirit tube shown inclined in th e figure I t is fix ed to .
the mil led w h eel (d) which turns it and the graduated
,
arm (e) which serves to set the bubble parallel to the

,
line of sight of the instrument or to read t he angle O f

,
inclination bet wee n them When the bubble is in the

.
center O f the tube the mirror be low reflects it S ide by

,
sid e with the cross wire back through the peep hole
- .
T h is instrument is largel y used by northwestern lum

b e rme n in laying out roads locating dams etc and it
, , .
,
ought to be in the outfit O f every woodsman T O use it .
as a hand level t he zeros of the graduated arm and th e

scale must first be set together T he observer then sigh ts
.
an object through the tube which he brings to a level

,
by t h e bubble reflected in the mirror H e may th en place

.
himself on a level with the object by sigh ting at it direc t ly ,

or if difference in elevation is required a pole or level rod

, ,
may be used to measure the amount .
T he ins trument may be used to find the difference in

elevation between a ny two poin t s without the use of a
level rod T o do this the O bserv e r begins at th e lower
.
point and after levelling the ins trum e nt sights in the

, , ,
desired direction and notes the point on the ground ahead

intersected by the cross wire H e then a d vances to that -
.
point a nd rep e ats the operation and so moves on up the ,
grade until the upper point is reached As between e very .
two O bservations he has advanced to a height equal to the

distance from the ground to his e ye the height O f th e h ill ,
will be the product of that distance by the number O f

sights taken .
T he instrumen t may also be used as a Clinometer to

measure slope T 0 do this th e O bserver sights along th e
.
slope parallel to the ground and then uses th e hand wh eel ,
to turn the level tube until the bubble shows it is level .
T he measuring arm t ur n n with the wheel and the level

, ,
sweeps the scale and ifidic a t e s the slop e in degr e es or in ,
per cents according as the ins trument is graduated

, .
'
I n the same way and with the a id o f a table O f tangents
, ,
one may us e th e instrument to O btain the height O f a tree

or a hill T his process is explained and illustrated on
.
p a g e 1 66 .
For an imp roved form and more com p licated use Of

the nstrument s e e p a g es 1 3 0 13 1
i —
, .
SE CTION IV
C OM PA SS A ND PA C IN G
The st aff c o mp as s with foldin g si g hts cross levels and

, , ,
a n e e d le from 2 % to 4 in ches lon g is familiar to most ,
woo d smen I t is a very com p act and p ractic a l instrument

.
,
has lon g been e m p loyed for retracin g lines and of late ,
years as forest lan d s have come to be handled more

,
sy stematicall y has attained a g reat ex tent an d variet y of

,
uses I t h as also been constructed in a variety O f forms

.
,
combined wit h other instruments in some cases The form .

C O M PA SS A ND PAC I NG 95
s h own in illustration is the p attern O f the U S Forest . .
S erv ice The base is flat so that the instrument may be

.
used to orient a p lane table it is s quare also and g radu

ated on its e d g es with a p rotractor and two scales for draft
in g p ur p oses ; declin ation can be set O ff by means O f a
verni e r ; insi d e th e box a pe ndulum is fitted and the staff
moun tin g s p ermit O f turnin g t h e instrument and holdin g
it ed g ewise w hil e em p loy ed as a level C linometer .
S AFF C O M A
T P SS
A main use for t h e staff com p ass in topo gra phical an d

timber work is for makin g foot traverses a p ur p ose for ,
which it is thorou ghl y a d a p ted The common p oc k et

.
c o m p as s with nee dl e 1 5 to 2 in ches lon g ind e ed may be

, ,
used for the same p ur p os e an d when it enables a man to

°
travel a mil e wit h onl y 1 or 2 O f an gular swin g as it ,
will do if careful l y used it d e serves to be call ed a surv ey in g

,
in strument .
Pac ing . The p ace has been lon g used as a chec k on

s h ort d istances but the r e al ca p acity of p acin g as a method
,
O f meas urement has onl y recentl y been dev e lo p ed It .
is of s p ecial value to woo d smen who must travel their

country over in a ny cas e and who b y a li ttl e ex t ra p ain s
,
ta ken in t his direc tion ca n brin g out much valuable in fo r

mation A s a g ainst chain in g p acin g has th e advanta g e

.
,
O f chea p ness it can be done by one man alone and its

, ,
accu racy is fre quently q uite sufficient .
The natural gait of the woodsman should be tested on

measured lin e s and in pacing for distance he should always
walk at his natural gait not t ry to tak e a thre e foot strid e
,
-
.
T he slope of the ground if it is cons i d e rable a ffects the

, ,
le ngth of st e p ; the st e p is shortened wheth e r one go e s up

or d own b ill .
T his matt e r has been investigated accuratel y and the

results of one extensive test are given in the table below ,
INFLUE NCE OF S LOP E ONLE NGTH O F P ACE AS TE STE D

ON MOU NTA IN TRA I LS
but for practical work it is better for each man to train

hims elf on measured distances and learn to discount on
slopes by experience and the sense that he d e velops S im .
il a rly rough bottom and bushes h ave an e ff e ct on the pace

, .
T his is b e st dealt with in the same w a y .
H arder p e rhaps to allow for are the errors arising from

,
’
a man s own con d ition A man steps shorter when trav
.
elling slowl y than when going at a good rate ; he steps

shorter when tired unless he forces himself to the work
he is not sure of himself in the morning or after a longer
rest until he gets into his gait h e h as his o fl times ’
when nothing seems to go right Keeping the count also

.
is a sour ce of frequent error W oods tr avel is too uneven

.
C O M PA SS A ND PAC ING 97
as a rul e to allow a p edometer to b e e m ploy ed Som e .
men register doubl e p aces O thers co u nt u p to a hundred .
in t h e he ad and ta ke do wn t h e hu ndr eds on a clicker

in a note book or by breakin g an elbow in a tou gh twi g
,
carried in the tee th or hand .
A c cur a c y W ith all its limitations pacing is a very ser

.
,
v ic e abl e means of m e asurement and a man who has dul

y
trained hims elf can get very good results Johnson s .
’
’
S urveying says t h at when a man s gait h as been stand
,
ard iz e d and on the work he walks at a cons tant rate dis ,
tances can be determined by pe d ometer or by counting th e

paces to with in 2 per cent of the truth T h at refers .
,
with out doubt to open land I n woods work too there

,
.
Out l et
S e ction Li nes
C o mp ass Be arings
Pacing T rav e rses
S le
ca
54 M .
94 M .
PO ND SU R VE YE D FR O M S CT E ION L IN S B Y C R O S S B E
E A R IN G S A ND THE
C OM P ASS A ND PA C N G ME T H O D
I
are many men w h o can be depende d on for results as close

as that but errors up to 5 per cent in a straight mile on
,
un e ven land is for the wr iter the usual standard of work .
T his is not serious W hen the error is distribut e d over the

.
mile by plotting the utmost probable error in the l o cation

,
Of an point is not over 2 5 ards

y y .
U s e s of t he M e th od ( )
1 T h e staff compass
. is largel y
used in retracing O l d lines Paci ng may well be employed .
with it as a means of finding blind marks and corners for ,
t h is purpose replacing th e c h ain .

( 2) I n timber estimating the area of waste lands heavy

, ,
bodies of timber etc can O ften be O btained quickly and

, .
,
with a fair degree of accuracy by th is method and thes e ,
facts often fur nis h very gr eat help in securi ng a close

estimate .
( )
3 T he compass and pacing met h od is t h e cheapest for
mapping roads streams ponds and other topographic
, , ,
details in wooded country For a real map however .

, ,
t his method O f sur vey should not cover too long dis ta nces ,
b u t sho ul d ti e into more accurate work .
( 4 ) C ompass and pacing may be used to get a recon

no is sa nc e map of a region of a ny size using a road or a ny ,
other avenue of tra v el that passes thr ough it No t onl y .
the line O f travel may be mapped but the hills and other ,
featur es of the country that can be seen C ross bearings .
with the compass will locate them in th e h orizonta l posi

tion and the clinom e t e r will serv e to get their h eight
, .
S pecimen notes illustrating this method O f work com

bine d with th e us e of th e aneroid barometer for d e t ermin
ing height and a diagram s h owing how it is made to
,
contribute to the production of a topograp h ic map will

be found on pages 1 30—132 .
SE C TIO N V
T HE TRAVER SE B OA RD
T he plane table in its simplest form is called a traverse

board and consists of a square board with out levels
,
mounted on a tripod O n this board a sheet of pape r

.
is pinned and the map is developed in the field A

, .
compass needle set into the edge O f the board serves to

orient it or in other words to fix one edge always in
, , ,
th e north and south position A brass ruler with vertical .
sights attached serves both to sigh t wit h and to draw lines

and scale O ff distances on the map I t is cal led an .
alidade .
A simpl e use for th e board is to t rav e r se a road a ,
stream or the shore of a pond S uppose for ins tance it is

, .
, ,
desired to survey a stream on the ice in winter and a point ,

THE TR AV E R S E B O AR D 99
on it is known by the crossing of a section line T he .
instr ument should be set up at the known point with one ,
ed ge O f the board set north and sout h as shown by the

nee dl e A point is then chosen on the sheet to repr e sent
.
the one occupied on the ground the edge of t he ruler is ,
swu ng about it until the sights range toward the second

point to be occupied s ay the next turn of the stream and
, ,
T RA VE RSE B OA R D
a line is drawn in its direction T he dis tance be t ween the

.
two points is t hen chaine d or paced and when this has ,
bee n s c aled O ff a secon d point on the map is O bta ined .
T he board mus t then be set up at the ne w point and

oriented as before when the rul er being swung about the
, ,
new point a r ay may be drawn from it to a thir d and

, ,
so on L ittle diffic ul ty w ill be experienced by one who

.
un derstands comp ass sur veying in workin th is ins tru g
ment A point on the sheet always represents the po mt

.
occupied and that is always the point to work from

,
.
T he map is carried to completion right in the field and

th at as regards both cost and ac cur acy cons t itutes the
, ,
a dvanta ge of t h e meth od .
1 00 A MAN U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS M E N
A nothermethod of working is by in t e r s e c t ion s For .
this it is necessary to have two known points or a measur e d

,
base T he ins trument is set up at one of the known

.
points a nd th e alida d e being pointed at the other a line

, , ,
S ev e n ty - fo ur
R oad
Pl an e Ta b l e
ROUND LAKE
W a s hing t o n C O .
Ma ine
G A C ary
. .
| 9 07
Are a 3 4 3 Ac re s
S le
ca of Fe e t
500 1000 1500 2000
is d rawn and the known distance scaled o ff upon it .
T hen from that end of the bas e line representing th e

,
point oc cupie d rays are dr awn in the direction of other

,
well d e fine d O bjects on th e shore which it will be desir

-
able to locate Flags may be used to define them but

.
,
natural O bjects will often suf fice T he ins trument is then

.
THE TR AVE R S E B O A R D 10 1
taken to the other known point and set up by th e range ,
back to the first T h en swinging the r ul er about the

.
second point located on the sheet the surveyor draws ,
rays from this to the same objects as b e fore T he in .
t e rs e c t io n O f pa irs O f rays d irected toward the same object

in the field fix es that point upon the map T his is done .
directly and graphicall y no compu t ation or reduction

,
being required .
M ore complicated forms of the ins trum ent telescopic ,
alidades the application of the vertical angle etc need

, , .
,
not be here discussed as they are hardl y lik ely to be em

,
ployed by other than specialis ts I t seems likely ho w .

,
ever t h at among a large class O f foresters and woodsmen

,
th is simple form of the plane table will find general use .
T he foll owing sur vey O f a small lake made with the

traverse board involves a somewhat more complicated
us e O f the i ns t r ument than that d escribed above T his .
particular piece of work took the tim e of two men for two
days but on the ice it co ul d have been d one more quickly
,
.
The steps in making the survey w e re as follows

1 B ase line A B measured the longest straight line
.
,
t h at could be h ad on the shore and in wading d epth O f

water Flags set up at its en ds and at C D E F a nd G
.
, , , , ,
prominent points on the shore V isible from both ends O f

the base lin e .
2 Plane table set up at A as orien t ed by the needle

. .
Point a selected on t h e paper line drawn from it in d ir ec,
tion of B and a b measur ed to scal e R a ys a c a d a e a f .

, , , ,
a
g drawn in direction of C D E F a nd G , , , , .
B a d at A
o r B d tB o ar a
3 . T able s e t up at B oriented by ra nging b a at A and

,
c hecked by the needl e R ays drawn from b toward 0 and

.
102 A MAN U AL FO R NORTH E RN WOO DS ME N
D . T h ese
where th ey intersect corresponding rays from
a fix points 0 and d R ays also drawn toward E F and
.
, ,
G but the a ngles mad e with the corr e sponding rays from a
,
are so small that thes e points are not given a good location .
’
4 B oard ta ken to C a nd oriented by A and B
. C heck .
ra
y drawn to d R a ys toward E F and
. G intersecting , , .
similar rays from a fix e f and 9 , , , .
B o d at C ar B o a d at D r
5 B oard taken to D and similar

. proces s p erformed for
a check E , F , and G may also
. be checked with one
another .
6 . other po ints on th e shore such as prominent

Fix
rocks or tre e s .
(a ) B y intersecting rays from a ny two of the primary

points in the sam e mann er as these w e re fixed .
( b) B y drawing a ray from on e O f the primary points as

0 toward a n
y object as X setting up at X using c a: to
, ,
ori e nt by and then fixing a: by a ray brought back in t he

,
range A a until it cuts 0 x .
B oa d r at X B o ard at Y
( )
0 B y s e tting
up the board on a ny des ire d point on the
s h ore as Y ori e nt e d by the ne e d le and ranging back from
, ,
T HE AN E RO I D B ARO ME T E R 1 03
a ny flags or fix ed points through the corres pondi ng

t wo ,
po ints on paper to an intersection whic h will fix the

,
point occupi e d .
7 Fill in the shor e line as the oth e r work progresses

.
,
whatever at t h e time is nea re st the ins trument by traverses , ,
sketching etc , .
S E C TIO N VI
THE ANE R O ID B AR O ME TER
T he aneroid barom e ter is a cheap and handy ins trument
which wh en carri e d from one point to another wi ll t ell
, ,
approximately their diff erenc e in height T his it does by .
mea sur i ng the pressur e O f the a ir varyn as that do es ,
when one goes up or

down h ill .
T he essential parts
of an a n e ro id b ar ’
o me t e r are out of
sight T he ins t ru
.
ment cons ists of a

v a c u u m b o x wit h one
very flexible and sen

s it iv e side which ,
works in and out

wit h varying pres
sure O f the air T his .
sligh t movement is
multiplied and con ,
verted into the cir

c ul ar motion O f the
pointing hand seen

on th e face of the
ins trument A t sea .
level t he h and points

f h O H B A O ME
to one part o t e A N ER ) R TE R
dial As the ins tr u

.
ment is carried up a hil l or mounta in the hand worked by ,
expansion of th e bo x with in turns round to the left T he,

.
1 04 A MAN UAL FO R N OR TH E R N W OO D S M E N
face is graduated to correspond wit h the h eight of column of

a mercur ial barometer 3 0 29 2 8 etc inches th ese even
, , , , .
, ,
inch e s being divided into fractional parts .
T his chang e in pressure corresponds wit h definite c h ange

in altitude O ne inch on the scale means roughly 9 00 feet
.
.
in altitude ; a half inc h means 4 50 fe et and so on A s , .
a matter of fact there is a f oot s c a l e on most aneroids

,
outs ide the inch scal e movable and graduated from zero
,
up to the capacity of the ins trument T hus if one knows .

,
ho w high he is above sea level he may turn the foot scale ,
of his ins trument until the registering hand points to that

height a nd going either up or d own hill read directly the
, , ,
elevation of a ny station whic h h e may occupy .
Just this proc e ss answers many p urposes but when b e st ,
r e sults are sought for the operation is not quite so simple

, .
First there is th e C o rr e c tion f or t he Te m p e ra t u re of t he

,
Air . A n inc h di fference in pres sure at a temperature of

for instance converted into h eight means one thing ;
, ,
at 70 it means a good d e al more I n ord e r to get accu

°
.
rate r esults ther e fore o u cons iderabl e e levations it is

, , ,
necessary to read the inner or inch scale of the instrum e nt ,
tak e the temperature of the air at the two poin t s and ,
obtain t he elevation from tables S uc h tabl e s will be .
foun d on pag e s 1 1 1 a n d 1 1 2 and full directions for their

us e accompany them .
C orr e ct io n f or W e at he r Chan ge T he oth er liability to

.
error arises from th e fact that the air pressure is frequently

changing with the weather T his does not hamper work .
seriously in the western country where the weather and

pressure remain stea dy for long periods at a time but d iffi ,
cul ty does arise from this source thr oughout the E ast .
W ith an approaching storm the air grows lighter and th e ,
rev e rse in cl e aring weath e r T his effect is best s e en on a

.
stationary barometer but it has a lik e eff ect on one that

,
is in motion ; T hus if an explorer starts at a lak e of known

,
elevation and takes t wo hours in going to the top of a hill ,
the air pr e ssur e meanwhil e m ay have c hanged so as to

throw his h e ight r e adings o ff materially .
T here are thr e e wa s of obviating this outside the e vi

y ,
dent one of working only in stea dy weat her O ne is to .

THE AN E RO I D B AROM E T E R 105
return to t he lake and take a second reading us ing the ,
ave rage of t he two to compare wit h t hat observed at the

summit A second often available i n cruising timber 18
.
, ,
to read on the same point two or more times during t he

d ay and so ascerta in the course of the barometer T he .
third meth od of correction is by means of anot her ins tru

ment whic h is left at the base station or some ot her
convenient point and read by another person every hour
,
or half hour whil e the observer is in the field S ince in .
ordinary weather the air changes are the same over large
areas th is arrangement tells wh at the field barometer
,
would h ave read on the base station at a ny hour during

t h e d ay B etter than this h owever is a s e lf recording
.
, ,
-
barometer or b arograp h which mak e s a continu ous record

, ,
of pressur e T he explorer compares his pocke t ins tru

.
B AR O G RA PH
ment with th is as he starts out on h is work and again ,
when h e comes in I f these comparisons are satis factory

. ,
h e h as the means of telling what his field instrument would

h ave read on the base station at a ny time wh ile he was
gone and so obtains the correct figur e for comparis on
,
with a ny given field observation T his arrangement e n .
ables him to stay away from known elevations half a d ay

-
1 06 A MAN UAL FO R N OR TH E R N W O O D S M E N
or a d ay at a time and still make fair ly satisfactory heigh t

determinations .
T his is all good in t h eory but it must be said t h at in ,

’
practice it does not always work out to one s entire sat
isfa c t io n T he a ir in the fir st place is not th e ho mo ge
.
, ,
ne o us fluid that it h as been cons idered but varies more or ,
less from point to point T hen aneroids are not sure in.
the ir workings Diff erent instruments of the same make

.
and cost vary greatly in reliability and the observer needs ,
to watch the best of them to see that they do not get out
of ord e r or play some kind of a trick B arograp hs again .
, ,
are not thoroughly reliable I n particular some of them .

,
do not follow the changes in pressure as fas t as the port

able instrument Nevertheless trial has s hown that by
.
,
the method s outlined su fficiently accur ate results for many

purposes can be O btained I n general it may be said of .
aneroid work that while it cannot be counted on for re

,
fin e d accur acy there is a large field open to it of good

, ,
us eful work w h ic h no oth er instrument on account of con ,
siderations of cost can do I t is particularly s e rviceable in

, .
a timbered country where it is difficult to see from point to

point havi ng there the same sort of advantage that t he
,
compass posses ses in the same field .
A n e roids for ordinary work should be 2% to 3 inches in

diameter graduated to the equivalent of 2 0 feet and h ave
, ,
as open a scale as may be S uch ins tr uments cost from .
$ 20 to $ 35 Fo r the finer class of work it may be advisable

.
to employ a larger and more delicate instrument furnished

with a vernier A barograph costs from $ 4 0 to $ 5 0 T her
. .
mo me t e rs suitable for th e work in a nick e l or rubber case , “
about the size of a lead pencil can be h ad for to $ 1 ,
each .
T he following W or king R ul e s have grown out of t h e

exp e rience of the writer and others
1
. E ach instrument should be tested not o nl y under
th e air pump but for general behavior in the field .
2 T he b e st place to carr an aneroid while at woods

y
.
work is in a leather case hung on the belt T he case serves .
to protect it from damage also from extr eme h eat and ,
rapi d changes of temperature .

T HE AN E RO I D BAR O M E T E R 107
3 . Any
cons iderable blow is likel y to t hr ow t h e ins tr u
ment out of order for the time b e ing if not permanently , .
T wo instr uments carried are a co nsid e rable insurance .
4 T he aneroid should alwa s b e h e l d in the same posi

y
.
tion when read and be given a little tim e to a d just itself

, .
B y gentle tapping on the face the obs e rver should assur e

h imself that its various parts are all free and in working
order .
5 I n starting out for work it is well to carr the ins tr u

y
.
ment a while so as to get it into its regular field working

,
order before reading on the base station

, .
6 O ne should check on points of known elevation as

.
often as possible and if ther e is a choic e of r e adings to

, ,
refer to he should depend on that which is nearer time

, ,
and elevation bot h cons idered .
7 A general caution may be needed that the proper

.
us e of the i nstrument is to obtain relative elevation of
points by means of readings on the two O ne must not .
expect by one reading to obtain his height above sea

level .
R E D U C TI ON OF AN E RO I D R EAD IN GS B Y U S E O F T H E
T AB L ES A ND W IT H C ORR E C TI ON F O R T EM P E R AT UR E
A ND W EA T H E R C HAN G E S
(See t ab l es on p g
a es 111 and 1 12)
PRO B LE M I Giv en ba ro met ric rea dings on t wo st atiorw

.
and t em e rat u re at e ach t o he d ifie ren ce in ele v at ion

p fi nd t ,
o t he t wo
f p o int s .
R ul e E nter the fir st column of T able I with the read

.
ings Of the barometer on th e t wo sta tions and ta k e out the ,
corresponding numbers from column 2 (column 3 is for

help in int e rpolating) T ak e th e d iffer e nce between these
.
two figures C all this result for the present a

. .
A d d t h e t wo temperatures togeth e r (or if the tempera

tures of the t wo stations do not d i ffer materially mul tiply ,
that of the region by t wo ) W ith this enter T able II that .

,
for temperatur e correction and find in column 1 the near ,
est number o f degrees given T ake out of col umn 2 the .
number corresponding noting the or s ign and

, ,
mul tiply a above by this p e rcentage L e t us call this b . .
I f b has a pl u s sign add it to a ; if a minus sign subtract

, ,
from a T he result will b e the d e sir e d elevation

.
.
E x a mpl e T he barometric r e a d ing on a lak e of known

.
°
elevation is inch e s and the t e mp e rature th e re 72 F
, .
S hortly after the reading on a hill not far away is found to

,
be and the t e mperature H ow high is the

hilltop above the lak e ?
From T abl e I we have
B arometric el e vation of h ill 1 1 50 feet
B arom e tric elevation of lake 4 58 fe et
Difl e re nc e (a abov e )
’
692 feet
From T able II we have for t + t C= 042
’
.
b therefore 0 4 2 is 2 9 feet . T his must b e

, .
added to a since the sign of the factor is

, and th e
result ( 6 9 2 2 9 = 72 1 ) gives 72 1 feet as th e required
answer .
A short cut to the same result whic h is accurate enough ,
and whic h will save much labor in reducing a numb e r of

r e adings r e fe rred to the same base station is as follows ,
B etween and inches the di ff e rence of e leva ~
tion corr e sponding to 1 inch pressure is 94 feet T his

. .
is obtained instantly by inspection of column 3 of T abl e

I S tated another way the diffe rence of elevation in fe et
.
,
is 6 per cent l e ss than the di ff erence between barometric

readings expressed in thousandths of an inch B u t the .
temperature correction for the conditions is + 4 per cent ,
leaving a net loss of 2 p e r c e nt on th e diff e rence in the

barometric readings .
No w 74 0 and 74 0 2 per cent.

,
72 5 .A nswer 72 5 feet , .
PRO B L EM II To co rrect for changes of pressu re d u e

.
t o t he w eather, by regu l a r rea dings o n a s tation

as s ho wn
ba romet er o r t he re co rd of a ba rogra ph .
T he barograph sh ee t r e produced herewith shows for

the working hours of that Friday a steady fall of pressure .
At in the morning when the party left camp the

indicated pressure was inches . Wh en they got in
TH E AN E RO I D B AROM E T E R 1 09
at 5 P M it was
. . T h at difference in pressure
corresponds to nearly 1 50 feet in elevation and heigh t ,
observations made during the d ay would b e uncertain to

very wide limits if th e c h ange could not be allowed for .
THURS DA Y FRIDA Y
T he possibility of correction res ts in two suppo sitions

( )
1 that at any moment of tim e the air pressure is constant
over a considerable hori z ontal area and (2) that the field
,
barometer and the station barometer work together and ,
that they both follow exactly and quickly th e change of air

pressure T he latter point may be expressed in this way
.
that th e field barome ter if l e ft at the base station would

, ,
h ave followed th e same course as did the ins trument w h ic h

in fact was left there .
The field barometer may not read th e same as t h e

barograph when they ar e brough t together but that ,
inde x error as it is called does not matter if the diffe r

, ,
ence betw e en the two remains constant I n this cas e th e

.
field barometer at camp in the morning read and at

night 1 inc h hig h er than the barograp h
. O ne .
may therefore w h en h e gets to computing draw on the

, , ,
barograph sheet a cur ve through these two new points

and parallel to the one made by the barograph pe Ii .
From this cur ve he may take o ff the reading for a ny hour

in the d ay to compare with a field r e ading taken at the
same time S uch a supplementing curve is s h own on the
.
sheet illustrate d .
Ex a mp l e — A t 1 1 A M on the d ay in question at a
. .
point t wo miles away from camp the field barometer

read What was the elevation relative to the base
station
T he field reading can not be compared with t h e morning
reading at camp beca u se the barometric pressure is known
to hav e b e en changing Neither can it be compared with
.
the night reading for the same reason T he short curve

, .
on the sheet however does tell wh at the field instrument

, ,
would presumabl y have read at ca mp at a ny hour in the

d ay T he curve at 1 1 A M is at
. . and t he two points
.
,
therefore are of equal elevation

, .
In view of the low accuracy of aneroid work di ff erent ,
users of the instrument have devised schemes for shorten

in g o r obviatin g the labor of com p utation One that is .
'
serviceable where tem p erature at d ifle re n t seasons s h ows

wide variation is as fol lows :
On the foot scale of most in struments 1000 feet at t h e
hi g her elevations will be found to occu p y a smaller sector
on the scale than 1 00 0 feet at low elevations as 5000
60 00 as a g ainst 0— 1000 T his can be tested by com p arin g
.
a g ain st i d entical marks on t h e inner scale .
N ow bein g at a kn own or assumed elevation set the

, ,
corres p ondin g g raduation a g ainst the movable h and and

observe where the thousan d foot marks above and below -
c u t the in ner or inch scale ; n e xt take the values so o b ,
t a in e d and com p ute d ifl e re n c e O f elevation accuratel y ,
corr e ctin g for tem p erature If the result O btain ed varies

.
seriously from 1 000 fe e t shift the foot scale by e v e n

,
thousan d s until a p ortion is found so g raduated that it

does corres p on d W ith a constant correction of even
.
thousands e levations may n o w be h ad directl y C o rre c

, .
t ion is not t h us made for weat h er c h an ges h owever , .

TH E AN E RO I D B AROM E T E R 111
T ABLE S FO R R E DUCI NG R E ADI NG S O F T HE ANE R O ID

BAR O ME TE R 1
I B m t i E l ti na ro e r c ev a o
1 Ta ke n f ro m Jo h n s o n
’
s
“
S u rv e yin g a nd Re p o rt o f U S C
. . o as t an d
Geo d e t i c Su rv e y fo r 1 8 8 1 .
1 12 A MAN UA L FO R N OR T H E R N W O O D S M E N
I B a ro m e t e r E l ev a t io n co n t in u e d .
l
g gigih
a l ig e e
Si fif
e e
R ea di n g E l ev a t 1 o n ch
R e a d mg E l ev a t l o n f x
In h c es Fe et
F eet
In h c es F eet
F e et
II — C o rr e c t io n fo r Te m pe ra t u re in D g e r e es Fa h re n h e it
M E TH O D S OF MA P MA K I NG 113
S E C T IO N VII
METHO DS OF M AP MAKING
1 . INT RO D U C T ORY
T h ere is a well defined call at th e present time for good

maps of small forest areas maps whic h s h ow topo
graphic features and record essential facts about timbe r
sta nd W it h the consolidation of large forest properties
.
and their more careful and foresighted management the ,
need is felt for good maps of these as well and it is certain

. ,
that this demand will increase .
T he maps of t h e past are of all grades of accurac and

y
utility A c h eckerboard of lot lines with the waters
.
,
roughl y laid down and estimates of the stand of timber is

, ,
the utmost t hat many lumber companies can command .
S ome improve this by h atching to represent mountains and

divides and by going more carefully in t O wa t er lines and
,
'
areas.
Hat che d M ap s T he accompanying map represents part

.
of a township owned by a M aine lumber company and is a ,
good example of a class of maps now h aving wide use For .
the purposes of the map and of administration th e towns h ip ,
was divided into sections and as the lines were run chain , ,
age was taken at th e crossings of streams and main divides .
I n addition some cruis ing was done with in the lots

, ,
chiefly to ascertain the amount of timber O n th is bas is .
the map was drawn The course of streams is s h own .
approximately M ountains and prominent ridges are

.
hatc hed in M ain existing roads may be put in rough ly

. .
A map like t h is with lines on the ground to correspond

,
with it is of great service in the management of forest

,
property L ogging contracts can be let with clearly

.
defined boundaries ; distance to haul is approximately

known ; in a rough way the nature of the ground is re pre
sented I t has however very evident limitations O ff
.
, , .
the section lines it is all judgment or guesswork and the

, ,
de tails of th e country such as h ave a very material effect

,
1 14 A MAN UAL FO R N OR T H E R N W O O D S M E N
on all op e rations are not shown and cannot be shown with

,
that m e thod of representation .
T he cost of suc h a map is very slight over and above t h e

cost of the survey work in sectioning T hat in th e region
.
named commonly cos t s from $ 6 00 to $ 8 00 per township .
I f a region is divided into sections or quarter sections a -

,
good cruiser can produce a map like th is as fast as h e can

travel over th e country .
C o nt o ur M a p s .T he actual shape of a country is best

r e pr e s e nt e d by contour lines A contour line is a line of
.
equal elevation th e lin e a man would follow if he traveled

,
round a country k ee ping at a constant h e ight or what ,
woul d be th e shor e line could a country be submerged to

a giv e n level T he bas e le v e l o f a map repres e nting a
.
_
country n e ar th e s e ashor e would naturally be sea level .
T he first contour on the map might follow the line of 100

M E TH O D S OF MA P MAK ING 1 15
feet elevation the second run 1 00 feet above that and so

, ,
on one for e ach 1 00 feet A little consid e ration will show

, .
that the lin es indicate not only d irection of the slope of the
land but also the rapidity of slope for wh e n contours are
, ,
close together the ground is steep while on flat land th ey ,
are wid e apart H ill tops are c ircled by a succes sion of

.
conto ur lines O n lower land they often run in a very

.
s 1nu o u s course .
Wh en on e examines suc h a map and think s of its con

struction the first idea is that a tremend ous amount of
,
labor is involved T o follow out a succession of contour

.
lines with ordinary sur veying methods would inde e d be

an endless task T hat is not the meth o d of cons t ruction
.
,
h owever I t is rather sketching gui d e d b y the location

.
, ,
in hori zonta l pos ition a nd height O f a sufficient numbe r O f ,
points I f one knows ho w high the top of a hi ll is abo ve its

.
bas e that tells on e at once ho w many contours 1 0 0 fe e t

, ,
apart come be tween the t wo and a glance at the hill

, ,
perhaps will tell if it is of even slope S imilarly the location .
of divides and ridge tops and on the other hand of lo w , , ,
points w h ether occupied by wat e r or not gives control

, ,
points which aid in representi ng th e slope of the land .
T he main problem of the topograph e r is how be st to make

these locations most acc u rately and at leas t cost .
Ge n e ra l C o n sid e ra t io n s T he ins truments and met h ods.
available for the production of topographic maps have

been described on previous pages I n employing them to .
,
secure practical res ults very much d e pends of cour se on

, , ,
their effective use and proper combination I n this rela .
tion some general principles of sur v eying work a nd the

,
conditions of woods work as distinct from those of ordinary ,
surveying requir e first to be stated

, .
1 .A hu nger for accuracy is part of the make u p of every -
good sur veyor and map maker A t the same time h e has -
.
,
to remembe r that if such work costs more than it is

worth to the man who pays for it it will not be done , .
Accur acy to a c e rta in degr ee is necessary ; on the oth e r

hand there ar e limits of cost A prop e r balance between
,
.
the tw o is re q uired T he result may be called an efficient

.
map .
2 .I n secur ing an efficient map a main principle to h old ,
in mind is th e relation b e tw ee n accur ate and expensive

work a nd work of a lower degree of accuracy I f elevations .
in a topographic survey were put in by l e vel onl y a nd ,
horizontal positions fixed by compass and chain an ,
accurate result would be had it is true but it would b e at , ,
enormous cost O n the other hand the use of baromet e r

.
,
and pacing alone might furnish a map so inaccurate as to

be of little account T he effort must be to co nstruct a
.
skeleton of reliable points and lines to which less accurate ,
and costly work may be ti e d to put points within reach ,
one might say of the weaker method or instru ment Sur

, .
’
v e o r s compass and c h ain staff compass and pacing a n d
y , ,
sketc h ing form such a series in the hori z ontal determination

of points T he level the aneroid and sketching are si milarly
.
, ,
related in height work S ketching is th e final term in a ny

.
case and much depends on it for both accuracy and

,
appearance I n a way it is easy but real excel lence in

.
, ,
the art d e pends on a combination of e ye memory and , ,
artistic sense .
3 T hroughout a ny ordinary work of t h is kind it h as to

.
,
be understood that much detail is too fine for representa

tion or is reall y unessential and on that account the ,
topographer should neglect it M ak e rs of accur ate maps .
neglect onl y what does not s h ow on the scal e of the map .
Woodsmen will generally find it necessary to adopt a

more liberal rule .
T he conditions under which forest mapping is done have

an influence on methods in the following ways .
1 T imber growth itself pr e sents an O bsta cl e to clear

.
sighting T hat favors th e compas s as against the transit

.
for boundary work a nd in the same w ay in topographic

, ,
mapping triangulation and the vertical angle are put a t

,
a disa d vantage as against m e thods which can b e carried

on under th e cover of the woo ds .
2 . Fores t topography should generall y be tie d to

property bound aries rather than to topographic pro mi,
ne nces C ommonly a surv e y of his boundaries is the first

.
,
and mos t important work to be d one for an owner who

wants accurate knowledge about his land I t will there . ,
M E TH O D S O F MA P MA K I N G 1 17
fore save time and money if the interior features can be

,
t ied to them .
3 T opographic maps of forest property s h ould be

.
especially clear in r e spect to road lines and other points of

importance in lumb e ring operatio ns T he map mak e r .
-
shoul d t herefore und e rstand th ese O p e rations I t will

, , .
,
also save tim e and money if topography a nd timber can

,
be examined together at the same time and by th e same , ,
man .
W it h t h ese principles in view the following are methods ,
recommended for the production of forest maps I t is .
well in discussion of the matter to divi d e th e work into

t wo classes —
that on small tr acts where close work is ,
requ ired and that on larger tracts wh e re d ifl e re n t metho ds

, ,
mus t be employed and a lower sta ndard of accuracy may

be allowed .
2 . M APPING SM ALL T RA C TS
A tract of eigh ty nine acres well timbered and of strong

-
,
relief that was surveyed by the class of 1 90 7 in the H arvard

,
S c h ool of Fores try will serve as illustration T he following .
steps were taken in the process .
1 . B oundaries sur v eyed b y compas s and chain ; marked

stakes left every twenty rod s : bounding lines and corn e rs
’
remarked T wo days work for thr ee men more if there is
.
,
e c ia l difficult with the old boun d aries

p y .
2 E levation of one convenie nt point ascertained or

.
assumed a nd levels run over th e roads crossing the tract

, ,
leaving benc h marks plainl y mark e d every twenty rods or

so L evels also run down to po int at
.
, ( See page
,
.
O ne h alf day s work for t wo men ’

.
3 O utlines of tract plott e d to scale on paper ; this

.
pinned on tr averse board with meridian of survey parall e l

to N and S edge of board ; roads run in with the chain and
’
position of bench marks ta ken O ne h alf day s work for .
three men .
4 S he e t on the board without t h e tripod taken into the

.
field a scale serving for alidade ; d eta il mapped in by

,
s hort foot traverses from the known points ; elevations got

’
pa rtl y by aneroid partly by h and level O ne day s work ,
.
1 18 A MA N UAL F OR N OR T H E R N W O O D S M E N
for on e man A ny board to hol d th e sheet will d o a small

.
,
compass b e ing us e d to ori e nt it B y the tim e this work 1s .
d on e a practical man may in addition hav e l e arned

, , ,
about all h e wants to know regarding the timb e r .
C l a rk Lu mb e r C o
’
s .
PARKER
‘ ”
LOT
W o o d st o c k Mas s .
S u rv e y e d by
Harvard Fo re s t S c ho o l
May l , 9 07
D at u m Pl an e A ssu me d
C ont ou r I n t erv al 10 f t .
S ca l e of Fe e t
500 400 300 200 1 00 0
5 .
S ince the lot is to be operated from a portable mill s e t
near its north e as t corn e r go ov e r th e lot with the map in ,
hand and see that th e topographic difficulties and o ppo r

t u nit ie s ar e corr e ctl r e present e d
y .
ME T H O D S O F MA P MA K I NG 1 19
A lt e r nat iv e M e t h od s C ompas s
and c h ain may be
. 1 .
us e d to survey th e roads a nd th e plotting don e off the field .
T his is most conv e ni e nt in w e t w e ath er but when a traverse ,
board is at hand and can b e used it will be found the ,
quickest met h od of survey and the least liable to error .
Diag ram s ho w ing

Me t ho d o f S u rv e y
Li n e s su rv ey e d c hain e d
Poin t s mark e df or
L l d lin
e v el e es
B e n ch mark s
T rav erse s with b aro me t e r
or han dl l
ev e
2 . and sta d ia might be substituted for both

T ran sit
lev e l and traverse board in th e survey of the roads and , ,
wh e r e the woods are open enough in mapping the detail ,
of the topography T his method involves much comput

.
ing is g enerally cumb e rsome and except in th e han d s of a

, ,
skilled and practiced man is liable to give rise to error .

1 20 A MA N UAL F OR N OR T H E RN W O O D S M E N
3 . the boundaries ar e surv e ye d and the primary

After
point in elevation is fixed a topographic survey a nd timber
,
estimate might be made tog e th e r by means of the strip

sys tem of survey described on page 1 88 For th e topo
.
graphic work a barometer would b e carried in the

,
S a me Trac t
as S u rve ye d by
S t rip S yst e m
and the e l e vation O f n ee d e d points r e a d and noted or

plotted down in connection with the chainage by the note
keep e r I f the air pressur e was not s t e ady it woul d be
.
,
nec e ssary for th e baromet e r man once in a whil e to leave

'
the party a nd go back to the base for corr e ction T he

.
combination of barometer and barograph gives rise in a ,

M E TH O D S O F MA P MAK I NG 12 1
method already not too accurate to additional errors and , ,
should not be employed except when it is t he only prac t i

cable method .
T h is method of survey may su ffice in favorable condi

.
tions and where the requirements are not of the strictes t

, .
Work with the level h owever is quick and sure and in

, , ,
general it w ill be found advisable to us e it freely .
Th e M ap I n plotting tracts of this size and up to a few

.
,
h un d red acres in extent scal e s of 4 00 feet or 20 rods to the

,
inch are found to go well with a 1 0 foot contour interval -

,
and to fur nish a serviceable map A larger scale and a

sm
.
aller contour interval would naturally go togeth er .
3 . M AP P ING L A R G E TR A C T S
A . W it h L an d
alr e a d y S ub div id e d I f the reg ion to be .
mapped comes under the public land s urveys or if there are ,
plain and reliable lines of other origin on the ground a ,
skeleton of level lines with barometer work tie d to them is

the treatment indicated Generally the level work is bes t
.
carried alo ng the waters or roads Ponds and lakes form .
t h e bes t sort of reference points a n d frequently natur al ,
water levels p erform a larg e p art of the work re q uired .
S ection lin es ma y however furnish in some cases the best

, ,
rout e s available whil e on very broken lan d it mi g ht be

,
necessary to resort to the vertical an g l e .
How th e barometer work shall be done d epend s on

circumstances I f the weather is perfectly steady or the
.
,
level points are near enough together elevations may be ,
read direct without a weath e r change corr e ction I f .

,
h owever the weath er is shifting and the cruiser mus t sta y

, ,
away from known points many hours at a time a station ,
barom e ter or barogr aph will have to be employed I n a ny .
cas e the topography can be mapped at the same time t h at

,
the timber is bei ng e xamined .
B To p o gra p hy B as e d on S ur v e y of R o a d s or S t r e ams
.
I f th e tract to be sur veyed is an undivided township or is in ,
an
y other form that is too large for accurate mapping it m a
y ,
be cut up by one means or another into smaller areas that

can be h andl ed The lines of eas y subdivis ion naturally
.
1 22 A MAN UAL F OR N OR TH E R N W OO D S M E N
fur nis hed by a large timber tract are its streams O n .
these trans it and stadia furnish the most e ffici e nt means

of survey I f roads are available the same method may
.
,
be employed or anoth er may b e substitute d

, .
On e Mi l e
Su rv e y e d b o un d s wit h c h ain age ma r k s

R o ad sur e y e d b y s t a dia r e f e r en ce p o in t s
v ,
S t ip
r s u rv e ys wit h ba
ro me t er
O n the tract us ed in illustration the road rather than , ,
th e stream was used for the subdivision T he di fferent

, .
steps in the process of survey were as follows :

1. O utsid e boundari es run with compass and chain .
C hainage marks for reference l e ft every quart e r mile .
2 R oad across the tr act sur veyed b y trans it and stadia

.
,
using the ne e dl e and setting up the ins trument at alt e rnate

stations Points marked at short intervals See notes on
. .
page 8 6.
3 L evel line run along road giving elevation of points

.
,
established in the stadia traverse .
4 S trip sur veys run between th e road and the boundary

.
M E TH O D S O F MA P MAK ING 1 23
(see page tying into th e marks left E levations got .
by aneroid corrected by barograph

, Numerous mod ifica .
tions of the rectangular s ystem made as required .
Al t e rn ativ e M e t h o d s 1 O n roads the tr averse board

. .
with chain is undoubte dl y the best ins tr ument for making

a survey of fair accuracy T he compass and chain might .
also be us ed B u t when str eams are utilized unl es s on ice

.
, ,
stadia meas ur ement will be found to be bes t and quick est .
2 T he level migh t be dispe ns ed with and t he transit

.
,
used as a le vel on the same settings from which it is used

to get bearing and dis tance T his works best on a str eam .
with grade all one way and in the cas e of a party by itself
, ,
in the backwoods is probabl y the best m e ans of getting

,
data of this kind O ne additional man is then required

.
for maintenance .
3 I nstead of the str ip survey using compass and c h ain

.
, ,
compas s and pacing m ay be employed with circular plots

for the timber I t may also be better or necessary to
.
discard bo t h recta ng ul ar s ystems and work out t he topog ,
ra h b mean s of road lines passes etc controlling

p y y , , .
,
fea t ur es in the lumbering development .
C . S u b div isio n an d Top o gra p hic S u r v e y C omb in e d .
T he followi ng procedur e has been carried out on a con

s id erab l e scale on undivid e d towns hips in Ne w E n land
g .
The methods emplo yed h ave been found to be c h eap and

practical and th e maps resulting h ave stood the tests of
,
us e and time .
1 B oundaries renewed and tract divided into sections

.
by c ompass and chain T opograp h ic notes taken ; chain

.
’
age marks left every quarter mil e T wo months work for .
a party of seven men .
2 E levation of som e point above sea level O btained if

.
,
p ossible ; if not datum ,

pl an e assumed at or below lowest
point on t h e tr act L evel lines run over roa d s and streams

.
to ponds camps and ot her accessible points well dis tr ib

, , ,
’
u t e d t hr oug h the tr act C ommonl y a week s work for
.
two men .
3 Detail of topograp hy and timber worked out to gether

.
.
M ounta in peaks located by cross bearings ; str ea ms and

r o ads by compas s and pacing tr averse ; other features
1 24 A MAN UAL F OR N OR TH E R N W O O D S M E N
partly by traverse partl y by straight line travel across the

,
-
sectio ns E levations by barometer checked by the baro

.
graph whenever it is necessary to r e main away from known

points a considerable time T imber estimated and topo
.
graphic notes O btained at same time C ruising reduction .

,
’
of notes and map making about six weeks work for th e
,
explorer wh o may need a companion or camp man

, .
C em e nt s .1 Division into mile squares may look

.
expens ive like going a long way round to secur e topo

, ‘
graphic data T hese lines however h ave value on other

.
, ,
accounts : have in fact proved their value over and over

, ,
again in timber land administration As before stated .

,
they are useful in definitel y bounding logging contracts ,
they are perfectly understood by logging fore men and ,
are of great service to them in t heir timber e stimates

and the laying out of their roads T hey are in addition of .
, ,
great s e rvic e in keeping track of subsequent cutting or

other developments on the land .
O n the other hand t h e mile square is not so large an

,
area but that it can be mapped accurately and its timber

estimated according to th e methods here recommended .
2 T he strip survey s ystem might of course be use d

.
, ,
instead of t he one man system employed T he advantages

-
.
of each will be understood from what comes before and

after .
3 I t may be advisable in some cases to separate entirel y

.
the topographic and timber work I n general however .

, ,
the thoroughly equipped man will find that travel that

helps him in one direction helps also in the other .
The M a p s M aps of forest property should be on a

.
large scal e to allow the preservation of notes about small

bunches of timber etc Four inches to th e mile for tracts of
, .
large size h as proved serviceable As to contours a fift y . ,
foot interval will serve in the rough land of Ne w E ngl and

, ,
to r e pres ent most features of the topography .
T he res ults of such a surve are for bus iness purposes

y , ,
bes t embodied in two map s h eets one showing th e waters , ,
relief a nd other permanent f e atures of the country the

, ,
other exhibiting all the facts concerning the timber .
T his last s h oul d be on tracing linen so that it may be laid ,

M E TH O D S O F MA P MAK ING 1 25
over th e topographic s heet and the t wo seen in relation , .
No t o nl y the amount of timber is thus exhibited but the ,
steepness of the ground it stands on and the distance it ,
mus t be hauled I t will appear too whether a valley

.
, ,
has been cut clean to a divid e O n this t imber s he et cut .

,
tings and oth e r operations of succeeding years may be

plo tted I f it gets too complicated it may be thr own away
.
,
and a new one substituted .
A sample map of this kind is reproduced on reduced

s cale herewith T hes e maps m ay also be supplement e d
.
b y topographic mod e ls C ontour maps are not r e ad e as il v

.
b y every person as for ins tance by some lumbermen

, , , ,
but a model of the land as it lies out of doors is imme , ,
d ia t e l y gr asped b y all W ith the aid of a blue print of

.
the map which may b e cut up and us e d as a pattern a

model is c h eaply built out of cardboard or v e ne e r W ith .
such a model at hand a contract may be let or pla ns ,
of work talked over in the office with the same clearness

as to major f e atur e s as if m e n stoo d on the ground .
Following is a topographic map of a s e ction of land as

derived from traverse of th e boun d aries a road and t wo , ,
tr ips across it . A fter that com e notes of the road traverse

and O f one O f the trips across it For not e s of surv ey of .
south line see page 29 O n the map observed elevations .
are written in C ontours as seen are solid ; contours in

.
ferr ed are broken .
Prin c ip l es o f C ru isin g A p lan of cruisin g desi g ned .
to secure to p o gra p hical and timber data every man will

t h ink out for himself and a new one for eac h tract under
ta ken T he following however are b eli e ved to be sound
. , ,
principles for gui d ance in this class O f work .
. 1 M ain str e a ms roads lakes etc should O f cour se be

, , , .
,
tr aversed and they m ay be important enough to demand

,
some other metho d of survey than compass and pacing .
O n e should b e very car e ful too about was te lands burns , , , ,
and th e bound aries of h e avy bodi e s of timber .
. 2 I t is gen e rall y advisable to explore the country one

section at a tim e for in that way one comes out with the
,
cleares t ideas upon it .
. 3 C ross country travel w h ich locates brooks and r1dge

1 26 A M AN UAL F OR N OR TH E R N W OO D S M E N
980 970 1 1 20 1 075
tops by intersection may suffice for topographical purposes ,
while it gives a juster view of the timber than could other

wise be gain e d L o cations too will be more accurate
.
, ,
along such a line than where a crook e d rout e is followed .
4 E xtreme points are in general the ones to read on

.
for h e ight , that is to s ay ridge tops brook crossings etc

, , , .
O ne may combine with this also a s ystem of readi ng at

regular intervals I t will be enough to read the t he rmo m
.
et e r half a do z en times during a d ay to get the course of

the temperature u nless extremely high points ar e occupied
, .
5 R elative heig h ts are frequentl y of far more importance

.
for logging purposes as for instanc e in connection with the

, , ,
grade of roa d s than is absolute el e vation I t is often a d

, .
visable th e refore to establis h sub —centers of work and

, ,
determine el e vations relatively around them rather than

refe r r e adings always to a distant base station O n the .
same principle if a r e gion is hard to get at with the lev e l it

, ,
may serve the purpose of th e map to fix the height of some

central point in it by two or mor e an e roi d r e ad ings and ,
then work around that .

ME TH O D S O F MA P MA K I N G 1 27
C O M P A SS ND PA C NG T R AV E RS E O R O A D A C RO SS S A ME S C
A I F E TIO N
E E V A O NS RE A D RO M FO O S C A E O B A R O ME ER
.
L TI F T L F T
6 . T h ere is
occasionally a locality especially critical
from the lumbering poi nt of view such for i nsta nc e as a
, , ,
pass wh ich makes it possible to haul from one dr ainage to

another with a level road The topographer ought to be
.
enough of a lumberman to recognize these points and ,
when he does he will put special time a nd pains upon t hem .
7 Field observatio ns may be record e d either in the form

.
of running notes or mainl y in th e shape of sketches on a

,
plat of th e ground Probably a combination of the two

.
methods will be found most satisfactory A note book .
especially ruled for th e p urpose to the same scale as the final

1 28 A MA N UAL F OR N OR T H E R N W O O DS M E N
S R
T A I GHT T RAVE RS E AC RO SS S E C TI O N E L E V A TI O NS B Y B A RO ME ER
T
C ORR E C E D B Y B A RO G R A P H
.
map will be found a great s a v 1ng of labor and an aid to

clearness .
8 T he map is best worked up on the ground

. T he .
added accuracy and certainty gained in this way more than

p y for the cost of carrying necessary equipment around
a .
T he topography m ay be drawn in pencil on the final

manus cript sheet a nd an outline sk e tch on a ny kind of
,
paper will serve to gath e r up the timber notes temporarily .

T IM8 ER S HEET
l
Exp o re d l 9 00 C ut t ing s mc e t hat d at e marke d by s e c t io n Il n ing
“ (10 0 t E
T3 3 H8 H e a rt . A , B Y B u m m
3M a il 110 1 1 3 9 2
Yd b e flrs m 5) b t ad ? s o me -
g mt n’ o OOQ | bS I O q a
d to
i
i ' l mr and 11 11 d
ro u nd . The
a
q u ipme n t ar ound .
sl e a h on an L '
nd of
c y
PO RT IO N O F TO W NS HIP 5 R IV O XFO R D C O MAINE
.
To po g l
ra phic a S he e t Dat u m Pl an e Umb ag o g Lake
.
C o nt o u r l
Int e rva 50 f e et
M E TH O D S OF MA P MAK I NG 1 29
D W est ern Top o gr ap hy

. . Us e of t h e C l in o m e t er .
The above described met h ods g rew u p in t he E ast amon g

varied conditions of to p o g ra p h y an d value B rus h t h at .
interferes wit h si gh tin g is widely p revalent and another ,
determinin g fa ctor is t h e g eneral em p loyment of horse

lo gg in g a style of O p eration for which close reg ulation of
,
g rades is not essential C on d itions in the W est are fre

.
q uentl y di fferent from the above in res p ect to one or ,
more p articul ars .
and Ore g on does it still hold the field because O f the d ense ,
b rus h widel y encoun tered which makes almost im p ossible

,
the clear si g ht in g necessary for th e em p loy ment of any

oth er hei g ht determinin g instrum e nt On the contrary
-
.
,
the tem p tation is to rely on th e aneroid for work that it

should not be called u p on to do Wh ere as is the case .
,
here rail roads are employ e d for nearl y a ll main trans p or

,
t at io n h ei gh ts wit h a rel iable basis are essential if a

,
ma p is to be widely servic e abl e Fre q uently the g round

.
lies In suc h a way that the routes of future railroad d e

v e l o p me n t are evident L evels ru n alon g these routes
.
,
wit h aneroid work for th e rest is then the natural treat

,
ment Just t his method has been em p loy ed in numerous

.
cases .
S uch lo g ical and ade quat e treatment is not alwa y s

p ossible h owever nor is it always p ermissible un d er the
, ,
restrictions of the work in hand A variety of methods is

.
in fact em p loy ed es p e cially for the control work A s

, .
for the detail the fact remain s that when p oints in eleva
,
tion have been rel iab l y d e termin e d at distances not more

than from one to t w o mil e s a p art g ood an eroi d s in t e lli
,
'
g ently used will g ive top o gra p hy s u ffic ie n t l y a c c u ra t e for

g eneral p urp os e s while h e r e as e ls ewher e their use saves
,
exp ense by p ermittin g th e to p o g ra p hic and estimatin g

work to be d one to g ether C om p lain ts of the results of
.
aneroid work fre q uentl y aris e from un skill ed us e and from

em p loy ment of instruments of inferior character The .
q ua l it y of instruments obtainable at mod e rate cost has

wit hin a very fe w y ears g reatly im p roved I t is not to be .
1 30 A MAN UAL FO R N OR TH E RN W O O DS M E N
denied however t h at ra p id weat h er c h an g es sometimes

, ,
make accurate work difficult .
S ome interior moun tain territory is c h aracterized b y

li g htly for e ste d rid g es contrastin g with g reat d e nsit y of
timber and brush alon g the streams whil e lo gg in g methods ,
are often such that accurate knowl e d g e O f g rades on valley

lines is n o t essential In circumstances such as these
.
,
circuits of transit and sta d ia work carri e d over the rid g es

have p roved a satisfactory method of hei g ht control .
Wh en areas concerned have never been cover e d b y the land

survey s an gl e s have been turn e d and read in a d dition for
,
the p urp ose of control in the horizontal direction .
W it h control laid out in this wa y the e arl y p lans of

reconn aissanc e in such coun try involv e d as the nex t step , ,
the crossing of vall ey s wit h stri p surveys the aneroid ,
bein g relied on for elevation This p lan of work startin g

.
,
from known p oints on the rid g es and runnin g lon g lines

inde p endent of one anot h er crossin g th e brooks and valley
,
bottoms ( where g rade was most im p ortant ) at a lon g

distance from known bases both hori z ontall y and verti
call y made demands on the aneroid which it was not able
,
to me e t successfu lly .
H ei g ht work alon g th e str e am lin e s was an evident

corrective but a substitute sch e m e that at the time of
,
writin g seems to be fillin g the re qu irement is th e us e of the

tap e and clinometer B oth instruments have howev e r
1
.
, ,
been sub j e cted to modification The clinometer has be e n .
made more e flic ie nt in numerous ways ; in p articular the

arc has been enlarg ed and so g raduated that in stead of
deg r e e or p er cent of slop e it giv e s difference of e levation in
‘
feet for t h e g iven slo p e and a sta ted d istance ( 66 feet or one
chain in p resent practic e ) The ta p e used for the p urp ose
.
is 2% c h ains lon g t wo chains of it mark e d in lin ks as usual

, ,
”
while the extra l en g t h or trailer is so g raduated that
“
the inclined dista nce alon g an y slo p e which corres p onds to

t wo chains h orizontal ma y be set directly B y these .
devices t wo s h ort cuts are accom p lished : first diff erence in ,
1
Fo r a fu ll er d esc rip ti o n o f this me tho d se e The Timb erman ,
M arch 1 9 1 6 , o r E ngi neer ing News Vo l 75 No l , p

,
“ ”
, .
, . .
M E TH O D S OF MA P MAK ING 13 1
elevation is found directly from the slo p e O bservation ;

second wi t h similar dire ctn e ss surface chaina g e is con
,
vert e d into horizontal d is t a n ce These t wo thin g s are the

.
essential s wanted T o facilitat e the work th e g ra d uations

.
,
on the trailer of t he ta p e corres p ond wit h those on the arc

of t h e cl inometer .
on T
a pe
2 Cha in s
The met h od wil l be g ras p ed from the accom p anyin g

fi gure and the followin g exp lanation : If a p art y is ascen d
in g the slop e in dicate d in the fi g ure the man ah e ad (who ,
serves not onl y as head chainman but runs th e comp ass , ,
takes notes and sketches to p o g ra p hy ) as the ta p e comes

, ,
to its end si g hts with his clinom e ter at the hei g ht of his
,
e y e on the r e ar man (who m a y be the timber cruiser as
well as rear chainman ) The readin g O btain e d in t his

.
,
case 3 8 is the vertical rise pe r 66 feet hori z ontal on the

,
slo p e b e tween the two men That corr e s p onds to a vertical

.
an g le of but the fact not bein g need ed is n eg lected

, , .
The to p o g ra p her n o w calls out 3 8 to the r e ar man w h o ,
lets the ta p e run out to that mark as a matt e r of fact ,
feet bey ond the t wo chain p oint Wh en the chain to this

- .
mark has been d rawn strai g ht and taut and p ins are set ,
two chains is t h e horizontal dis t a nce between them This .
t h e to p o gra p her m ay n o w p lot on his ma p The h ei g ht of .
t h e new p oin t ( twice 38 or 76 f e et above the fir st one ) ma y

,
also be us e d as t h e basis of sketc h in g .

13 2 A MAN UAL FO R N OR TH E RN W O O DS M E N
Two miles p er d ay are readily covered by two men ,
drawin g top o g ra p h y carefull y and estimatin g a g ood stand

of timber No t onl y has cruisin g work been done b y this
.
method bu t control work as well us in g more care and two

, ,
in struments This last us e of the method re quire s makin g

.
cir cuits several miles in len g th around eit h er subdivisions of
land or top o g ra phic areas For cruis in g work t h e meth od

.
is carried at farthest t w o miles to a tie p oin t . E rrors in

direction and distanc e are seldom O ver chain per mile
and t h e avera g e error in h e i gh t work is 10 feet In very
.
brus hy coun try some tricks of t h e trade are in troduced in

t h e interest of s p eed as si g htin g to t h e flash of a mirror or
,
t h e metal note holder of t h e cruiser In co un try of long

.
M E TH O D S OF MA P MA K IN G 1 33
op en slop es an alternative method is to take lon g er s h ots to

noted ob j ects c h ain u p and com p ute the elevation
, , .
Above is p ractice develo p ed in t h e United S ta tes For

est Servic e The cost is g iven as 12 cents p e r acre as a
.
total for to p o g ra ph y a nd cruise S ome commercia l work .
is done on the same g eneral plan a fiv e chain ta p e bein g ,

-
used and correction for dista nce made from tables In t h e

field .
The accom p an y in g ma p of mounta inous land in I dah o

s h ows at the left the to p o g ra p hy alon g two miles of section
line as dev e lo p ed by a survey for control p urp oses which
su rroun d ed four sections This control work naturally 15 .
p erformed and Checked in advance of the detail work .
To t h e ri g ht the to p o g rap h y of the g reater p art of the area

h as been fil led in but a stri p left blank indic a t e s ho wit is
,
built u p from p arallel lin e s 1 0 chains a p art crossin g the

,
territory This ma p is com p leted in the fi eld a board and

.
,
out l in e section Sheets facilitatin g the p urp ose .
This method thou g h develo p ed in s p ecial con ditions in

,
the We st p romis es with som e of its modifications to win

, , ,
a considerable field of emp loy ment .
S E C T IO N VIII
ADVANTAGE S O F A MAP SYSTEM
Following are the adva ntages wh ic h a good set of maps

renders to a large bus iness concern T o secure thes e a .
good man will be r e quired in the field to k e e p up lines ,
map the cutting of successive years and watch the con ,
dition of the timber .
1. Great saving in t he aggregate can be effected through

the detection of small losses such as windfalls and ins ect ,
depredations also by finding bodies of u nhealthy timber

, ,
and as far as possible having such material cut and hauled .
2 T he location of a ll sorts of roads whether railroads

.
, ,
logging roads or supply roads is greatly facilita te d

, , . .
E xploring is saved and distances are acc u rately known

,
.
3 O perations can be planned and largely controlled

.
from a c e nter with all sources of inf ormation at hand .

1 34 A M A N UAL FO R N OR TH E R N W O O DSM E N
T he timber r e sources are known ; also their location and ,
all relat e d facts T he cut can be located for years ahea d

.
to the best advanta g e so as to make driving and the ha u l

,
ing of suppli e s for instance come cheapest and handiest

, , .
4 A map s ystem preserves inf ormation about the land

. .
An old lumberman or cruiser has a lot of information in

his head that is lost to a business when he dies or steps out ,
unless it is fixed in some permanent form .
5 A concern knows what it is posses sed of and h as that

.
,
information in the form most eas ily taken in by all int e l l i

gent men whom it may be des ir able to inf orm ; for ins tance ,
stockholders and possible money lenders

, .
6 A good map system in a business may pay for its elf at

.
the first change of m anagement A new manager coming

.
into a business Is in the hands of his e mployees for years

until he can get firs t —hand knowledge of his country W ith .
th e aid of a good map s yst e m working command of a big

property may be had in a year .
7 A reliable map s ystem followed up for a term of

.
years through a series of pictures of the lan d furnishes a

record of its growth and so enables a concern to grapple
,
with t h e question of futur e supplies .

PA R T III
L O G A ND W O O D M E A SUR E IWE NT
PAR T II I . L O G AND W O O D LIEASUREME NT
SE CTIO N I . C UBI C C O NTE NTS

SE CT IO N II . C O R D W OO D R UL E
SE CTI O N III . NE W HAM PS HI RE R ULE
SE CTI O N IV . B OAR D M EAS URE
I . General
2 S c rib n er a n d D e c imal R ul es
3 Sp aul ding o r C o l umb ia R iv er R ul e
.
Doyle R u le
m M aine R ul e
m Ne w B runswick Ru le
q Qu eb ec R ul e
m T he o ry o f Scal e R u les a nd C l ark s I nt ernati o nal
’
L og R ul e
SE CTI O N V NE w YO
. K
R STANDARD R UL E
SE C TI O N VI SC A l ING PRACTI C E
.
SE CTI O N VII M IL L T AL L I ES
.
SE CTI O N VIII C O R D M EAS UR E

.
PA R T III . LOG A ND W O O D M E AS U R E M E NT
SE C T I O N I
C UB I C C O NTE NTS
T HE simplest way to measure the contents of a log is to

take its lengt h and mid —diamet e r and asc e rta in the cubic
contents of a cylinder having those dime nsions B ark may .
be ta ken in or left out B y the use of a calipe r and tape

.
,
a very close r e s ul t may be had on logs that are not too

long provided car e is taken either by ins pection or by cross
,
measur ement to get a true mid diamet e r T rees cut nearly -

.
ful l length are giv e n as a rul e too large a value when

measur e d in this way larger that is to s ay than their
, , ,
actual cubic contents T he perc e ntage of overrun for large

.
spruce cut off at 5 to 8 inches diameter in the top is about

6 p e r c e nt of their true volume .
When logs are placed in a p ile t h e best th at can be done

is to us e a diameter which is an averag e between the diam
e t e rs of the ends swell at the stump if present being
, , ,
disregarded .
Fir st among the tables for log measurement given in the

b ack of this work is a table of cylind e rs with contents
in cubic feet sta ndard measur e T he l e ngths in fe e t are
, .
given in the first vertical column the diameters in inches ,
on the upper horizontal line and th e contents of a ny log is

,
read off O pposite its length and beneath its diame ter If .
t he length is not given ad d together such le ngths as will

,
make it up T hus a log 1 2 inches in d iamet e r and 4 7 feet

.
long has th e contents of a log 4 0 fe e t long l that of a log

—
7 feet long or 3 1
, cu ft cu ft
. . . .
For practical purposes r e sults near enough will be had

'
if fractions of inches more than inch ar e taken as of the

inc h above and fractions of inch and less are dis regarded
,
.
For convenient us e in s caling t hese figures s h ould be ,
stamped on the bar of a log caliper T h ey may be so ar .
ranged o n a bar as to throw out a fair proportion for bark .
T his s ystem of log measur ement is in actual use in but

one bus iness concern so far as known to the writer ye t it
, ,
is the s implest and most natur al meas ur ement for logs th at

ar e to be con v erted into p ul p shingles excelsior etc I t
, , , .
is not a di fficult matter to arrang e a factor or factors for

converting cubic measure into board me asure .
SE C T IO N II
C O R D W O O D R ULE
T he fi gures given in t h e table on page 239 t h ose for cord ,
measure are not cubic feet of solid wood but w h at have

, ,
bee n called stacked cubic feet the space which wood

will occupy in a pile 1 2 8 of t hese make a cord L ike t h e
. .
preceding th ese figures are ordinarily placed for c o nv e n

,
ie nt use on the bar of a caliper rule .
T h ese figures h ave been long and widely tested in prac

tice and w hen used as designed have given satisfaction?
,
L ogs should not be measured in t o o long lengt hs for whole ,
trees measur ed in this way may not hold out Again .

,
small crooked and knotty timber will pile up rat her more
, ,
cords than the rule gives O n a good quality of pulp wood

.
t hese figures yield jus t about the same retur n as the re

s ul t s of pilin For f u rt h er details see S ection VIII on
g .
,
cord measure .
SE C T IO N III
THE NEW HAM PSHIRE R ULE
T he Ne w H ampshire Lo g R ule is ex actly t h e same as

th e last in principle onl y an artificial unit of measure h as
,
been created T he cubic foot of Ne w H ampshire log

.
measur e is times the cubic foot of standard measur e ,
and nearly twice the foot of t he cord wood rule T he Ne w .
H amps h ire law regarding t he matter is as follows :

All ro un d
B OAR D M E A S UR E 1 39
st ick of timber sixt ee n inches in diameter and twelve inches in

length shall cons titute o ne cubic foo t and the same ratio shall ,
apply t o any other s ize a nd quantity Each cubic foot shall con .
st it u t e te n fee t o f a tho usand boar d fee t .
T his r ul e is extensivel y used in scaling spruce in M aine ,
Ne w H amps hire and Vermont A broad caliper bar is

, .
sta mped with the figures and the stiff iron jaws attac h ed ,
throw out inch from the diameter for bark T he diam .
eter is ta ken in t h e mid dl e of the log and in ordinary ,
practice logs of a ny lengt h are measured as one piece .
T he values given by the rul e run paral lel to actual cubic

contents and the rul e is therefore a fair one as applied to
pulp wood I t is not a satisfactory measur e of th e yield
.
of logs at t h e saw smal l logs being for that p ur pose over

,
valued and very large logs undervalued As wit h cubic .
meas ur e h owever its values could be readil y converted

, ,
into board measure by th e use of different factors for logs

of d ifl e re nt si z es
’
.
I t is now the uniform practice w h erever th e Ne w H amp

s h ire rule is in use to take 1 1 5 feet by the rule for 1000
feet of lum ber .
SE C T IO N IV
B O AR D BIEASURE
1 . board foot is a piece of sa wed lumber 12

Ge ne r al . A
inc h es square and o ne inch thick or a ny piece as 3 X 4 , ,
or 2 X 6 which if reduced to 1 inch thickness has 1 44

,
square inches of area I t is properly the unit of sawed .
lumber and there must always be more or les s difficul ty in

,
adjusting it to th e measurement of logs .
T here are a large num ber of rules in the countr y to d ay -
purporting to give t h e contents of logs of given dimens ions

in feet board measur e Among th ese rules there is wide
, .
variation in the value given to logs of the same d imens ions .
I n the mann er of their us e too t here is a good deal of , ,
d ive rgence res ul tin g sometimes in dis pute and loss

,
.
The fi gures of ei g ht rul es in e x tensive use in the United

S tates and C anada th e S cribner the Doy le the Deci , ,
m l the M ain e t h e Ne w B runs w ick the Quebec the

, , , ,
14 0 A MAN UA L FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
Sp auldin g and the B ritis h C olumbia

, are p rin t e d in
this work ( se e p a ge s 243 The International rule ,
,
devised by Dr Judson F C lark formerl y forester of Ou

. .
,
tario is also g iven ( p a g e

, In re g ard to thes e rules
a n d th e ir relation to lo g measurement and s aw p ro d uct
s e veral g eneral O bservations may be made .
O n sound smooth soft wood logs when ma nu fac

, ,
-
t u re d according to the best present practice th e fi gur es of ,
all the commercial rules are conservative with the exception

of the Doyle rule on very large logs T his is especiall y .
true with reference to small logs .
B oard rul es give to large logs a greater valuation in

proportion to cubic contents (actual amount of wood ) than
to small ones T hus the S cribner log rul e to 8 inch logs
.
-
of small taper all ows fiv e feet per cubic foot of wood con
tents ; to 1 6 —inch logs seven fe et to 30 inch logs eight feet ,
-
.
T his principle is a just one for logs that are in fact to be

sawn because the waste in manufacturing in the case of
,
small logs is much greater but on this account a board ,
rul e is not a just measur e for logs des igned for pul p or
other such uses .
T he rul es are adapted to use on short logs with little

ta per Wh en logs ar e long enough to be cut in two for
.
sawing or to yield side boards for a part of their length

, ,
to derive contents from l e ngth and top d iam e t e r is not a

fa ir thing I n such cas e s a second measur e of diamet e r
.
should be taken and this can be done accur at e l y onl y with

,
a caliper Allowance for ris e or t ape r whether for each

.
,
log by judgment or according to some rule agreed upon ,
is more or less inaccur ate and shoul d be resorted to onl y

in case of n e cessity I t m ay be said as a general rule that
.
20 foot lengths are as long as it is safe to scale logs in

- 1
.
O n the other hand since strongl y tapering logs in al most

,
every case are rougher than those of gentle tap e r v arying ,

I
taper in logs of reasonable length is largel y n e utralized

by quality .
T here is wide variation in the details of scali ng prae

tice and a trustworthy r ul e in consequenc e may in the
, ,
hands of an unskill ed or careless man give very u ns at is ,
1
E xc ep t in t he cas e o f Pacific C o as t timb er .
factory res ul ts I n some matters especiall y culling for

.
,
defects latitude must be allowed to the scaler I n general

, .
,
h owever practice is weak in the direction of strict mechan

,
ical accuracy R eference is made to section V I fol lowing

. .
T he method of co nstruction field of use and relation to

, ,
saw product of the above named rul es are as follows

2 S c rib n e r an d Decim al R u l e s
. The fi g ures of t h e
.
ori g inal S cribner rule wer e O btained by draw in g dia g rams

of the end sections O f lo g s 1 2 to 48 inches in diamet e r and
the boards which in the mill p ractice O f the t ime could be
sawed out of them I t is a very o l d rule and in wi d e use
. .
A s p rinted ext ended down to 6 in c h es it is the leg al rule

, ,
in the state of M innesota .
Omittin g unit fi g ures of the S cribner rul e and ta kin g t h e

nearest tens h as g iven the Decimal rule so called leg al in , ,
W isconsin and ado p ted by t h e United S tates Forest

S ervic e .
3
. S p au l din g o r C o l u m b ia R ive r R u l e This ru le w a s .
d e rived by si milar metho d s as th e p recedin g inch bein g ,
allow e d for s aw kerf I t is in more extensive use on the

.
P acific C oast than a ny ot h er .
4 D oy l e R u l e
. T his rule was cons tructed by the fol
.
lowing formula : Deduct 4 inches from the diameter of
the log for slab square of t he remainder and multiply

, ,
b y th e length of the log in fe e t T his is a very illogic l

a
.
rule and giv e s resul ts widel y varying from s aw product In

14 2 A MAN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D SME N
logs of different sizes though in a run of logs the results

,
obta ined may approximate a fair th ing Very small values .
are given to small logs too small by far for normal logs ,
economically manufactured while beyond about 36 inches ,
in diameter values are given th at are above th e product of

the s aw I t crosses the S cribner rul e at 25 inches in
.
diameter the M aine rule at 34 A test made by Dr J F

'
.
, . . .
C l a k in 1 90 5 in a C anadian band mi l l cutting sound ,
straight pine into bo ards resul ted as shown on page 1 4 1 .
The Doyle rule is in more general use than a ny other in

the U nited S tates and C anada and is the one printed in ,
’
recent editions O f S cribner s L umber and L o g B ook .
T h is rule h as been combined with the S cribner into t h e

D oyl e S crib n e r rul e the figures of th e Doyle rule being
-
,
taken for small logs where the Doyle figures are lower ,
and of the S cribner rule on the largest logs w here these

figures are less T h is Doyle S cribner rul e has been us ed
.
-
largely on h ard woods .
5 M ain e also cal led Ho l l and R u l e

.
, T he figures of this .
rule were derived from diagrams T hat is to s ay circles .

,
6 7 8 etc inches in diameter were plotted and within

, , , .
these the boards that could be sawed an inch thick with ,
inch for saw kerf No t onl y th e boards derived from the

.
inscribed square were r e ckoned but the sid e boards if ,
they were as muc h as 6 inches wide NO rounding o fl of .

’
the figu res was done so they are a little irregular but that
, ,
takes care of itself in a run of logs .
T his rule is used largely in M aine and to some extent

elsewhere I t h as been carefully tested at the saw and
.
,
the conclus ions are as follows : So und spruce and pine

logs 1 2 to 1 8 feet long of best merchantable quality , ,
manufactur ed at a circular saw cutting i inch kerf will -
yield in the shape of inch boar d s jus t about the number of

feet of edged lumber that the rule gives A band saw wil l .
get more and there will be a larger product if the logs are
,
put into plank or timber M ore will also be got the longer .
the logs run up to the point where t hey are scaled in two
,
l ec es
p .
H ow sawing practice affects the product at the saw was

clearly s h own by a tes t made by the United S ta tes Forest
Service in various spruce mills of M aine So me results of .
t h is test are given in tabular form All logs were straigh t .
and sound and exact conditions were as follows

,
B and M ill NO 1 inch s aw kerf lumber ou t just 1 inc h

.
,
-
,
th ick M ill run for economy and utmost product of long

.
lumber giving product of about 4 0 M dail y

, .
B and M ill NO 2 same s a w kerf .M ill run for speed

, .
rather than economy product being 5 8 M a d ay , .
R otary M ill T g inch saw kerf lum ber even inc h t h ick
5
,
-
, .
Gang S aw g g a IIIC II kerf

, lumber even inc h t h ick logs
-
, ,
sawed alive or through and thr ough .
T AB LE I YIE LD IN I NC H B O AR DS O F L O G S 1 6 FEE T
.
L O NG A S SAWE D IN DI FFE R E NT MILLS
1 0 in .
1 1 in .
1 2 in .
1 3 in .
1 4 in .
1 5 in .
1 6 in .
1 44 A MAN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D S ME N
TAB L E P R O DUCT IN I NC H B O AR DS O F L O G S
II . O F DI F
FE R E NT LE NGT H S A S SAWE D I N B AND MILL NO 1 .
Sh ows how in careful practice yield increases relative to

scale as the logs are longer .
L n gt h
e s in Fe e t
Di a m .
8 10 12
6 in . 13 17
8 in . 25 32
1 0 in . 39 49 91 10 1 1 13 1 24
1 2 in . 54 68 97 1 12 1 26 141 1 56 1 72
1 4 in . 73 92 111 1 30 1 49 1 70 1 90 21 1 23 2
1 6 in . 95 20 1 45 1 70 1 96 22 3 2 50 2 78 30 6
T ABLE III P R O DUCT O F MILLS W HE N SAWI NG DIME N

.
SI O N STO C K MO ST LY 2 A ND 3 I NC H PL ANK ,
O verrun is t h e percentage by which the product ex

c e e d s the scale of the logs as given by the M aine log rule .
B n d Mill N
a O . 1 R o t a ry
A g
v e ra e
Ov er
A g
v e ra e
Ov e r
L e n gt h s
Tp o L ngt h
e s
Tp o
D m ia . D m ia .
1 6 ft . a nd u n de r 10 in . 24 1 6 ft . an d u n de r 10 in . 0
70
1 7— 20 f t . 10 in . 23 1 7— 20 ft . in . 6
2 1 — 2 4 ft in in
37 2 1 2 4 ft 12 11
70
—
. . . .
2 5— 2 8 f t . 9 A in . 15
7,
6 . Ne w
runsw ic k R u l e T h is is the legal rule for scal
B .
ing lumber cut on the crown lands of Ne w B runswick and ,
is gen e rally e mployed for log measurement in that province .
I ts values are somewhat below those of the M aine rule .
When logs of a smaller top diameter than 1 1 inches are

to be scaled it is done und er the following rule : A 7 inch
,
-
log contains 2 ft B M per foot of length an 8 inch log

. . .
,
-
2 % ft a 9 inc h log 3 ft a 10 inc h log 4 ft

.
,
-
.
,
-
.
O ne notable th ing about the Ne w B runswick rule is th at

taper is allowed for in lengths over 24 feet .
7 Qu e b e c R u l e
. T his is the legal rul e for measuring
.
logs in t he province of Quebec V alues are close to the .
S cribner R ule ; in many cases they are identical The .
figures were derived by plotting .
8 .The or y o f S c a l e R u l e s and C l ark s I nt e rn at iona l ’
L og R u l e The theory of t he measur ement of s a w logs

.
in b o ard meas ure has been more car e ful ly studied by

Dr Judson F C lark 1 than by anyone else and a rule
. .
,
called the I nternational L o g R ule was devised by h im ,
on the basis of th is reasoning which he also te sted at ,
the saw T he main points in this study are as follo ws

.
Ta per of Logs While logs exh ibit a great variety of

.
taper it has been found ( 1 ) that rough logs taper more

,
than clear smooth logs so that quality tends to neutralize

, ,
taper ; (2 ) that a v erage ta pe r does not di ffer greatly in dif

fe re nt localities or with different species T his average .
taper as a result of much measur ement is found to be

safely 1 inch in 8 feet T his in modern economical mill .
practice increases the yield of lumber in the form of side

boards a nd th e above stated allowance for taper is there
,
fore introduced into the rul e for all lengths over 8 feet .
C roo k a nd S weep I n this study due al lowance was

.
made for irregularity of surface and crook averaging 1 % ,
inches in 1 2 feet of length found to be characteristic of ,
whit e pine logs on the O ttawa R iver was counted normal ,

.
Above the limit of 1 inches in 1 2 fe e t a ny given degree ,
of crook was found to a ffect the product of small logs more

than of large logs and that in proportion to th e ir diameters
,
.
T hat is to s ay a crook of 3 inches in 1 2 fe e t throws out

,
twice as great a percentage from a 1 0 inch log as from one -
2 0 inch e s in diam e ter .
S hrin kage an d S eas onin g L ogs are commo nl y scaled .
green whil e sawed lumber must hold out on a sur vey made
,
when it is d ry I n computing his rule Dr C lark figured

. .
that boards would be c u t LI ? inch thick to allow for this

I
‘
l S ee Fo re
s t ry Qu a rt e rl y V o l IV No
, .
, . 2 .
14 6 A MAN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D SM E N
S a w Keri loss in logs of d iflere nt sizes is pro ’

. T h is
portional to the area of th eir cross section or to th e square -
,
of the diameter I t vari e s in proportion to the thickness

.
of saw k e rf as well As embodying an average of good .
1
pres ent practice 3; inch was allowed , .
L os s in E dging L u mber T his includes not o nl y t h at .
portion of a log wh ich is t hrown away in t he form of edg

ings but also the fractions of inches in the wi d th of boards
, ,
whic h in Dr C lark s studies were uniformly thr own off

.
’
.
I t is counted to be in all logs proportional to the sur face ,
or what amounts to t he same thing to t he diam e ter

, , .
C ounting boards to be merchantable d own to th e size of

2 ft B M Dr C lark found that an allowance of 8 foot
. . .
, . .
board measur e for e ac h square foot of sur face under the

bark or what amounts to much th e sam e a layer 8 inch
, , , .
in th ickness around t he surface would jus tly allow for ,
th is waste .
Fo rmu l a fo r t he R u l e T he above elements being put.
into mat he me t ic al form with D representing top d iameter

ins ide bark there is O bta ined for 4 foot sections the formula
,
-
( D2
X 7 1 D contents B M . . .
A da pt ation t o O t her C ond itio ns The product for oth er .
widths of saw kerf than f; inc h may be obtained by apply

l
ing th e following per cents

inch kerf ad d
Fo r per cent
7
5; .
3 inch k erf s ubtract

Fo r 5 e r cent
1 3 p . .
inch kerf sub tract

Fo r pe r cent .
{3 inch kerf subtract

For pe r cent .
inch kerf su btract

Fo r pe r cent .
inch kerf subtract

Fo r pe r cent .
Sh ould the T g inc h allowance for shrinkag e not be made

‘ -
in the mill practice in qu e stion this may be allowed for ,
in a similar w ay A ccor d ing to Dr C lark s assumptions

. .
’
each board with its saw kerf means 1 13g inch in thickness
taken out of the log .
I f mill practice in other ways is not so economical as

the rule presupposes that is to s ay if logs are sawed , ,
with more wast e in slab and edging than has be e n assum e d ,
or if logs vary in tape r and straightn e ss from the standard ,
th at is considered by Dr C lark to be proportional to t he .

THE NE w Y OR K S T AN D AR D R UL E 1 47
surface or diameter and he recommends th at it be allowed,
for by making a comparison between the scale and mil l

product and then adjus ting the zero mark on the scale
,
stick more than one inch from the inch mark on t he stick
in accordance with th e resul ts of that comparison Dr . .
’
C larke s rul e will be found on page 254 in the same section
with the other board rules .
SE C T IO N V
THE NEW YO RK STANDAR D R ULE
I n northern Ne w York logs are cut as a rul e 1 3 feet long ,
and a log of that length and 1 9 inches in diameter at t he

top ins ide bark is t h e common unit of log measure
, ,
ment I t is called a ma rket or sta nda rd and logs

.
,
of other dimensions are valued in proportion .
T he standard is t hus another art ificial unit of log

measur e ment more artificial pe rhaps than any other here
, , ,
dealt with S tandard measure in logs of the same length

.
runs very close to cubic measur e T hus a log 1 9 inches in .
diameter at the top and 1 3 feet long has 2 6 cubic fee t in it ;

four logs 9 % inches in diamet e r and 1 3 feet long also ,
making one sta ndard conta in the same amount of W ood ,
approximately whil e a 3 8 inch log of the same length has

,
-
four standards and 1 0 4 cu b ic fe et of co ntents A log 2 6 .
feet long h owever has more than twice the wood contents
, ,
o f a 1 3 foot log on account of taper

-
For that reason the .
use of standard measure outs ide of a region where short

standard lengths ar e cut would be likely to mak e trouble .
S tandard measure does not run parallel to board measur e

or to the yield of logs of d iffer e nt si z e s at t he s a w T he .
sta ndard log a log that is to s ay 1 9 inches in top diameter

—
, , ,
and 1 3 feet long scal e s by th e S cribner rule 1 9 5 feet and

, , ,
in practice five standards are O ft e n r e ckoned as the equiv

,
1
a l e n t of a t h ousand Four 9 75 inch logs toget her making
.
- -
,
one standard scale but 1 44 feet by the rule or seven stand

, ,
ards to the thousand and the actual ratio between stand ,
ards and thous ands is stated to ru n all the w ay from 4

to 1 4 .
14 8 A MAN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D SM E N
The ratio between cords and standards is nearl y con

stant in logs of all siz e s if cut of equal length I n the .
A d irondack woods standards are commonl y reckoned

as one cord .
SE C T IO N VI
SCALING PR ACTI C E
L ogs are best scaled when they are being handled over ,
as on a landing or m ill brow for then all parts can be seen

,
and got at M easurem e nt in the pile especially for long

.
,
logs is both difficult and u nsatisfactory

, .
1
. L e n gt h A tape worked by t wo men is an accur ate
.
measure of lengt h S hort logs may be accuratel y measure d

.
with a marked pole and for long logs a carefully adjus ted
,
wheel with brads in the ends of its spokes is cheap to use

and reasonably accurate M easurement with a four foot
.
-
stick has a very wide range of accuracy according to ,
t he way it is done .
G ERM A N NU M B E R I NG HA MMER
Valuable timber cut into standard log lengths is com
mo nl y allowed two inches extra to permit trimming at
the s a w this amount be n disregard e d in the scale I f
, .
logs are cut without measur ing in which case they are as ,
likel y to be t e n inches ov e r foot lengt hs as two inches th e ,
extra inch es are commonl y t hrown O ff just the same T hat .
practice however means in 1 6 foot logs a loss of 2 % per

, ,
-
cent on the scale or the timber O n 30 foot logs it means .

-
,
1 5 per cent .
2 .D iame t e r T he diameter measure for a ny board rule

.
is obtained at t he small end of the log and ins ide th e bark .
It is important in large and valuable timber that an aver

age diameter b e taken I n deali ng with fractional inch es
. ,
S C AL IN G PR AC T IC E 14 9
th e re is a variety of practice S ome scalers read u niformly .
from the inch nearest the exact diameter ; some disregard

all fractional inches and take the next inc h below ; some
vary the practice according to length and taper of the
individual logs .
Probabl y the mo s t j us t practice to follow as a general

, .
,
rule is to thr ow off all fractions of inches up to and in

,
cluding one half inc h and to read fractions over one half
,
as of the inch above This practic e in lo g s under 1 6 .

,
inches in diamet e r g ives resul t s from 7 to 1 0 pe r cent

,
g reat e r t h an if all fractions of in ches are thrown out .
3
. C u l ling f or D e f e c t s Defects in logs cons ist in irre gu
.
l arit y of form in shakines s and in decay Kno ts are not

, , .
pro perl y co nsidered as defects bu t as a factor In general ,
matters vary with the spe cies ; with the

the individual log T hey are matters .
which have to be dealt with locall y and individually and ,
little can be written that is likely to be of service and not

liable to do more harm than good .
T he c ur v e d or s w e e p in g f o rm is a common defect in
logs S calers frequently have rules for allowing for it
.
,
but these differ so widely that they cannot be transcribed

here ( See page 1 4 5 for the result of this defect in logs of
.
di fferent sizes ) .
I rr e gu l ar c r oo k s in logs cannot be classified A man can .
sight along a log and estimate what proportion of it can be

utilized by the straight cuts of a s aw and this guid ed by ,
mill experience is the onl y w ay of dealing with the matter .
S e am s caused by frost and wind form another class of

defect more frequent in northern woods and in trees grown
,
on exposed places S ometimes these are shoal a nd have

.
little or no effect on s a w product S ometimes they rea c h .
nearl y or quite to the heart of a log .
A fairl y general practice on northern spruce cut for s aw

mill use is to discount 1 0 per cent for straight deep seams , ,
and for twisting seams up to 33 p e r cent or even to throw ,
out the whole log .
I t is to be remarked that these defects have when reck ,
o med in percentage a far greate r efiect on s ma ll lo gs than

,
on l ar e ones T hu s a t h ree inc h swee p in a 1 5 inc h 12

- -
g .
,
1 50 A MAN U A L FO R N OR T H E RN W OO D S M E N
foot log takes but a small percenta ge out of its tota l yield
at the s aw while a 6 inch log wi th the same sweep is
,
-
rac t ic al l v useless for ful l length edged lumber A gain

p , .
,
strong taper may largely neutralize the effect of cons id e r

able irregularity in outside form L astly in practical .
,
scaling a cert ain a mo u nt of irregu l a rity in o u tside fo rm

,
must be considered n o rma l and be taken care of by the

cons ervatism of the log rule .
Sha kin e ss in logs is far more frequ e nt in some species

than in others T hus hemlock is largel y affected by it
.
,
while there is very little of it in spruce I n large measur e .

,
as a n element of quality a ff e cting ,
of the product not a d e fect affecting the scale of ,
W hen how e ver a considerable section of a log

, ,
is rend ered worthless it should be thrown off in the scale , .
H ow much to throw off is a ma tt e r of judgment and of mill

e xper ience .
D e cay may be complete utterly des troying the value of ,
a whole log or a section or it may be partial allowing the , ,
production of a l o w grade of lumber Decay varies muc h ‘
according to speci e s and locality and it occur s in various ,
forms O f the northern soft—wood tr e es fir is most liabl e

.
,
to unseen defects —
a log perfectl
y sound
, to all outside
appearance may open out very poor at t he saw T o .
a less extent wh ite pine in some localitie s is affected in the

same way .
Generally h owever th e ends of a log or some mark on

, ,
”
its surface such as rott e n knots
, punks and flows of , ,
to the practiced e ye of d efect beneath .
Ho w much to allow is then a matter of judgm e nt based

‘
on mill experience .
T he following table has been made up giving the loss

1
,
due to round center defects ext e nding thr ough or affe cting
the full length of a log For four or fiv e inch defe cts it .
-
,
amounts to the same thing as throwing out a scantling

having the same side as th e hole has diameter .
As st ted at th e start careful mill training is the onl y

a
safe bas is for th e correct cu l ling or d iscounting of logs .
S ome s ea l e rs have that ; som e do not and have to rely either ,
Graves Fo res t M ensurati o n

1 ’
.
M IL L T ALLI E S 151
T AB LE O F LO SS BY HO LE S O R R OT NE AR THE CE NTE R
OF L O G S GOOD FO R D E FE CTS MO RE
, T H AN 4
I NC H E S FR O M T HE BAR K
on arbitrar y rules or on gues s work Proper discount ma y

.
vary greatly too with the mill practice and product A

, , .
mill with a box factory attached o r s awing round edged

,
'
stuff which is measured regardles s of crooks was tes little ,
or nothin g on accoun t of defective form For a mill .
which can market only three in c h deals at a p rofit an

-
,
entirely differ ent syst e m of scalin g is app ro p riate .
SE C T I O N VII
MILL T ALLI E S
T h ousands of unr ecorded tests of scale rul es have doubt

les s been made at the s aw using local and current scaling
,
and sawing methods Dur ing the last fe w years a number

.
of such tests have been mad e und e r stated conditions so

car e fully guarded that th ey may serve a general purpose .
R efe rence is made to the tests recorded on pages 1 4 3 and

1 4 4 of this work T he following also are reliable and of
.
inter e st to northern work e rs in timber .
T he wide variation in the yield of logs as sawed under

differ e nt conditions is a matter of great importance in
several ways to the worker in timber chiefly perhaps for , , ,
its bearing upon timber estimate s The relative compe

.
152 A MAN UAL FO R N OR TH E R N W O O D S M E N
tence of S awyers is one caus e of this and th at according to , ,
careful mill men may read ily amount to 1 0 p e r cent T hen

, .
mark e t demand affects the matter some mills being so ,
situate d tha t they can market o nl y the larger si z es of lumber .
The type of s a w employed and the methods of h andling

on the carr iage also have their effect .
TAB LE I
Yield in inch boa rds q ,

s
f d
u ared , o
growt h whit e
se con
p in e
logs . B as ed on 74 0 lo gs ; st u dy by H a rv ard Fo rest S cho o l .
Growth extra tall and smooth ; large and s m all trees in

the stand which was o u t clean ; logs with 2 in crook or
, .
over thr own out S awed by circular s a w cutting inch

.
-
kerf I n scalin fractions of inc he s up to 5 were thrown

. g
, .
off fractions of 6 and over taken as if O f inch above

, . .
B oards merchantable down to 2 feet sur face meas ure ; ,
some wane allowed .
Y i ld E
e . M .
Di
a me t e r
12 - f oot L g
o s 1 4- fo ot L g
o s
A practice that in some localities of rec e nt years h as

gr e atly increase d the merchantable product of logs is that
of sawing waney or round edged boards Portable mills in-
.
southern Ne w E ngland sawing lumber for boxes or finish

follow this practice larg e l y and sta tionary mills in many,
localities have a box or other saw to whic h they can turn

over the small and crooked logs for this most economica l
M ILL T ALLIE S 1 53
form of manufacture When boards in th is form are sur

.
v e e d the are mea s ured at the av e rage wi d th ins ide bark

y y , ,
on th e narrow sid e w ithout d iscount for crooks

, .
T his practice has brought about great e conomy in the

use of timber and when done with thin saws has secured
, ,
from logs a far greater product than current scale r ul es

give Se veral of the tables given her e with ar e of special in
.
;
t e res t in this co n nection I n all these ta bles top diameter

.
means diameter of the upper end of the log inside bark .
T AB LE II
Yield in in ch boa rds of s econd growt h w hite pine logs ,
s a we d w it h a circ ul a r s a w c u tt in
g i in ch-
ke rf G re at er
.
pa rt
o a rd s no t ed ed but me a s u red o r w idt h a t a n a v e ra e

o
f b g , f g
widt h in s id e ba rk on n a rro w sid e wit ho ut dis cou nt for
, , ,
cro o k .
B ased on 1 18 0 lo gs From M as sachus ett s S t at e Fo rest er

. .
L ng t h
e of Lo g F eet
As the edged lumber was taken from the larger and

straighter logs and after thos e logs had bee n sided on the
carriage a nd turne d down the yi e ld w as probably as large
,
as if all boar ds had been left round edged -

.
TAB LE III
S ame logs but gro u ped a cco r din g t o mid diamet er o u t si

de
ba rk .
L ng t h
e of Lo g Fe e t
In c hes C o nt ent s B o ar d Fe e t
T he figur e s of the above tables were closely confirmed ,
except in the smallest sizes of logs by similar figur es o h

,
t a ine d by the U S Forest S ervice for the Forest C ommis

. .
sion of Ne w H ampshir e T he saws in this latter tes t cut

.
i inch k e rf ; 60 p e r cent of the product was round e d ged

- -
stuff the balance being squared 70 per cent of the lumber

,
was cut 1 inch thick th e balance 2 g and measured as 2

,
inches I n the sizes under 8 inch es th e Mas sac h usetts

.
mills cut somewh at closer .

M ILL T ALLIE S 155
T AB LE IV
C ompa rison of M aine L og R ule and res ul t s o

f i g
s aw n
s ho wn in Tables I a nd I I -f
as oot lo s
g . .
l
R es u t s of S a w in g
To p D ia m e t e r Main e Lo g
1 11 0 11 03 R U IG
E d g d L u mb e
e r
T ble I
a
T AB LE V
Yield in g inc h boa rds

-
o
f pin e lo s 4
g feet long 2 inches
f
or t rimming) .
Y i ld
e
Di a me t er B as is
S f
u r ac e Meas u re
156 A MAN UAL FO R N OR TH E R N W O O DS M E N
Lo g diameter taken at top end inside bark S aw kerf , .
5
»
inch B oards
. not edg e d but measured at an average ,
width on narrow side From M assachusetts S tate Forester

. .
A cord of pine wood sawed and m e asured in this fashion

yiel d s about 1 0 00 feet of b o x boards S awed one inch .
thi ck it is counted by M assachusetts box board men to

,
yield about 6 5 0 feet surface measure .
TAB LE VI
'
Yiel d d edged bo a rds of s econ d growt h ha rd

in ro u n -
wood logs 1 2 feet lon g cu t 1 % in ch t hick wit h circu l a r s aw

cu tt in g i in ch ke rf
- B ased o n 1 8 3 1 lo gs
. .
Gro uped a cco rding t o t op Gro uped a ccording t o mid

diamet er . diamet er .
Dia m e t e r
Y i ld S f
e ur a ce Y i ld S f e u r ace
gfigigé gg f t L g
To p
,
l n t e
,
M f 12
e as u re , o M f 12 e asu re , o
In d B
81
.
e a rk
f t L g
oo o s
r
oo o s
From Ne w H ampshireForestry R eport for 1 9 0 5— 1 9 0 6 .

C OR D M E A S UR E 157
S E C T IO N VIII
CO RD M EASUR E
T he ex act legal definition of the term cord varies in

diff erent localities For the present pur pose it is a pile of
.
.
wood 8 feet long and 4 fe e t high with the top sticks ris ,
ing somewh at above the line th e sticks themselves sawed ,
4 feet long or chopped so as to give an equivalent S uc h .
a pile occupies 1 2 8 cubic feet of space A cord foot IS of .
a cord or a pil e 4 feet high 4 fe e t wide and 1 foot l ong

, , , .
The actual solid contents of t h e wood which a pil e d cord

contains depends on a number of factors Fir st is the care .
us ed in piling a matter w h ic h need onl y be mentioned

,
here O ther factors are t he straightness and smoothnes s

.
of the wood its size assortment and whether split or not

, , , .
I n r e gard to the fir st of t hes e factors while it is per ,
fe c t ly e v ident t h at straight smooth well trimmed wood , ,

-
must pile closer t h an its opposite no hard and fast rules ,
can be given T aking round wood of given quality t he

.
,
following rules can be laid down

1 L arge wood p iles closer than small woo d
. .
2 T he same wood put up in one pile wit h sizes mixed

.
occupies a little less spac e than if the larger and smaller

sizes are piled separately .
3 T he effect of splitting varies muc h wit h the quality

. .
S moot h straight grained wood when split may be packed

,
into the same space that it occupied before O n t he other .
hand small or crooked wood when split p iles much more

,
loosely .
I n regard to th e actual solid contents of a pil ed cord ,
the following rules will appro ximately hold .
1 S mooth round wood 8 inches and up in diameter

.
, ,
suc h for i nstance as the best pulp wood has 8 of its

, , , .
contents in solid wood or yields 1 0 2 cubic feet solid to

the cord W hite birc h of best quality will yield nearly
.
or quite the same .
2 S mall pulp wood from 3 to 8 inches in diameter con

.
tains about 7 of its stacked volume in soli d wood or 9 0

.
,
cubic feet to th e cord S moot h h ard wood yields about the .
same .
.3 S till smaller round wood wood t h at is crooked and ,
knotty and good split h ard wood contai ns in solid wood

,
about 6 of the outside contents of th e pile or 7 7 cubic feet

.
per cord .
4 S mal l croo ked wood cut from limbs may run down
.
,
as l o w as 2 7 solid cubic feet per cord .
5 1 T he longer a lot of wood is cut t h e greater will be

.
,
the vacant space left in piling Fair sized pulp wood for .
,
instance w h ic h when ou t 4 feet long will meas u re a cord

, ,
if ou t in 2 foot lengt hs will pile u p in 2 to 3 per cent less

-
sp ace T he same wood on t he ot her hand if ou t 8 feet

.
, ,
long and measured in t he pile will measure nearly 6 pe r

cent more ; if 1 2 feet long about 1 2 per cent more , .
W ood in t h orough air drying shri nks about 1 0 per cent -
on t he average h ard woods as a rule more than soft I f

, .
wood checks and cracks freely something like h alf t he ,
total shrinkage is taken up in th is form T wo inc hes ex t ra .
h eigh t in the pile are commo nl y allowed on green wood

in M assachusetts .
T o M e asu r e W ood in C or d s W h en th e wood is 4 feet .
long measure th e heigh t and length of the pile in feet

, ,
multiply together and divide by 3 2 T he result will be

, .
contents in cords I f t he wood is more or less than 4 feet

.
long multiply length widt h and height of the pile together

, , , ,
and divide by 1 28 I f wood is piled on slopi ng ground

.
,
th e length and heig ht s h ould be measur e d perpend icular

t o One anoth er .
For measurement of logs into cord measur e see page 13 8 , .
”
T he Frenc h cord of t h e P rovince of Quebec is 8 6 X 4 ’ ’
’
X 4 containing therefore 1 4 4 cubic feet as agains t
, , ,
1 2 8 for the cord current elsewh ere .
See Zo n on this subj ect in Forestry Quart erly Vol I No . .

, . IV
.
PA R T IV
T IMB E R E ST I M AT I NG
SE CT IO N I INTR O D U CTIO N
.
S E CTI O N H I NS TR UM E NTAL HE LPS

.
SE CTI ON HI .HEI GHT M E AS UR E M ENT

SE CTI O N IV VO LUM E TAB LES AN D T R E E
.
SEC TIO N V PR ACTI C E O F T IM B ER E STIM ATIN G

.
A Sma ll and Valuab l e T racts

.
B L arger a nd L e s s Valuab l e Tracts

.
1 T ype and Plo t Syst em

.
2 T he Strip Syst em
.
a nd Plo t Syst em
C Summary
.
D Pacific C o as t M et hod s
.
PA R T IV T IM B ER E S T I M A T ING
S E C T IO N I
INTR O D UCTI O N
M E TH O D S of estimating timber vary greatly in different

regions and with different men T hey vary also with the
.
value of the timber involved and wit h the purpose for

w h ic h the work is done I n this last connection cos t is
.
a guiding principle ; in general that method of doi ng a

,
piece of work is best whic h secures a result sufficiently

accur ate for the purpose with t he smalles t expenditu re
of time and money .
L ump E s t imat e by t h e e ye h as not gone out of use and ,
in fact never will cease to be employed T he immediate .
j ud g men t that a g ood lumberman forms simply by walk ,
ing t hr ou gh a p iece of timber that it contains a h undred

,
thousand a million or ten million feet is for man y p u r

, , ,
p oses close enou g h to the mark .
S imilarly an experienced man in timber of a kind ,
wit h w hich he is familiar forms an idea by direct impres

,
sion of ho w muc h a piece of land will y ie l d p e r acr e T he .
men w ho can do th at are more numerous than th ose who

are able to judge the w h ole piece The faculty is easier .
to acquire and in general t he res u lts are safer and more

,
reliable.
S uch estimates as these are indispens able in actual

business Frequently they enable a man to pass correctly
.
upon a proposition for purchase or sale B u t while .
their necessity and t heir reliability within limits may be

admitted no illusions should be ind ul ged in wit h regard
,
to them For one woodsman w h o can actually give a

.
close and reliable estimate after these methods there are ,
many who onl y t h i nk they can ; nothing is better known

in the timber business than widely variant and totally
erroneous estimates of standing timber Further a man .
,
1 62 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D SME N
who uses these metho ds is frequ e ntly very lame wh en he

ge ts into a country wit h which he is unfamiliar L astl y .
,
when tim e cons umed and training involved are consider e d ,
estimates of this nature may not be the cheapest by a ny

means .
T here is a general tendency among timber estimators ,
commendable in the main on the ground of safety and

cons ervatism to put their figures below the mark A s for
, .
the general degree of accur acy obtaine d ther e seems to ,
be no reason founded on experi e nce this side of the At

1
lantic to greatly change the verdict of experience in E u rO pe
t hat good and experienced men in timber with which they
are familiar are liable to errors up to 2 5 per cent .
I t is true moreover t h at t h e weakness of these tra

, ,
d it io na l methods is g enerally reco g nized M ore careful .
and e laborate methods are in fact p racticed in many

sections of the country a nd the ar e a is fast extendin g in
,
which the treatment demanded by the situation is not

really an est imate but a survey .
S E C T ION II
INSTR UM E NTA L H E LPS
The h el p s that may be used in the survey of standin g
timber are as follows
1 . FO R DIAM E TE R
M EAS U R E M E NT
C al ip ers for measurin g the diameter of trees may be
constructed by the woodsman himself or they can be ,
p urchas e d of d e al e rs The b e st are made of li g ht colored

.
-
h ard wood and have the in ches pla inl y marked on both
flat si d es of the bar T he jaws are detachabl e for con
.
v e n ie n c e in transportation and the sliding arm is so fitted

,
with a d justable m e tal bearings that it is truly square and

gives a correct diameter when pressed firmly agains t a
tree or log .
S ubstitutes for the cali p er useful in som e circumstances

, ,
are the C ir cum f e r e n c e Tap e a ste e l ta p e so g raduated

,
that when a circumf e r e nc e is measured a diameter is read ,
Sc hl i c h s M a n u a l o f Fo res try
1 ’ “
.
IN S TR UM E NTAL H E LPS 1 63
and t he B il t m ore St ick This last is in construction a

.
wooden bar of about the dimensions of an ordinary scale

rul e ; in use it is held horiz ontal ta n g ent to the tree bein g
,
measured and at the natural (but a constant ) d istanc e

,
from the e y e of the O bserver Then one end of th e stick

.
,
bein g ali gned wit h one side of the tree where the line of ,
si g ht to t h e other side cuts the stick it is g raduated for the

g iven diameter 1
B ot h instruments have p roved ser v ice
.
able o u the P acific C oast where the t imber is so larg e that

'
a calip er is cumbersome and because of their p orta bilit y

,
t h ey have a field of use elsewhere They are not however .

, ,
as q uickl y mani p ulated as t h e caliper in steady work on
timber o f o rdinary dimensions

‘
TR E E CA L I PE R
2 . C O U NT E R OR T AL L Y IN G M A C H IN E . T IM B ER S CR IBE .
B AR K B LAZ E R
T he se
simple little instruments t he last of w hic h can ,
be h ome mad e if necessary ar e very serviceable in forest

-
,
work p articu larly in timber estimating

, .
3 . T H E DE ND R O M E TE R
T he
dendr ometer is an i ns tru ment for measuri ng th e
diameter of a tr ee at a considerable dis tance above the
ground T h ere are several forms of t h is instrument
.
,
most of them costly and complicated t hat are employed ,
in scientific investigation W ith these the practical woods

.
1
Se e Appendix o n theo ry and acc u racy of this ins trument .
1 64 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D SM E N
man has no concern S uc h a man w hen h e wis h es to

.
know the diameter of a standing tree at a point out of

reach will ordinaril y either estimate it or cut t he tree
down .
B AR K B AZ L ER
O ccasionally h owever timber, ,
may be met wit h which is of suf

value for special purposes
fic ie nt
to require measurement in this
way I n such a case the engineer s
’
.
transit may be employed and by ,
its aid it is not a difficult matter

to d e termine eit her t he height at
which a ny given diameter is a t
ta ine d or the diamet e r at a ny given
height A ver simple little i
CO U N TE R y . n
strument for diameter measure

ment has been devised w h ich is des cribed by its inventor
,
1
as follows
TI M B E R S C RIB E
The B iltmorepachymeter is used in connection with

a target or piece of board graduated in inches marked ,
Forestry Quart erly Vo l IV p

1
, .
,
. 8 .
HE IGHT M E AS UR E M E NT 1 65
black and white which target is fi xed h orizonta lly at any

,
p oint desirable at the base of the tree .
T he ins trument itself consists of a piece of metal about

1 8 inc h es long and 1 % inches wide conta ining a longi ,
1
t u d inal slot about 4 inc h wide and 1 7 inches long T he .
edges of this slot mus t be strictly parall el I ts actual .
widt h is entirely irrelevant from the mat h ematical stand

point .
I t mig h t bestated th at a ny stick or pole even a walking ,
cane h aving parall el edges wil l answer the purpose of

, ,
establishing and measur ing upper diameters T he B ilt .
more pachymeter is merel y a d e vice convenient to handl e .
T he observer holds the pach ymeter pendulum fashion

by the hand of the outs tretched arm in a position parallel
to the tree trunk and moves th e ins tr ument backward
,
or forward until the edges of the slot cut off even with the
desired diameter shown on the target T hen the e ye .
,
following upward along the t runk and sigh ting through

the slot that point on the tree bole is readily obtained
,
where t he bole cuts off with the edges of the slot The .
position of t his point above ground can be as certa ined

”
eas ily wit h the h elp of a ny hypsometer .
S E C T IO N III
HEI GHT ME ASURE MENT
T h ere are many met h ods of measuring t h e h eigh t of
trees As serviceable as a ny are the follo wing :
.
1 W indfall s are O ften of gr eat assistance in

. a scertain
ing the height of timber .
2 A pole 15 or 20 feet in lengt h may be set up along

.
side t h e tree to be estimated and then standing some dis ,
tance away the cruiser may run h is e ye up the tree and

,
judge ho w many times t he length of the pole will be con

’
ta ine d in it A pencil h eld erect at arm s lengt h in range
.
of the pol e and then run up the tree will h elp the e ye in
making the judgment .
3 A cane or staff may be used on the principle of similar

.
triangles H old the staff firmly in the hand with the arm
.
straigh t and h orizontal S wing the end of th e sta ff down

.
16 6 A M A NU A L ,
FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D SME N
by the face and adjust th e h old till the end of th e sta ff

just comes by the e ye The distance from the e ye to the
.
staff and from the hand up to the end of the staff are nOw
equal G0 O ff from the tree to be measured holding t h e
.
,
staff erect until yo u can sight by the fist to the base of the
,
tree and by the top of t h e staff to the top of th e tree Pace .
or measure to the tree and this will giv e its heigh t .
4 The Abney clinometer shown on page 9 3 of t h is

.
,
work may be used for height measurement in much t he

,
same manner S et the level tube at an angle of 4 5 with

.
°
th e lin e of sigh t and go o ff from t h e tree on a level with
FA U S TM A NN
'
S H GHEI T ME AS U RE
its base until sighting at the top of t h e tree yo u see by

, ,
the bubbl e that the tube is level T he distanc e from the .
’
O bs e rver to th e tree is then e qual to the tree s height .
5 A s e cond method employing the same instrument

.
is as follows : S tand at a point where both the top and the

base of the tree can be se e n and at some convenient dis
'
ta nce from it as 1 0 0 feet S ight to the top of the tree and
, .
observe the angle of inclination and again to the base of ,
the tree obs e rving that angle also Go into the table of
, .
tangents with th e angles in turn find the decimals corre ,
s o nding and multipl

p , b
y y the length of base Th e sum .
of the two figur es is the total h eight of t he tree .

VO LU M E T AB L E S A ND TR E E FO R M 16 7
E xa mple : Standn 8 0 fee t fro m a tr ee the a ngl e t o the t o p is ,
fo und t o be 3 1 and that t o the base 8 1} o f d epression Fro m the .
ta bles the tangent o f 3 1 is fo und t o be 6 009 ; mul tiplying thi s by .
8 0 g iv es 4 8 feet fo r the height o f the t ree ab o v e the lev el o f the ey e .
Again the tangent o f 8 3 is fo u nd fro m the ta bles t o b e 14 95 a nd

°
1
.
thi s mul t l pli ed by 80 gives 1 2 feet 4 8 1 2 6 0 feet the to tal

.
,
he ight o f the tree .
Fa us t ma nn
’
6 . h eight measur e works in much the
s
same manner but gives the desired height directly wit hout
,
the use of tables T his ins trument may be had of dealers

.
at a cost of from up I t is compact not complicated .

, ,
and will be found of gr e at servic e in estimating .
SE CT I O N I V
VO L UME TAB LE S AND TRE E FO R M
A competent woodsman can t ell from th e looks of a

tree somewhere near what it will scale s a w out or yield , ,
in cord wood according to th e practice with which he is

familiar and this without a ny measur e ments
, Or a .
caliper may be used ins tead of the e ye for diam e ter and ,
some kind of det e rmination made O f the height of the

tree or the length and siz e of the logs into which it may
be cut T he point of such judgment a nd meas urem e n t s
.
as a rule is their wid e r application T he singl e tree so .
examin e d is taken as th e type of many and th e stand of ,
an acre or of a cons iderable territory is thus estimated .
I n this process the assumption is made that tr e es of the

same dimensions are approximately similar in shape ,
while for the individual t r e e the fundam e nta l factors d e

t e rm ining contents a re recognized as height and dia met er .
T hese t wo factors in a ny kin d of timber work cannot

possibly be disr e garded Whatever th e scaling or mill.
practice of a locality may be and into what e ver form a ,
tree s trunk is dissected befor e manufactur e the height of

’
.
the tre e and its diamet e r at some point n e ar the base are
the C hief factors determining contents T hese factors .
,
cons ciously or unconscious ly are in the mind of every ,
estimator .
S cientifi c study of tree form began by making the same

as sumption and selecting the same factors Wh ile it .
1 68 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W o o Ds ME N
was known that single tr ees depart widel y from t he

type it was assumed that for trees having the same di
,
a me t e r and height an average volume could be a s ce r
t aine d which wo ul d hold approximatel y t hroughout the

distribution of the species Proceeding on this ass u mp
.
tion ta bles were worked out for the different tree species
.
and these when appli e d in actual business proved close to

the fact and vastly improved the work of timber valuation
in Germany a h undr ed years ago .
E ur opean measurements of logs and standing timber do

not recognize anything corresponding to t he board foot ,
but everything is reckoned in solid contents T he same .
rul e h olds in the scientific study of tree form in all coun

tri es w here it h as been pur sued t h e unit in the U nited ,
S tates being th e cubic foot For all such studies too the
.
, ,
t o tal he ight of the tree as a well d efine d factor capable -
of ready measur ement has usually been employed rather

than a ny size limit set part way up and a diame t e r b r e ast ,
high or 4 % feet above the ground has been settled upon

, ,
as the basis of all diameter comparisons T he area of a .
cross section of a tree at t h is point is called th e b as al are a

-
,
a nd the same term is applied to a number of trees or to a
sta nd of timber I n the study of tree formth e term f orm

.
,
f a c t o r has proved to be a us eful one T he form factor of a .
tree is the percentage which the volume of a ny tree (usu

ally reckoned in cubic feet outside the bark ) makes of,
the volume of a cylinder having the same height and the

tre e s breast diameter I ll u st ra t ion : A tree 1 5 inches in
’
.
breast diameter and 75 feet h igh may after caliper meas ,
ur e me nt ever 4 feet along it prove to have cubic feet

y ,
in it A cylinder of t h ese dimens io ns contains 9 2 cubic

.
feet T he form factor therefore is 42

.
, , . .
For many years past the study of tree form has been
ardentl y pursued and many interesting facts and laws
,
have b ee n ascertained I n large measur e these res ults

.
have been brought to bear on the actual b u siness of E uro

pean countries where timb e r is grown as a crop under
uniform conditions I n this country w h ere the fores ts
.
,
are natural and as a rule irregul ar it will be many years .
before the same can be true T he fol lowing h owever .

, ,
V O L UM E T ABL E S A ND TR E E FO R M 1 69
may for one reason or another be of interest to t he worker

in timber
N
( ) ear t h e ground a section taken lengthwise of a
a
tree is concave outward due to the sw e ll of th e roots

, .
A bove t h at to a point somewhere near th e lower limbs of

,
a forest grown tree the stem has almost a true taper

-
, .
From the lower limbs up the form is roughl y conical with

, ,
a s h arper taper than below the taper usually increasing ,
toward the top .
( ) O f two trees h aving t he same breast diameter the

b ,
s h orter will usually h ave the larger form factor T his .
res ul ts from the relation just m e ntioned O f two trees .
h aving the same h eight the stout e r more openly grown

, ,
tree will usually h ave a little larger form factor than th e

other .
(0 ) O f two trees h aving t he same dimens ions the older ,
one as a rule h as the larger form factor T he effect of

, , . .
other conditions of growth can seldom be clearly traced .
(d) Di ff er e nt soft wood species d o not differ from one

another so greatly but that a volume ta ble made for one
may for some pur poses be used for others .
A large form factor in all these cas e s simply means

t h at the given tree more nearl y approaches the form of a
cylind e r or in other words that it has a larg e amount of
, , ,
wood for its height and diamet e r T hat carries wit h it .
more scale more sawed lumber or more cord wood

, , .
A tabl e giving the contents of tr e es of stated dime nsions

is call e d a V ol u m e T ab l e For scientific purposes solid
.
content is giv e n standard measure but a table may be

, ,
worked out in cords board fee t or a ny other unit required

, , .
T he tables employed by E u ropean foresters at th e pr e sent

d ay are worked out commo nl y on the basis not onl y of
h eig h t and diameter but of age class e s or of some other
determi ning factor and they have proved to give the con
,
tents O f standing timber very accur atel y .
T ables of this kind have also be e n frequently devised

for estimating in this country Usually thes e are local .
,
worked out in the timber of th e region in question accord

ing to local scaling metho d s ; oft e n also allowing t he cull
w h ich is found to c haracterize t h e region S uc h volume .
1 70 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D SM E N
tables h ave fr e quently b ee n bas e d on diam e t e r alone I n .
oth e r cas e s and this is e ss e ntial u nl e ss a r e gion is very

uniform in its timber growth height has be e n taken
into cons ideration as well .
T hus ma n y w e st e rn and south e rn cruisers have mad e up

tables giving th e cont e nts of tre e s of each inch in d iamet e r
and yi e lding 2 3 4 etc logs as th e se would b e cut in
, , , .
,
local practice Again an old A dirondack manag e r mad e

.
,
up a tabl e showing the numb e r of spruce requir e d per

cord of pulp wood for trees 7 8 9 etc inches in di , , , .
,
a me t e r
, and short medium or tall as the case for h is
, , ,
region mi g ht be Lo cal volume tabl e s thorou ghl y based

.
,
and us e d correctly are the most reliable kind

, .
Ge n e ral Vo l u m e Tab l e s for business p ur p oses are of

t wo varieties th e tr e es bein g class ifi e d either by total
,
hei g ht or by len g th of merchantabl e timber The a ssu mp .
tion on which the first is based that trees whic h have the ,
same diam e t e r and total hei g ht d o not when taken in ,
numbers vary in form throu g hout the re g ion of t h eir

,
distribution may wit h a caution on the matter of a g e

, ,
1
,
b e considered safe for most p urp oses I t is true however .

, ,
that some P acific C oast timbers with a very variabl e ,
thickn e ss of bark and the root swell in g of larg e tree s run

nin g above a man s hei g ht oftentim e s have to be handl e d
’
,
with s p e cial caution .
The other variety of tables classifi e s tre e s in h ei g ht b y

th e number of standard lo g len g t hs t h ey wil l y ield or the
hei g ht at which their boles attain a s p ecified d iameter .
Under this p lan the p oint to be observed is brou g ht near e r

the estimator I t is not how e ver as sharp ly defin e d a
.
, ,
p oin t as in th e oth e r case whil e as exp lain e d on p a g es , ,
2 7 4 275 s p ecial o pp ortunities fo rerror arise t hrou g h vari

—
abilit y in lumberin g p ractice .
A noth e r matter th at h as to be reckon e d with in the

valuation O f stand ing timber and which becomes in some ,
sp e ci e s a nd regio ns a consid e ration of gr e at importanc e is ,
d ef e ctiv e ness in quality T his no gen e ral volume table can

.
allow for I t has to b e worked out for e ach locality accord

.
ing to t h e judgment or experience of th e es timator .
1
Se e p ages 1 6 1 , 262, a nd 277 .
VO LUM E T ABL E S A ND TR E E FO R M 17 1
T h irdly, a general volume ta ble given 1n units of mer

c h antable material assumes certain standards of lumber
ing practice I n one region or on a property careful ly
.
,
handl ed stumps may be sawed close to the ground tops

, ,
tak e n up to a small diameter and every e conomy e m ,
ployed in cutting to advantage th e material between ;

while in another r e gion or on anoth e r property a large
, ,
percentage of the wood of e very tr e e cut down may be

le ft to rot on the ground S imilarly in the mill there is .
gr e at variety of practic e location equipment mark e t re

, , ,
u ir e me nt and men s capacit

’
q ,
y all h aving their effect h e re ,
as was explained and illustrated in earli e r pages of this

work T hen the question may not be at all of saw practice
.
,
but of the results of scaling and here as every lu mberman , ,
knows ther e is the wid e st div e rsity T he scale rules in

, .
actual use differ from one anoth e r in the values they give
to the same log in som e cases b y a ridicul ous amount
, ,
wh ile the practices that have grown up in their application

are in some cases entirel y artificial Deta ils n e e d not be .
entered into here ffi

a word to the wise is s u c ie nt — but '
an exampl e will bring the fact home T he M aine log rule .

,
for instance is beli e ved by m any to be the best commercial

,
rule on th e mark e t agreeing closely wit h the results of

,
good saw practic e ; ye t a Penobscot mill man once testi

fie d before a legislativ e committee that buying 26 million
’
feet of logs by market scale for a season s stock he sawed ,
3 0 million feet of long lumber out of it and slabbed heavil y

for a pulp mill besides .
Of t he volume tables inclu d e d in this work it m ay be

said t h at t h eir basis is cl e arly stated includin g the num ,
ber of trees involved th e standards of cutting and mill or

,
scaling practice assumed and the responsibility for the ,
observations T hey can th e r e fore to a larg e e xtent be

.
, ,
change d over to suit practic e Of another type T he tables .
original with this work thos e for spruc e and white pine
, ,
are based on figur e s taken from a large numb e r of tre e s .
T hes e came from a wide range of country and the compu ,
ta t io ns show that no clear difference of form w as intro

d u ce d by the element of locality E ach tre e w as computed .
separa te ly for its volume in the units desired (cubic feet ,

1 72 A M A N UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D SME N
board feet or cords ) ; the results h ave been averaged

‘
, ,
ev e ned by cur ves and then the board foot tables have
,
-
been discounted by a small percentage to allow for normal

d e fects of form and quality C utting practice that is .
economical but not extr eme has been supposed t hrough

, ,
out the idea being to get as nearly as possibl e a cons erva

, , ,
tive figur e for good and economical practice .
In apply in g all t h ese tables considerable defects must be

,
allowed for in t he form of a discount I t is furt h er to be .
clearl y understood t h at t h ey appl y to timber as it ru ns

and may be considerably off as a p plied to sing le trees .
In vol u m e t ab l e s f or h ar d woo d s merchantable len g t h

is in most cases p referable to total hei gh t as a factor
because these trees charac t eristicall y s p read out at the
top at once renderin g total hei g ht hard to measure and
,
d e stroy in g utilit y for lumber Su c h tables also because .

,
of g reater irre g ularit y of form and g reater liabilit y to

defect in h ard woods are in g eneral less tru stworthy t h an
,
“ ”
soft wood tables S everal
. g raded volume tables ,
classify in g the y ield of trees by lumber g rades are in ,
existence but their utilit y a p art from the l o cal con ditions
,
in whic h t h ey were constructed d o es not seem é l e ar .
T he way in whic h th e se volume tables may be tested

and made to conform to the practices of any given locality
is illustrated as follows
A spruce property is to b e explored on which cutting and
scaling methods are as follows : T imber runs up to about
20 inches in diam e ter a nd 75 feet in h eight ; trees are cut
down to the size of 12 inch e s on the stump or 1 1 breast high .
L ogs cut for saw lumber one log from a tree c u t off where
, ,
it will scale best L ogs are th e r e fore seldom ov e r 4 0 feet

.
long a nd run from that down to 2 8 or 3 0 S caling done .
with M ain e log rule I f a log is 2 6 feet long or under it is

.
,
scaled as one log with the top diameter ins ide bark ; if 2 7
to 30 feet as t w o logs of equal length giving the butt log
,
an inch larger d iameter than the top ; from 3 1 to 3 5 fe et in

”
the same way but allowing 2 inches rise and 3 inches on “
,
log lengt hs of 3 6 to 40 fee t I n addition a level discount

.
of 10 per cent is made on all logs to cov e r d e fe cts .
A h alf day s time s pent following t h e logging crew and

’
PR ACT IC E OF T IM B E R E S T I M AT ING 1 73
e xamining trees as t h ey are felled results as follows

20 normal trees 1 7 to 2 0 inc h es in breast diameter w hen
scaled by the abo ve meth ods give 4 730 feet B M whil e . .
,
trees of the same dimensions are given in t he volume table

on page 2 3 8 5720 feet T he actual scale t herefore is 1 7
.
, ,
per cent less t han th e tabular values .
2 4 trees 14 to 1 6 inches in diameter w h ic h by t h e table

should yield 4 080 feet scale up 3 4 8 0 or 1 5 per cent less
, .
30 trees 1 1 to 1 3 inches in diameter that by the table

should yield 4380 feet actuall y scale 3 500 or 20 per cent
, ,
less.
T he figures of t h e volume table may now be reduced by

these percentages in t hose h eights and sizes where on the
given job the figures are required T he working ta ble
.
will t hen be as follows
Fe e t in H ight
e
S E C T IO N V
PRAC TI C E O F T IMB E R ESTI MATI NG
T he methods that should be empl oyed in a survey of

standing timber depend on a great variety of facts of which
the main ones are these : the size of t he tract to be ex
a mine d ,
t he method and fineness of its subdivision the ,
variety in its stand of timber the value of th e timber and

, ,
the experience and qualifications of the estimator T hese .
met hods are b e st dis cussed in t wo divisio ns — firs t , ,
methods for small tracts with valuable timber as a rule ;

and second those for large tracts where more e xtensive
,
p rocesses must be emplo yed .

1 74 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D SME N
A . SMALL T R AC TS
1 I n t he c ase of very valuable timber it may pay the
.
owner or purchaser to examine each tree individually ,
ascertain its contents carefully and study it for defects , .
The net contents of each tree as so ascertain e d will then

be put do wn s e paratel y in the notes and in case sev e ral ,
parties are interested each tree may be stamped with a ,
number to correspond with one in the not e s A t a ny rate .

,
blazing e ach tree examined is a good m e ans to make sur e

that all are taken and to prevent measuring a ny twice .
S uch proce d ure as this is appropriate to very large and

valuable pine or to valuable but over mature hard woo d s -
,
which are especiall y liable to be defective Volume tabl e s .
might help in such cases but they cannot be fully trust e d ; ,
a scale rule at hand would be to many men of quite as

much assistance Fo r instruments a caliper would com e
.
,
in play along wit h an instrum e nt to measure heights

accurately while use might be found for some form of
,
the dendrometer B u t the best part of the equipment of

.
“
the estimator in such cases is local experience in cutting

and sawing the same class of timber .
2 When timber in good stand and of considerable

.
value is involved it may be advisabl e to caliper e ach of

,
the trees and measure a suffi cient number to O btain the

range of heights After the stand is m e asured sample
.
,
tr e es of different sizes may be estimated after careful

examination or such tre e s may be fell e d and measur e d
, .
B e tter tha n either of thes e methods howev e r is a volum e , ,
table giving th e yield of tre e s of the given kind and d ime n

sions Volume tabl e s howev e r cannot be d e p e nd e d on
.
, ,
to allow justly for d e fects T hat is a matter for the judg .
ment of the e stimator .
T he above m e thod works well in woods of approximately

ev e n type When however th e stand has a great variety
.
, ,
of form and quality the di fficulty in making a true v al u a

,
tion is great e r I n that cas e it may be practicable to cut

.
it up into n e arly homogeneous parts .
T he following example taken from practice will illus

trate the methods of working in a simple case .
PR AC T IC E OF T IM B E R E S T IM A T IN G 1 75
E stimat e o f ab o u t 7 acre s o f land co vered nearly througho u t ,
with w hit e p ine stand in g fa irly ev enly b u t no t a s a rul e v ery d ens e

, .
C o nclu d ed aft er ins pe ctio n tha t no su ch differenc e s o f type o r
Fie ld O b s e rv a t io n s C o mp u t e d V l
o u m es
B rea s t No O b s e rv e d H e ight s D d d
e u ce S l
ca e To t a l
H ight h
.
Di a m . T r e es e E
ac S l
ca e
5 1 —4 7— 50— 5 4 —
’
59 4 2 50
50 — 4 7— 5 2—4 8 — 5 6— 5 7
—
6 9 55
—
5 6—
5 6 —
6 6 —
6 7 68
7 2— 7 5— 6 9 — 8 0— 6 9 — 6 3
5 7—
6 5 7
—
1 —
7 5 73
—
7 7— 7 5
7 4— 78 — 8 0 — 7 9 — 8 3
7 4 —
80 85 —
7 7— 7 7— 8 6 — 8 1
77 —
8 3 —
86
80 — 7 7
7 5— 8 2
7 9— 8 3 — 8 1
79 - 8 2 — 8 3
7 7— 8 6— 7 7— 8 2
To t a l 2 5 2 93 8
Pl o t of O b s e rv e d H igh t
e s and
D d e u ce d H igh t
e C u rv e
8 9 10 1 1 12 13 1 4 15 16 1 7 18 1 9 20 2 1 22 23 24 25 26 2 7 28
Di a me t e r B r e as t High -
In h e
c s
fo rm exist e d a s t o ca ll fo r differentiatio n o f treatment Inst ru

’
.
ments emplo ye d ca lipe r a nd Faust mann s hy pso met er St eps o f

’
.
,
the survey as fo llo ws

a . M ercha ntable tree s (tho se 8 inche s and o v er in diamete r
breas t high) ca lipered a nd scored in inch d ia meter c la ss es .
1 76 A MANUAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D S ME N
b . So me 6 0 he ights measu re d with the hypsomet er T hese .
might hav e b ee n av eraged fo r each d i amet er class but a be tt er ,
plan is t o plot all the heights o n cro ss-section paper and draw a
c u rve thro u gh the m a s in the acco mpanying sk etch Fro m t his curve .
the av erage he ight o f the 8 inch trees is read o ff as 50 feet o f the

-
,
9 inch tree s a s 55 feet and so o n

-
T he larger tree s o f the gro ve,
, .
tho se 1 6 inches and o v er in diameter averaged 80 feet in height , .
0
. Fro m the pro pe r v o lume table the co ntent s o f a s i ngl e tree o f
ea ch si ze c lass is now taken a nd multiplied by the number o f trees
in the c lass Fo r the tract in qu estio n Tabl e No 4 giv es the
. .
figur es wanted the prod uct o f the trees in bo ard s bo th ro und edged
,
-
.
and s uare e dged lumb er

q
-
I n this ta bl e the co nt ent s o f a tree 8
.
inches In breast diameter and 5 0 feet high is giv en as 5 0 feet B l\1 '
that o f a tree 9 inches x 55 feet 70 feet and so o n N0 disco u nt , , .
a ppearing ne c e ssary fo r d efect s by add itio n o f t he co nt ent s o f th e

,
s iz e clas se s the to t al stand o f the lo t is o bta in ed T his co mes t o .
253 M fee t o f which in the practice o f the lo ca lity 2 0 pe r cent may

,
be saw ed into go od plank 30 pe r cent into edged bo ard s and the

, ,
balance o f 5 0 per cent the small er tr ee s and ro ugher lo gs put into

, ,
rou d ed ged bo x bo ard lumber T he reco rd ed figures the plo t

n - -
.
,
and he ight c urve and a tabl e sho wing the way the figu re s are p ut
,
together are giv en o n the preced ing page

,
.
The estimate after t his fashion of 250 M feet of timber

of this size is a li g ht day s work for two men Thr ee me n ’
.
form an economical crew for bi g j obs .
3 In the valuable timber lands of t h e Lake S ta tes and

.
S out h it is customary to estimate eac h fort y acres by

itself and the met h ods of estimation fre q uently cover
,
th e whole stand Pacing is largely used as a measur e of

.
distanc e and the cruiser is generally equipped wit h some

,
kind of volume table giving as often as not the board

contents of trees of different diameters yielding 2 3 4 or , , ,
5 1 6—ft logs. Usually two men work together I n that case

. .
the helper may run a compass line across one end of the
”
forty ten rods or so from its boundary leaving marks
, ,
enough so th at on the return trip it can be followed .
T hrough t h e str ip so cut o ff the cruiser circul ates keep ,
ing watc h of h is ot her bound and scoring down as he ,
passes the merc h antable trees according to species and

,
in appropria te classes As a rule very little measurement .
of height or d iameter h as been done in the past T he t wo .
men keep abreas t of one another When one strip has .
been covere d another is taken in t he same way A fter .
the w hole forty has been covered addition of the

PR AC T IC E OF T IM B E R E S T I M A T IN G
figures obtained gives its timber stand I n well timbe red .

-
land two to four forties a d ay can usuall y be covered

by these met h ods .
I n recording the results of such an estimate th e size

and quality of the timber are of course noted as well as
its amount and general notes on the growt h topogr aphy
, , ,
and lumbering conditions of the land are also recorded .
Fol lowing are sample notes of suc h an exploration :

Twp 2 9 . N . R 7 W . .
W hit Pin 7 l gs e g t M ; 30 % u pp e
e, o a v e ra e o rs
N w y P in 8 l g t M
.
or a e, o s o
H e ml k 1 1 l gs t M
.
oc o o
B w d 7 l gs t M
, .
ass oo o o
M p l 1 4 l gs t M
.
,
a e, o o .
T t l o a
La nd slo pe s t o No rth Cl ay so il ; v ery st o ny T wo rav ines . .
running N W and S E through the forty

. . T amar ack swamp
. .
“
.
o f abo ut fiv e acre s in N W co rner . . .
A not h er met h od of timber cruising carried out by one

“ ’
man alone is described as follows in the W oods man s
”
H andbook °
A forty is 80 rod s square T he cruiser who us es the method

“
.
no w t o be d escrib ed has fo u nd by tri al that 5 00 o f his natural

paces are requir ed t o go 8 0
rod s He b egins at the cor
.
”
ner o f a fo rty say at the
“
,
so uthea st c o rn e r a nd steps ,
o ff 12 5 pa ce s o n th e so uth
line a nd so co v ers o ne
,
quarter o f the sid e He then .
st o ps and facin g no rth

, ,
co unts the trees o f the

“
fo rty first t o an estimat ed
,
dis tanc e o f 1 25 pa c e s o n the

right hand a nd then t o an ,
e stimat ed d is tance o f 1 2 5
pa ces o n the left hand and ,
in each case t o a d ista n c e

o f 10 0 pace s in fro nt o f him t hu s inc lu ding the area repre sented .
in the diagram as Plot I He then st eps nort h 1 00 paces and .

,
in t he same way co unts t he tree s in Plot l l and repeats the o pera ,
tio n succ essiv ely fo r Plo ts III IV and V He has then a co mplete
o
.
, ,
co u nt o f t he tr ee s o n the ea st ern half o f t he fo rty He then “

.
”
walks w est 2 5 0 paces alo ng t he no rth l ine o f the fo rty Facing

“
.
so u th he no w co unt s all t he tr ee s o n Plo ts VI VH VIII IX

, , , , ,
and X in th e same way as b efore a nd thus c o mpl ete s co unting ,
t he tr ee s o n the entire fo rty

“
.
1 78 A MA NUAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O DS M E N
There is of course g reat variet y in t h e detail s of t h e

, ,
work as practiced by different men and a plan t h at is ,
reall y inade quate may be eff ective nevert h eless because

of t h e abil it y O f the cruiser S uc h a method as the for e
.
g oin g cannot be called a surv e y I t is an estimate p urely .

,
dep endin g on the train in g of the cruiser an d sub j ect to th e

errors which chan g e in h is condition and his surroundin g s
introduce No r d oes the fact that all the area is su pp osed
.
to be covere d g ive assurance on the matter of accuracy .
I t ma y indeed set u p a standard too difficult to be actuall y

carried out so becomin g a source of additional error
, .
4
. The followin g from an old M ichig an cruiser whose
,
work has been larg el y in hard woo d s s e rv e s to in troduce ,
the p rinci p le of coverin g a p e rcenta g e of the tract to be

estimated a p rincip le more full y illustrated in connection
,
wit h larg e trac t s on later p a ges .
I have been a surveyo r engineer land lo oker sinc e b oyho od

, ,
-
,
a nd the sy st em that I u se is bas ed upo n th e i nfo rmatio n tha t I
have been a b l e t o pick up alo ng that line d uring that period .
T he work ha s carried me t o the fo rests o f nearly ev ery stat e that

co unts fo rest pro duct s amo ng it s mo st im po rta nt asset s .
T he usu al o bj ect o f a n estimate is t o fix a va lu e that ca n be

us ed as a medium o f exchange altho ugh I hav e recently b een,
ca lled upo n t o e stimate many tracts j u st b efo re the co mmenc e

ment o f lo gging o peratio ns in o rd er t o ascerta in wha t the prob able
pro duct would be .
T he report o f the cruiser is required t o sho w the l og scal e o f a

given tract a ls o the amo u nt o f ta n bark co rd wood telephone
, , ,
po les railro ad ti es e t c
, , in fact the entire fo rest pro duct that is
.
,
o f v alue .T his must b e no t o nl y o f sta nding timber b u t o f d own ,
timber that has a valu e as well .
His repo rt must al so sho w t he to po graphy o f t he tract and t he ,
chann els t hro ugh which the pro d u ct must be passe d in th e c o urs e
o f it s transpo rtatio n fro m the l and whether by railroa d w at er o r
, , ,
logging ro ad .
T his wo rk mus t be b as ed upo n so me system that will eliminat e

so far as is po ss i bl e all gu e sswo rk T here are many sy stems o f
.
crui sing no w in u se ea ch o f which has it s ad v oca tes I d o n ot

,
.
know o f any o ther cruiser who is u sing the same system that I u se ,
perhaps fo r the r ea so n that I hav e mad e it u p fro m my o wn wo rk .
In my wo rk I u se a tree caliper I hav e a b o ok printed especially

.
for the t ally o f t he tre e s a s I c all them o ff t o my assistant I have .
also a fo rm o f re po rt b la nk mad e t o fi t the rest o f the s cheme .
Yo u will not e that I numbe r ea ch fo rty acre parc el in a n undi -
vid ed s ectio n o n the same pla n t ha t s ecti o ns are numb ere d in a

PR AC TIC E OF T IM B E R E S T I MA TI NG 1 79
township except o f co ur se that there are o nl y 1 6 lo ts in this case

, .
Herea ft er the t erm lo t applies t o a fo rty acre tract

“
-
.
Arriving at the tract t o be examin ed I us uall y first go entirely ,
aro un d t he ar ea so as t o disco v er if there are a ny high ridges and ,
if so t o d et ermin e the ir co urse ; a lso t o see whether o r no t the tract

is a ll timbe red a nd t o loca t e a ny v aca nt areas o n it s o u t er ed ges
, .
W hile mak ing this circuit we mar k po ints at ea ch 1 25 pa ces o n the

bo und ary If t he land is u nif o rml y lev el it is immaterial at which
.
,
po int o n the bo un d ary lin e the w o rk is c o mmen ced If the tract .
is v ery ro llin g t he strips tak en mu st be run so as t o cro ss the ridges

,
at as angles as is po ssible .
T _3 3 - N B3 . Wl
Co . S t at e JI ic h
u pp e th e uth e t c e r f h e i n d th t w
S o s we are at so a s o r n o t e s c
t o a n a e
have an entir e sec tio n o f fairly l ev el land t o e xamme My pac er .
and co mpa ssma n ( I h a v e b u t o n e aS S IS t a n t ) st ep s o ff 1 2 5 p a

ces ,
f l st art mg
.
say in a w se t e rly dir e c ti o n a l,

o n g th e s o uth h n e o o t 16 ,
fro m the so u theast c o rner o f t he sec t l o n T hI S brmgs u s t o a .
po int 20 rod s w est o f this co rner and a hne draw n d ir ect ly no rth
fr o m this po in t should be p arall el Wi th the eas t hne o f the lot also ,
parall el with the ce nter line if o ne w ere In ex1 5t ence a nd 2 0 rods

,
,
st
di a nt fro m a e ch of th e m W . e p r oc e e d n o rt h f r o m th is p o in
t A t .
50 p ac es th e i
as s s at nt h lt
a s ge ts hi s ta lly b oo k
-
a n d h a r d pe nc il I nto
act io n and j o ts do wn each tree as I ca ll them o ff t o hi m He

,
hea d s the v ertica l co lu mns with the v arie t l es o f t unber c ommon to

, .
t he tra ct t
a nd a ll s i e e a ch k in d un d e r t h e p r o pe r h e a d i ng .
1 80 M A N UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DSM E N
E x amin at io n L o t _ . _
M ad e b y
As n as the assist ant report s that he is ready I take the

soo
nearest t ree a nd put the calipers u po n it at a po int where it would
b e c u t in o rd inary lo gging o peratio ns 1 then walk aro und t he tree .
a nd
“
s i ze it up gen erall y t o find a ny d efect that may exist also ,
t o j u dge ho w ma ny 1 6 ft lo gs wo u ld b e c u t fro m thi s particu lar

-
.
tree Su p p o s e it is a mapl e a nd that it cal ipers 2 2 in ches a nd that

.
,
it wil l yield a 4 8 ft stem o r thr ee 16 ft lo gs I call t o my pacer

-
.
-
. .
“
M aple 2 2— 3 and he talli es in the maple co lumn o ppo sit e the
, ,
2 2— 3 o f the figure s in th e l eft hand marg in o f the page I n th is -

.
way we get a reco rd o f e v ery tree in a strip 4 ro d s wid e 2 ro d s ea ch ,
sid e o f o ur c o mpa ss line My caliper blad e is grad u ated t o 57

.
inches fro m the sta tio nary arm j u st tt h o f t wo ro d s and if there is , ,
a ny qu e stio n a s t o a t ree s b e ing in t he st ri p it is very quickly se t

’
t le d by takin g s even lengths o f the ca li pe r b lad e as I walk to ward

the tree fro m the co mpass line .
Hav ing taken the trees t o a po int a little in a d vance o f my as

sist ant he pro ceed s o n for 5 0 pace s mo re a nd the ca li pe rin g pro c es s
,
is repeat ed I f the u nd ergro wt h is o f suffici ent d ensity t o prevent

.
o ur s ee ing a ny large pin e b it o f c ed a r swa mp o r a nything els e , ,
that we sho u ld see we make frequ ent explo ratio ns fro m the e nd
,
o f each 1 00 st ep s my a ssi sta nt go ing in o ne d ir ect i o n at the same

,
time that I go in the o ppo site N0 trees are measu red in these .
sid e expl o ratio ns unl e ss we find so methi n g t hat is no t co mmo n t o

the entir e tract Having returned t o o ur line we pro ceed no rth
. ,
halting at each 50 steps t o take the timber a lso t o note any ridges , ,
lo gging ro ad s strea ms springs or other po ints that should appear

, , ,
in the repo rt W hen w e hav e arrived at 5 00 paces my assista nt

.
c hange s his t ally t o l o t 9 and w e pro cee d no rth in t he same way

‘
changing a t 1 000 pace s t o l o t 8 a nd at 1 5 00 t o l o t 1 A t 2000 .
paces if the sectio n is full we sho u ld be at the north lin e o f t he

,
“
s ec tio n a t a po int 20 ro d s w e st o f the no rthea st co rner

,
As it .
rarely oc curs that o ur co mpass line has b een so accurat e as t o

bring u s o u t at exactly this po int we find the mark mad e d uring ,
PR AC T IC E OF T IM B E R E S T I MA T I NG 18 1
o ur circu it o f the sectio n a nd pa ce fro m it w esterly along the no rth

l i n e o f th e s ectio n fo r 2 5 0 pa c es 4 0 ro d s T his b rin gs u s t o a po,int .
fro m which a line drawn so uth will be parallel with the c enter lin e
of lo ts 1 8 9 a nd 16 a nd w ith the w es t line o f t hes e lo ts a nd 2 0
, , , ,
rod s d istant fro m them W e proceed south o n this line ta king the .
,
t imbe r in the sa me mann er as we too k it in go ing no rth in the east

half o f the sa me lo ts Arriving at t he so uth sid e o f the sectio n we
.
ag a in go wes t 2 5 0 st eps a nd th en no rth thro ugh t he eas t erly half o f

lo ts 1 5 10 7 and 2 a nd so o n until the sectio n is co mpleted A
, , ,
”
,
”
.
sin gl e fo rty or eighty o r any si zed tract is handl ed in the

“
sa me way T his giv es a ca liper measure o f ev ery tr ee o n 4 acres

.
o f ea ch l o t o r o n 1 3 t h o f its area Sho ul d a clo ser e stimat e b e nec

1 '
essa ry the stri ps are taken ev ery 10 ro d s ins t ea d o f 20 ro d s which ,
giv es é t h o f ea ch l o t If there are places in the tract fro m which

.
0 t o any ca us e the timb er has b ee n remo v ed the are a mu st ,
be shown o n the repo rt and pro per d educt ions mad e fro m the esti
mate If these v aca nt areas are cro ss ed by t he strips ca re must be
.
,
taken that they are no t cro ssed l engthwise a s that wo ul d lessen ,
the estimat e t oo much ; o n the o ther hand if they are cro ss ed ,
pro perly no d edu ctio n need be mad e fro m the tally .
W hen th e ca lipering o f the tr ees o n the tra ct is c o m let ed

t he co nt ent s o f the tree s ta llied are taken fro m the vo lum e t a b e th e ,
s ca l e s fo o t ed a nd th e s evera l foo tings mul tipli ed by 10 o r 5 acco rd

,
ing t o the numb er o f the strips taken .
M y vo lume ta bl e is of my own making D ur ing the last twenty .
y ears I have b een ca lled upo n very frequently t o measur e trespas s

until measures have b ee n taken o f tho us ands o f tr ees o f eac h
diamet er T his wo rk has be e n d o ne in e very sectio n o f the Sta t e
.
in which hard woo d has b een ou t dur ing that period and has b een ,
ad d ed t o a t ev ery o ppo rtunity tha t has o ffered T he stumps w ere .
cali pered by taking the mea sur e bo th o u tsid e a nd ins id e the bark ;
t he l ength o f the st em was ta ken to gether with the d i amet er o f ,
t he t o p, insi d e the bark O n this basis the lo g sca l e was mad e ac

.
co rding t o the D oyle rul e T he sca le o f tree s o f the same diameter .
and ev e n o f the sa me stump d i amet er a nd l ength v ary co nsi d erably

on acco unt o f the different ta pers to ward the to ps making it nec ,
essa ry t o get a large number o f trees fro m which t o wo rk up a table .
T he average o f the to ta l scal e o f all the trees o f a certa in diamete r

has been taken as the amo un t o f sca l e t o be allo wed fo r all trees o f
a ce rta in stump diamet er a nd he ig ht .
T he results o f the work as I hav e sta ted hav e b ee n very satis

facto ry M any o f the tracts hav e been c ut the same seaso n that
.
we mad e the estimat e a nd the log scal e is usually fro m 1 0 pe r cent

,
t o 2 0 pe r cent abo v e my est imate I sho uld no t ca re t o get much .
nearer than this It wo ul d no t be safe as so me firms c ut the

.
,
timber mu ch mo re clo sely than o thers d epending upo n the artic le ,
t o be mad e fro m the timbe r the dispo sa l o f the wast e pro d uct for ,
fuel and so o n
, .
No acc urat e estimat e ca n be made witho ut t he u se o f the ca li

e r I t ent i e ly e li minat e all favo rit ism o n ac co unt o f o wn e rshi p
p . r s
182 A M ANUAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
or employer a nd it makes po ssible a clo se acquaintanc e with the

,
trees which shows u p the d efects No cruiser sees the timber alike
.
every y day His j u dgment varies as t he man hims elf varies e ac h

.
d ay T he ca liper eliminat es thi s tro ubl e a s it always measures the ,
trees j ust as they are .
C are sho ul d be taken t o get the small est dia meter at the b as e ;
many trees e spe cially o n slo pes a re flat a nd measure se v eral inch es
, ,
mo re o ne way than another T rees that sho w mu ch d efect are an

.
u nkn o wn qu antity a nd sho u ld be thro wn o u t e n tirely .
T wo active me n wil l get o ver a half s ectio n In a d ay a nd d o it

-
,
ve ll if the timb er is no t t oo small a nd the und ergro wth 1s n ot t oo

Sense .
So metimes I am ca ll ed u po n t o g ive a ro ugh estimat e o f a trac t

in a hu rry I handl e this l n the same way that I hav e shown abo v e
.
,
except that I d o no t u se the calipers bu t gu e ss at the d i ameters a s

,
well pas at the l ength I n thi s m anner o n e c a n g et o v er the gro u nd

l
as fast as the assi st ant c a n t al ly the t rees a nd we u su ally e stim at e ,
ab o ut 1 2 l o t s pe r d ay u nd e r this sy st e m O f course the resul ts a re

.
no t so accurat e as when the calipe r is use d .
Theabove is illuminatin g in man y directions su ggestive ,
of vary in g conditions and re q uirements a n d v a ryin g ,
methods of tr e atment in r e s p ons e Furth e r un der this .
subdivision there will be included onl y a ref e rence to t h e

“
horseshoe p lan of cruisin g em p lo y ed by man y Lake
S tates and S outhern cruis e rs Dia g rams of a northeast .
q uarter section an d of a fort y illustrate th e p lan of trav e l

-
,
so desi gned as to r e ac h into all p ar t s of the sub division

concerne d Al on g this route the cruis er co mmonl y cov ers
.
b y d etail es timat e a stri p 5 0 p aces wi d e which gi v e s a ,
larg e p ercenta g e of the whole ar e a .
5 The fiel d of ocular estimat e is to b e found es p eciall y

.
P R AC T IC E OF T IM B E R E S T I M A T I NG 1 83
S uc h estimates are particularly useful for timber of small

value or in very bunchy and irregular woods which it is ,
h ard to survey I n suc h circumsta nc e s t h e judgment of a

.
good woodsman is sometimes t h e best valuation t h at is

practicable .
T he ability to estimate timber after t h is fas h ion is gained

by practice and is based on personal experience and c a
,
a c it ; consequentl eac h man goe about it in a w of his

p y y s a
y
own T o know th e area of the tract in question is generally
.
of great assistance and most men will b e continually study

,
ing t he matter of average stand per acre As a pre l imi .
nary step in arriving at this it is generally desirable to settle

maximum and minimum stand as well .
For the contents of single trees a woodsman may rely

on a mere glance or he m ay figur e carefully A northern
‘
, .
M aine lumberman for instance looking at a fair sized

, ,
-
spruce mig h t estimate that it will cut a log 1 0 inches in

diameter at t he top and 30 feet long and suc h a log h e ,
migh t know will measure 1 80 feet in local scaling prae

tice Again in regions where logs are cut short and
.
, ,
several are taken from a good si z ed tree men fr equently -

,
jot down the estimated contents of the several logs and

’
add up the figures to get the tree s total contents Using .
suc h methods to get at the size of the tr ees lumbermen ,
then go on in one way or another to get th e contents of

, ,
bodies of timber or stand per acre .
Frequently however the impr e ssion gained is a direct

, ,
one of quantity on a whole tract or of constituent bunches

,
.
A man ca n not tell just how such figures come into h is

.
mind but they do arise there dep e nd ent somehow on h is

, ,
experience perhaps in laying out roads or chopping timber

,
.
S uc h training is effective and when the judgment arising

,
as a result of it has been actuall y tested and found s u ffi

c ie nt l close and reliable for an given purpose it would be
y y ,
folly not to use it B u t e very one knows that suc h judg

.
ments are fallible as in the nature of t he case th ey could

,
not fail to be Differences in si z e and height may escape

.
a man if the stands tr aversed look generally alike ; the

’
atmosph e re and th e lav of th e land both h ave an e fie c t on
1 84 A M A N UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
’
the appearance of timber ; a man s condition also varies
from d ay to d ay a ff ecting his judgment in this matter as
, ,
in every other .
T he above is t h e faculty of the old lumberman On .
the other hand the forester who has studied the rate of
,
growth and th e yield of timber has in area soil quality , , ,
and density of stocking factors whic h he can profitably ,
use to help him in h is estimate of quantity A fully stocked .
acre of wh ite pine on good soil in M assach usetts for in ,
stance will yield a t forty to sixty years of age a th ousand

,
feet of lumber for eac h year it h as been growing — a

,
standard whic h a man may use to c heck the judgment

t hrough a considerable range of conditions .
O cular estimate h as been spoken of as especially ap

ro ria t e to small tracts of lan d but as a matter of fact
p p ,
t he methods and principl e s here stated are still employed

to a large extent in the valuation of the largest tracts as
well and even for t he purposes of sale and purchase
, .
T his is per h aps not as it should be but it h as at least ,
partial justification in t h e fact that as business goes t he

amount of timber on a tract is not the o nl y element in
value ; often it is not the largest even for in addition , ,
availability safety the suitability of a tract to given pur

, ,
poses and t he financial situation of the parties concerned

,
m ust all be co nsidered S ometimes a tract by reason of

.
its relation to a given investment or manufacturing enter

prise really must be had almost regardless of its timber ,
resources ; w h ile on the other hand though rich in timber

, , ,
another tract may be dear at a small price A ccur ate e s .
t ima t e s of the quantity of timber therefore may be a , ,
secondary matter .
When large tracts are estimated by th e e ye it is com ,
mo nl y done on the basis of so much to the acre either ,
from the looks of the stand or by comparison with some

similar tract already cut S ubdivisions if they exist might
.
, ,
be estimated separatel y and t he es timated area of waste

,
lands would then be thrown out of account S ome old .
lumbermen might also estimate by valleys judging quan ,
tity from the d ensity of the timber and t he length of the

roads nec e ssary to operate it .
6 R e count of the work done on a tr act of 89 acres

.
PR AC T IC E OF T IM B E R E S T I M A T ING 1 85
in M as sac h usetts h aving cons iderable value and a varied

,
sta nd of timber wil l illus tr ate the different meth ods of

,
timber es timation and the way of going to work in a par

t ic ul ar case T his tract was mapped topographicall T he
y
.
.
metho ds employed for that purpose are d escribed in Part

II and a complete map of the tract is given on page 1 1 4 .
T he steps contributing to the timber estimate ar e as follows

a . B oundaries run out to get area ; chainage marks left
at frequent intervals .
.b S ome 65 M feet of heavy and valuable pine timber cal

ipe re d tr ee by tree ; numerous heights measur ed ; con
t ents ascertained from volume table .
.0 T hr ee bodies of thick young pine circled by sta ff

compass and pacing to get area Average sta nd o f each .
bunch as certa ined by laying out quarter acre sample plots -
representing 1 0 to 2 0 per cent of the area T rees on these .

.
plots calipered ; heights measur ed or estimated ; contents

taken from volume tables .
d T e n acres of h ard wood swamp in north end esti

.
-
mated for cord woo d by similar but quicker methods .
. e B alance of 6 0 acres of ground is cover e d with scatter

ing pine and h emlock ches tnut fit eith e r for box boards ,
or railway ties poplar red oak a nd other hard woo d s

, , , .
No rt he rly 3 7 acres cons iderably bett e r than the other 2 3 .
R a n strip surveys across the t w o parts r e presenting 1 0 per

cent of the area running the str i ps across the ridges
,
and the belts of timber C alipere d the tr e es into cl asses .
of pine hemlock ch e stnut poplar har d woods fit to s a w

, , , , ,
and cord wood ; estimated saw contents from tables suc h ,
as were at hand adjusted to the locality and practice

, ,
wit h due reference to heights ; estimated cord wood from

ta bles experience and judgm e nt
, ,
.
T he field work involved in steps b c d and e represented , , ,
one day s work for four men R esult was the following
’
.
E ST I MATE O F CLAR K B R O S PAR KE R L O T WO O DSTOC K ’

. , ,
MASS .
Whit Pin ( in l u ding 50 M g d p l n k )

e e c oo a
H ml k e oc
Ch t n t es u
P pl o ar
R ed o ak, et c .
l
To t a s aw t im b e r
Al so h rda -
wo o dfi re wo o d , 6 00 cor ds .
1 86 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DSM E N
T hese met hods are th ose of an estimator not in fre quent

dealings with timber of this class T he owner of the lot .
,
a man of long experience and in co nstant practic e would ,
h ave chaine d or paced out the pine ar e as and estimated ,
the ir stand per acre from experience T he scatt e ring sof t .
wood and the heavy bunch of pine he would have esti

mated in a lump sum T he main elements of value being .
then dealt with he would probabl y rel y on his judgment

,
for the r e st after looking carefully t hroug h it W ith a .
helper he woul d take as much time as was actually con

,
sumed or more T his man one of the most successful

, .
,
operators in M assachusetts says that using these met hods ,
he can estimate pine lots with in 5 to 1 0 per cent as a rul e ,
but occasionally makes a blunder O f 30 to 50 per cent .
O ther successful men in the same region a region w h ere ,
stumpage values are high and competition for merchant

able lots very s h arp show great vari e ty ih th e ir methods
,
.
O ne man calipers all the timber on a lot he expects to pur

chas e ass u ring himself about stand a n d value in th at way
, ,
and in addition securing data which t e ll him what he c an

best put the trees into O th e rs use no instr uments but .
,
rel ying on e xperienc e and taking ple nty of time to look

around make a lump estimate T hat there is great dif
, .
ference in cost among all these methods is not certain I t .
is sure however that for most men that meth od is best

, ,
wh ich has in it less gu e ss work th an measuring B u t the .
facts recounted illustrate the principle that t here may be

sev e ral good methods of doing a given piece of work and ,
that the ch oice may turn on the training and h abits of th e

estimator .
B . E S T IMATI O N OF L AR GE R T RAC TS
W hen lan d ar e as as is fr eq uently the case in the United

,
S tates are of lar g e size a n d p articularly if t he stand u p on

, ,
them is small a nd the value l o w only a percentage of the ,
area can be cov e red by a timber survey and the problem ,
is to make that p e rcentage as representative of the whole

as possible Amidst the great variety of methods em
.
ployed three main types of work may be distinguis hed

, .
PR AC T IC E OF T IM B E R E S T I MAT ING 187
1 . TY P E A ND PL OT SY S T E M
A ccording to t h is method the land to be passed on is
divided up into types of known ar e a and approximately
like stand without however necessarily leaving marks on
, , ,
t he ground T hrough these subdivisio ns of his area the

.
cruiser travels studying th e size height d ensity and con

, , , ,
dition of h is timber and forming as he goes an estimation

,
of the average stand T his estimate he checks by a numbe r

.
of sample plots run out with the ta pe and examined wit h

, ,
ca re
. T he plots are us uall y laid out either in square
or circul ar form though the strip s ystem is perfectl y
,
a pplicable .
Very satisfactory res ults have been arrived at by t h is

method w h ere a considerabl e area in sample plots has
been surveyed or where the es timator is a man of judg
ment and experience B u t choosing a fe w sample plots to
.
represent a tract is recognize d as a very delicate matter .
B eginners generally sel e ct too good a piece and th e man ,
who is really competent to do it can usually make a close

guess at the whole thing As with all other methods of
.
estimating area should be known fr om sur veys and that

, ,
in not too large units .
A good example of the application of t his

system com e s from a national for e st super
visor w h o had to estimate for a timbe r sale
a tract of some 1 20 0 acr e s I t l ay in the .
form shown with a ridge running down ,
t h e middle of it which naturally formed ,
the fir st line of subdivision T he tr act was .
therefore surveyed with compass and chain and a dividing

line run along th e ridge top .
T hen on each sid e of th e ridge t hr ee distinct types of

timber stand were recogni ze d T he heaviest timber red .
,
fir of good size was in the middle ; th e north end was

,
lighter wit h a mixture of lodgepole pin e ; the sout h end

,
h ad been damaged and rendered very thin by fir e T h es e .
blocks were therefore bla z ed out and roughl y surveyed .
T hus t h e land was divided into six compartments of a p

p roximatel y even sta nd and of known area .
T h en with a party of t hree men the supervisor ran 4 ro d -
1
str ip surveys throug h each compartment cov e ring in each ,
from 1 0 to 1 5 p e r c e nt of th e ar e a H aving no volume .
tables he scored down instead the logs judged to be in the

,
trees passed in 1 6 ft lengths a nd by inch d iameter classes

,
- -
.
I n the office the contents of these logs w e re ascertained

from the s cale rul e multiplie d by the numb e r of each size
, ,
and added togeth e r I f then 1 0 per cent of a compartment

.
had been cov e r e d multiplying by 1 0 gave the stand of

,
the compartment w hich was th e r e sult desir e d

, .
W ith trus tworthy volume tabl e s and calip e rs better t e

s u l ts could probably b e had but those here obtain e d were,
satisfactory Gen e ral good ju d gment is essential in carry

.
ing out such a surv e y but that given a man can do it

, , ,
who h as not h ad long woods and mill training I n fact .

,
in the same for e st one or t wo green but intellig e nt men are

said to have been quickly train e d so t h at t heir figures
could be rel ied on within 1 0 or 1 5 per cent .
2 . T HE STR IP SY S T E M
The strip s ystem of estimating h as been used rather

del y in woods work not infrequ e ntly in connection wit h
,
land subdivision As a survey party is run ning through

.
the woods it is someti m es made th e duty O f the chainmen

'
to count the m e rchantable trees for a stated distance on

eac h si d e of the lin e run the contents of the trees b e ing
,
determined O ftenest by an estimate of the number p e ces

sary to mak e up a thousand fe e t T he sam e s yst e m in .
e ff e ct is sometimes us e d by the cruiser who counts the

trees passe d within a c e rtain dis tanc e as he travels across
a lot or th e work may be d on e more elaborately a n d the
, ,
caliper a nd hypsomet e r introduced to a ny extent thought

a dvi s able .
The m e thods of a lVIichigan cruiser w h o employs this

s y stem w e r e d escribed on pa g e 1 7 8 Fol lowin g are .
methods p ursu e d on tracts of consi d e rabl e size by a q
number of p ro g ressive concerns at t he S o u t h dealin g with

’
p ine and a variety of hard wood ti mb e rs .
The stri p lines are usual ly mile a p art ; th ey may be

Se e n ext artic l e
1
.
P R AC TIC E OF T IMB E R E S T I MA TI NG 189
carefull y run and marked in advance by a survey party ,
or a co mpassman g oin g alon g wit h t h e timber estimator

may run and pace them Topo g ra phy may be mapped ; .
notes are taken of swamp boundaries and oth er c han g es

in t h e cha racter of g roun d or t imber .
The stri p est imated is either one or two chains wide ,
spl it b y t h e line of travel ; thus either 5 or 1 0 pe r cent of

the g ross area is covered The est imatin g part y p roper .
consists of t hr ee men two to caliper t h e timb er breast

,
hig h and one of g ood train in g who is res ponsible for the
,
work as a whole and w h o does t h e recordin g and e st imat

in g His note book has separate space for each s p ecies
.
and under each a lin e for diameters by inch classes E ach .
tree on the strip is scored down as calipered or it may be ,
the number of 16 foot lo g len g t h s -

.
In such a vast re g ion there is boun d to be muc h varia

tion in util ization scalin g and mil l p ractice so t h at when
, ,
volume tables are em p loy ed they are usuall y of local

ori g in to correspond S in ce however the coun try is of
.
, ,
very g entle to p o g raphy hei g ht and ta pe r with in the same

,
species are unusuall y even T w o inches ta pe r for each .
1 6 foot lo g above the butt lo g has been found to be widely

-
characteristic of p ine timber and thr ee inches of hard ,
wood t imber S ome tables then have been made u p on

.
the basis of these reg ul ar ta pers .
Nu mb er of 1 6- f oot l gs
o
Small D i m t a e er
f B tt L g
o u o
I n id B k s e ar
C o nt e n t s in Fee t B o ar d M easur e
is an ex tract from a volume table con

A ccom p an y in g
1
structed on this p lan g ivin g fi g ures that when man u fac

, ,
1B o rn S o u thern Ti mb er Tabl e s by Ho ward R . Krinb ill ,
Newb ern, N C C o p y right e d

. . .
1 90 A MAN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
ture of hig hest present economy is p racticed approximate ,
mill output A p ec u liar feature will be noted in t his

.
table that the base d iameter employ ed is not diameter

breast high but d iameter in side bark at the t o p of t h e
,
first lo g len g th A reduction from cali p ered diameters is

.
re quired therefore for bark thicknes s and for ta p er

, .
This reduction is made either tree b y tree in the fiel d by

estimat e or in the O ffice b y classes on the basis of meas
ures ta ken in logg in g operations T imber q ualit y is a .
matter of im p ortance I t is seldom or never dealt wit h

.
in the field other than by way of g eneral com p arison an d

e xp e rl e n c e .
The stri p s y stem was also lar g ely em p loy ed in t h e

early y ears of t h e United S tates Forest S ervice with t h e ,
'
ob j ect of ascertainin g not merely the merc hantable t

ber on the tracts examined but also t h e number and
kind of y oun g tr ee s g rowin g there as a basis for re
co mmendations as to treatmen t The met h od an d cost of .
strip survey work as carried out by the S ervice men are

indicated in th e following extract from t he Woodsma n s ’
”
H and book :
Sampl e acres are l a id o ff in the fo rm o f st ri ps 1 0 su rveyo r s

’
,
c hains l o ng a nd 1 c ha in wid e a nd the d i a met ers o f all trees t o b e

,
inclu d ed in the estimat e are measur ed at breast he ight with

ca lipers . At l east thr ee me n are required t o d o effectiv e wo rk
und er this method O ne ma n carries a no t e bo ok o r tally s hee t
.
, ,
a nd not e s the spe c i e s a nd the ir d i a met ers a s they are ca ll e d o u t

by t he me n who t ake the measur ements T he tallyman carri es .
the forward e nd o f the chain the o ther e nd o f which is carri ed

,
by o ne o f t he me n t akin g the m ea sur ements T he cha in is first .
stret che d o n t he gro u nd a nd the t rees are c ali pe r ed within a n
estimated d ista nc e o f 33 feet (o ne half cha in) o n ea ch s id e o f the

c ha i n. W hen a ll trees a d j ac ent t o the chain hav e b een ca l i pered
the who l e crew mo ves o n the length o f ano ther c hain in the d irce
tion c ho sen (by the tallyman) T he chain is a ga in stretched o n .
t he gro u nd a nd the trees are calipe red o n e ach sid e O f it a s b efo re .
T hi s sa m e O peratio n is repea t ed u ntil the tree s hav e b een mea sured

on a strip 1 0 chains long Notes are then mad e of the general
.
character o f t he forest and the land acc o rd ing t o the requirement s,
o f th e inv e stigati on If heights are d es ired they may b e taken

.
by a s eparat e crew o r as the ca lipe ri ng c rew enco un ter fro m time

,
t o time tree s who s e heights are d es ired they may sto p lo ng eno ugh ,
t o take s u ch me asur emen ts .
In an av erage Virg in fo rest a c rew o f thr ee me n will caliper t he

t ree s o n fro m 2 0 t 4 0 acre s in o ne d ay if o nly trees o f merc hant
o
PR AC T IC E OF T IM B E R E S TI MAT I NG 19 1
a bl e si ze are includ ed o r fro m 1 5 t o 25 acres if t he small trees also

,
are ca lipe re d Small tr ees are measu red principally in stu d ying
.
t he que stio n o f future growt h .
F O R M O F NO TE S
Dat e
n
'
Sep t .
S h e et No . A 41.
large tracts satisfact ory estimates ca n be mad e by t he

On
measurement o f abo ut 1 o u t o f e v ery 3 0 acres I n ve ry ext ens ive .
fo rest tract s the B ur eau o f Fo restry usu all y measures not more
t han o ne o r t wo o ut o f every hundred acres .
T his
method is clearly adapted to secur ing knowledge
of t he make u p of a forest and of its stand of merch ant
-
,
able timber if good v olume tables are at hand to go with

it I n th e latter connection perhaps t h e greatest di fficulty
.
t h at arises is in applying the proper h eigh ts to the different

diameters T h is is slight if t h e tract is of small size and
.
u niform c h aracter but considerable on large tracts wit h

,
uneven topograp hy and varying stand I n addition con .
stant care is required to make s u re that the strip is kept

of right width in ot her words that all trees les s than 2
,
rods from th e line run are included and none at a gr e ater

distance C areful men do indeed quickly get trained to
.
1 92 A MA N UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
this so that t heir eyes are true but W ith th e best of men ,
an occasional swing O ff O f the c h ain is necessary Defects -

.
in timber also remain to be allowed for .
A s applied to large tracts the strip s ystem may eit h er

be employed within types the boundaries O f w h ic h have
been ascertained as was explain e d in the last article or
,
.
,
it may be laid out in long lines across country and its elf
be used to define those boundaries and to get the topog
ra h
p y A number
. O f townships in M aine have been
surveyed in t he following manner :
a T ownshi p lines re run and re blazed ; chainage marks
.
- -
left every half mile .
b A center line run t h rough the township t h is also

. .
,
being chained and marks left eac h half mil e .
0 From a main camp on the center line 4 man parties

.
,
-
ran strip surveys from a mark on the center line out to

the boundary checked on the mark there set over a h alf
, ,
mile and ran back T his was 2 d ays work and the
, .
’
,
party consequentl y carri e d outfit required to stay out one

nigh t the main camp meanwhile being moved along t he
,
center line No te was kept O f th e ridge s and streams

.
crossed also O f the l ay O f the land O f th e bounds of cut

, ,
tings and O f marked types O f timber E levations on such

, .
a survey may be got by barometer and a topographic ,
map made up as a result '
3 . L INE A ND P L O T S Y ST E M
A th ird s ystem employed with some variations in di ff erent
parts of the country most largely perhaps among spruce ,
men in the E ast combines features from both the for e ,
going U nd e r this s ystem t he cruiser while a t work

.
travels in straight lines through the country to be ex

p l o re d using his
, e yes as well as m a
y be W hile actuall y
traveling but stopping at regular intervals to count and
,
estimate t h e trees on an area about h im T he area usually .
ch osen is a quarter acre which has a radius O f 59 feet , ,
or for most m e n O f 23 paces For a ch e ck on this dis

, ,
.
tance a tape line s hould always be carried in the pocket ,
and every morning as well as occasionally through t he ,
d ay the e ye should be checked by actual measurements

,
.
PR AC T IC E OF T I MB E R E S T I MA T I NG 1 93
C arefull y t ra ining in t h is way a man wi l l find h imself ,
abl e to guess within 2 fe e t O f th e 5 9 .
T he timber may be estimated according to a n met h od

y
deemed most satisfactory I t may be caliper e d by an .
assistant and the factor of height gone into to a ny extent

thought best but most men in the spruce region do that
,
only as a check w h ile in common practice after count

, ,
ing the tree s O f a ny species or clas s they estimate their ,
contents on the basis O f so many to the cord or to the

t h o usand O ccasional calipering and h e ight m e asur e ment
.
as a c h eck on th e e ye are highly desirable and volume ,
tables al so are a help in most cas es B u t some species of .
tr ees (as cedar and be e ch in many localities ) are so im

perfect and defectiv e that volume tables if they were in ,
existence could not be depended upon S uch timber

, .
h as to be estimated out O f hand and lumbering e xpe ,
rie nce , toget h er wit h th e figures O f th e scale rul e carried

’
either in a man s head or in his pocket will prove th e best ,
equipment for it .
O ne advantage O f this method is its cheapness one

man may do the work alon e Further all doubtful points .
,
are settled on the ground fac e to fac e with th e timber,
t h ere is no discounting or computing afterwards more

than to add up the r e sults T h e n the small size O f the .
area and the nearn e ss O f the O bserv e r to the tr e es un d e r

'
cons ideration e nab l e him if he has proper e xperience and

,
judgment to set contents v e ry close L astly it will be

‘
, .
se e n that the systematic travel follow e d gives in a simple ,
country material for mapping its timb e r types also its

, ,
topography as was e xplain e d in Part 2 O f this volume

,
.
Following are specim e n not e s O f a line O f estimate run

directly across a section with quarter acre counts ta ken
.
-
1 5 0 paces apart T he timber is scor e d in the following

.
classes ( )
a spruc e abov e cutting limit of 14 inches
stump diameter in board feet ; ( b) smaller spruce down
to 6 inches br e ast diam e t e r in cords ; (c) fir in cords ;
( )
d c e dar in f e et B M ; ()
e. pin e ;
.
(f) good hard wood -
logs Number and cont e nts of trees both given

. .
T his method O f timber cruising may be employed on

land areas of a ny si ze and has been largely employed on
,
areas O f a mile s quare or sections , .

To travel the boundaries of a square mile and twice

across it taking quarter acres each 20 rods as determined
,
b y pacing give s about 2 % per cent of the area actually

,
covered by th e estimat e and that percenta ge can be

,
relied upon to give in land which h as a ny regularity O f

,
type a close approximation to t h e truth T O do t h at

, .
and what goes with it section after section t hrough a

,
towns h ip is just about a fair day s work

,
’
.
T he last t wo methods described as usually employed

are alike in this that in the endeavor to get at a fair sample
,
of the country t hey depend mainly on mechanical arrange

ments rather than choice T his as a general rule is a
.
safe thing to do T here will always be enough things left

.
to exercise the best judgment O f the estimator O n th e .
other hand neither this nor a ny other s ystem shoul d be

,
followed blin d ly I f part O f the tract is especially v al u a

.
ble especial pains should be taken with it As a rule it

, .
will be found safe to ascerta in the area O f suc h tracts and

PR AC T IC E OF T IM B E R E S T I MA T I N G 1 95
es timate t h em separately while on th e other hand the,
area O f bogs bur nt lands barren mountain tops etc

, , , .
,
s h ould be ascertained and t hrown out O f account .
C . S UMMAR Y
The above described are well tr ied meth ods O f timber

estimating and survey but w h at has been written affords
,
hardl y more than sug ges tions as to how a ny particular

job may best be done E ach method has its merits whic h
.
may str ongl y recommend it for some partic u lar circum

stances V ery muc h too depends on the tr aining and
.
qualificatio ns O f t h e man doing t h e work E v e ry man .
long in the busin e ss commonl y has a line O f work in whic h

h e becomes proficient d e v e loping methods b es t suit e d
,
to himself to which in ordinary cases h e will adhere I n .
conclusion t he following guiding principles may be laid

,
down :
1 E stimates by lump sum are not us uall y reliable or
.
at t h e present d ay sufficient .
2 E stimates O f so much to the acre are muc h easier

.
to make and more likely to be close to the fact .
3 I n a ny kind of timber estimate or survey the area

. ,
O f the land ought to be known a n d that in units not too ,
large W it hin limits the small e r they are th e b e tter all

. ,
t he more so if each unit contains but one timb e r type .
4 E very time a measur e m e nt is substituted for a guess

.
or judgment the more reliabl e Will b e th e resul t O n the

,
.
oth er h and experience and good judgment never ceas e

,
to be required in the bus ines s .
5 No estimate is worth much practicall y spe aking

. , ,
wh ic h fails to take height into account as well as d iameter .
6 Qu alit y in some circumstances is q uite as material to

.
an ade q uate timber survey as q uantity I ts determination .
is full y as difficult .
7
. The more defective the trees are t h e more p ref ,
crable is the cruiser s j u d g ment a nd lon g local exp eri ence

’
”
d
in t h e mill an d in the woo s to m e re measuri g n
1
T he .
same is true wh e re g reat differences in value are dep endent

up on q uality or g rade .
Schenck s Fo rest M ensurati on

’ “
.
1 96 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O DS M E N
8 .Very b u nchy timb e r can be estimated onl y in b un ch es

or tree b y tree N0 g eneral s y stem O f lines or p lots can
.
be truste d to g ive safe results .
9 In the emer g encies whic h arise in actual bus iness

.
“
,
a little rough and r e ady lan d surv eying is O ft e n th e most

vita l part O f a reliabl e timber e stimat e O ne or two lines .
run wit h compass and chain will fr e quentl y ch e ck areas

O f waste lan d or O f di ff e rent stand in eff e ctive fashion .
T ransit and stadia work on streams O r roa d s O ften

aff ords v e ry material h elp There is continual call for
.
the sort O f results that can b est be O btained by means O f

com p ass and p acin g .
D PAC I FI C C O AST M E T HO D S
.
M uc h P acific C oast timber is 200 feet an d over in h ei gh t

and O f diamet e r to corr e s p on d whil e the stand sometimes ,
p asses 20 mill ion f ee t p e r q uarter section I t is evid e nt .

,
therefore that becaus e O f the values involv e d intensiv e

,
metho d s O f cruisin g are a ppropriate W hile pe culiarities ,
O f metho d ar e su gge sted b y the very siz e a n d hei g ht O f
the timber Of the reg ion as a whole th e portion west O f

.
the C ascade M ountains in W ashin g ton and Ore g on pro ,
d u c in g Dou g las fir
“ ”
Ore g on pin e as it was called form
,
erl y is most active and characteristic and the followin g

, ,
refers to that reg ion unless sp ecified otherwise .
SUCC E SSIVE LO G S IN A FIR
S l
ca e
T ot a l 4 29 0
A d j ustment O f methods to the conditions is ill ustrated

p articul arl y by th e volum e tabl e s em p loy ed for thos e , ‘
at present in most ex t ensive and r e sponsible use are

PR AC TIC E OF T I MB E R E S TI MATI NG 197
construct e d on princi p l e s that have very seldom b e en

e mploy ed els e where Aft e r basal d iam e ter tap er pe r
.
,
232 foot lo g is the next factor allowed for total h e i g ht O f

- 1
,
th e tr ee is disr eg arded and number O f lo g s is th e third

,
factor in the tabulation This has rea son behin d it as.
wel l as exp erience In timb e r O f such dim ensions total

.
hei g ht is not readily estimat e d ; th e lower log s O f the tree

are very much th e large st an d far the bes t in q ualit y ;
a lo g more or less in the t o p com p aratively small in size , ,
full O f larg e kn ots and liable to b e brok en u p in fel lin g is ,
O f small account in the estimate an y way .
In connection with th e s e tabl es basal diam e ter also is ,
h an dl e d in a p ecu l iar manner In some tree spec ies thick .
ness O f bark is v e ry variabl e whil e the root swellin g O f ,
larg e trees fre q uentl y reaches to th e hei g ht O f a man and

hig her Diameter therefore is taken as nea rly as may b e
.
Where t he tree takes on its reg ul ar form cons iderably ,
above breast hei g ht as a ru l e ; d e d uction is made for an y

swellin g not t hus allowed for and double the thicknes s ,
O f bark as actuall y found is th e n subtracted B y this .
means the wood alone is dealt with and bas al diameter

, ,
is align ed with th e ge neral shape O f the tree .
In vi e w O f the facts above mention ed it is cl e ar further

h ow windfalls furnish the best ob t ain abl e ass istance to
the cruiser s j ud g ment in res p ect to he i g ht and ta per
’
,
also that the diameter ta pe an d B iltmore stick poss e ss

a d vanta g es over the cali per Th en t w o a d ditional p rob.
l e ms aris in g out O f the size O f the tr e es confront the cruiser

first breaka ge in f e ll in g is a much more im p ortant factor
,
than elsewh e re and its amoun t varies wi d el y with the

,
gr oun d con d itions ; second th e defect arisin g from decay

,
a n d other sources very hard to j ud g e to d etect even in

, , ,
timber O f t his hei g ht has to b e han dl ed with extreme

,
ca r e car e ful look in g the exa min ation O f Win d fa l ls

, ,
expe rienc e p e rha p s the outturn O f a d j acent t imber serv

,
in g as a g uid e to it .
The fort y is the ordinary unit O f area for cruisin g

“
and a timber rep ort and it is g ri d ironed with strai ght

,
line travel P acin g serves ord inary p ur p oses as a dis

.
1
Tabl es based o n 1 6 fo o t l o gs are al so in exi st enc e
- .
—
tance measur e ; a verni e r com p ass is usual l y employ e d

for the sake O f more accurate line runn in g T went y to .
fif ty p er cent O f th e g ross area is commonl y covered b y

actual estimate one hun dr ed p er cent in some cases
, .
The unit party for the work consists O f t w o men compass ,
man and cruis e r O f whom one han dl es dis tance area

, , ,
and topo gra p hy whil e the other is res p onsible for the
,
timber Details O f p ractice vary much as elsewh e re in

.
, ,
accordance with the p ur p os e O f a cruise conditions ,
found and the trainin g O f different estimators Foll ow

, .
in g is a descrip tion of a method as near sta ndard as any ,
wid e l y employ ed in work of hig h res p onsibilit y .
a .S ection lin es are usuall y fres hened u p and re

chained and a cent e r lin e may be run throu g h each sec
,
tion The main pu r p ose O f this work is to set stakes for

.
the g uidance O f the cruis in g party I t is so laid out t hat .
the actual cruise or es timatin g lines will run as nearly

as may be across the feat u res O f the to p o g raphy .
b The cruisin g p arty startin g at one corner O f t he

.
,
section to be examined p roceeds to the neares t s take , ,
2% chains from it whence the c o mpassman with the , ,
declination set O ff in his staff com p ass travels p arall el ,
to the sid e line O f the section kee p in g accoun t of his ,
p acin g takin g aneroid rea din g s at chan g es of the g round

, ,
and sketchin g topo gra p hy B ehind him foll ows t h e cruiser .

,
who for a width O f 5 rods on each side estimates the timber , .
5 0 0 ste p s 4 tallies make a q uarter mile the width O f a

, , ,
40. A t that point the scorin g O f t imber be g in s anew for ,
the n e w fort y bein g ente r e d SO the work proceeds un til .
the o p posite sec tion line is met ( or at half that dis tance
if the section is subdiv ided ) when the pacin g is checked ,
u p the compass work tes t ed on the stake and declin ation

,
reset if necessary Offset is then made to the second .
stak e cha ins from the corner from which p oint a

, ,
p a rall e l line is ru n in the opposit e d irection Four such .
lines are run across each ti e r of forties With 1 6 such .
lines the cru ise O f the s ection is comp leted .
0 .The d e ta il O f the es timatin g work is as foll ows

First in n earby timber bein g cut or in ordinary circum
, ,
stances b y examination O i w indfalls the cruiser trues u p ,

PR AC TIC E OF T IM B E R E S T IMAT ING 19 9
his j ud g ment on th e contents of the trees In this con .
n ec t io n his volume ta ble is O f ass is t ance s ince stud

y Of
t h e hei g ht an d ta p er of t he down t imber shows to what
portion O f his ta bles its form rel ates it I\ v o and thr ee
'
.
in ches pe r 3 2 foot lo g are li g ht ta pers not inf req uent in ,
h emlock and y oun g

fir but four and five are usual in
,
mature fir timber This examination also tells somethin g

.
as to lo g q ualit y and the amount of defect A lon g with .
it t h e cruiser makes sur e by numerous tests that his ey e

is true on basal diameter W i t h t h ese points settled his
.
prel iminary work is done and w it h an e ye out for factors

,
”
t h at influence breaka g e an d particul arly for conks “
and ot h er si gns O f unsoun d ness he will proc e ed c o nfi ,
d en t l y .T he fi g ures h e sets down on his ta blet repres ent

h is j ud gme nt O f the merchan t able contents O f tr e es as he
p asses them s p ecies individual form d e fect and break age
, , , ,
all b e in g allowed for The consci entious man however

.
, ,
a pp lies freq uen t check b y fur ther examination O f w ind

fal ls and oc ca sional meas uremen t of stri p widt h and O f
basal diameters .
SAM PLE OF C R UISE R S FI E LD ’

NO TE S
(U su a ll y m d n l l l id h
a e o ce u o s ee t s )
d . from ou t side are a feature O f t h e work as

C h e cks
carried out on a larg e scal e co mmerciall y The d ifferen t .
cruis e rs in a larg e pa rt y may be set to ch eck on e an o t her

as a correc tive a n d for u niformit y ; a hea d cru iser pe ri od
ica ll y checks ea ch man to catch u p any slac kness correct ,
an y wron g tend e ncies and g ive ad v ic e or d ir e ctions

,
.
Two mil es O f line per d ay are the stan d ar d product

for t h is method O f cruis in g g ivin g ei g ht workin g da y s to
,
200 A MAN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O DS M E N
the section which in volves a cost O f about 25 cents pe r

,
acre outside O f the checkin g overhea d and O ffice work , .
Ordinary variations are

a . Double ru nn in g each forty inst ea d O f runnin g four
times throu g h it as abov e a method wid e ly p racticed as ,
costin g less and consider e d su fficiently accurate in man y

circumstances The cruis e lin e s in this case ar e sta rted
.
5 15 2 5 etc chains from the section corner to divide

, , , .
the area e quall y Som e times also the stri p is widened

.
, , .
b For preliminary work one stri p onl y m a y be run

.
,
p e r q uarter mile and after , a cer t a in amo u nt O f that with

its res ul ts in trainin g even this ma y be discontinued and
,
a man r e ly on g eneral observation .
0. A 10 0 pe r cent cruise is carried out in some cas e s .
In this case a second c o mpas sman may advanta g eousl y

be em p loy ed and t he cruiser work between lines run and
marked b y the t wo men the exact width O f the stri p ,
bein g then O f no conseq uence S ometim e s also a second .

, ,
estimator is em p loy ed to take care O f certain classes O f the

timber .
d S ome men instead O f estimatin g t h e timber on

.
,
stri p s estimate circul ar areas so s p aced alon g the compass

,
line that they touch on e another For t his p ractice it is .
claimed that a man can do bett e r estimatin g work stand

in g quietl y at a center than while travellin g wit h his ,
mind more or less distracted about footin g etc In , .
earlier tim e s indeed a c ircular plot s y stem was g eneral ,
while another usual proced ure was to count the tr e es on

these circles or on strips to the len g th O f one tall y and ,
derive their contents from that O f the avera g e tre e as

estimated Fe w follow this last p ractice at present
.
,
however .
In conclusion on this bra nch of the sub j ect the follow ,
in g by a man O f lon g exp erienc e a n d acknowled g ed com

,
pe t e n c e in this l in e O f work is introduced for the li g ht it,
throws on the broad aspects O f the matt e r .
W e wo rk in general by th e s trip s y s t em bu t u nd er a l ess hard

a n d fa s t rul e t han fo rmerly
-
M o re is l eft t o t he j u d gment O f o ur
.
c ru is ers as t o t he nu mb e r O f ru n s t hro u gh a s u b d i v is i o n ne c es
sary t o s e c u re c o rr e c t re sul t s Thus if we fin d o ne fo rty tha t

.
,
PR AC TIC E OF T IM B E R E S T IMA T ING 20 1
is d ensely t imbe re d with a s mall unifo rm gro wth we find t ha t ,
we se cur e be tt er results by taking n arro wer s t rip s the equiv al ent ,
O f o ne s ixt eenth o f a fo rty ins t ea d O f o ne e ighth W here tree s .
s ta n d s o t hi ckly o n t he gro u n d it is al mo s t a n imp o ssib ility fo r
me n t o kee p a n ac cura t e c o un t o n a wi d e st rip as the y ca n o n

o ne o f half t he wi d th an d we find t ha t t he ba sis O f much O f t he
,
erro r tha t o cc urs in o ur wo rk is du e t o in acc urat e t ree c o unting .
If the timber is large and p artic ul arly ac cu ra t e results are de

s ir e d we no w ru n 12 t ime s t hro u gh ea ch fo rty a nd frequ en tly work
,
b e twee n bl a ze d lines Tha t is in st ea d O f ru nning thro u gh t he

.
,
mi ddl e O f the s trip t he c o mp a ssma n s et s o v er o ne -half it s wi d th

,
an d sp o ts t he t ree s o n t he o pp o s it e s i d e fro m t he c ruis er t o gi v e
t he c ru i s er a l in e t o work t o o n t he re t urn s trip This wo rks v ery .
sa t isfa c t o ril y wh ere th e bru sh is no t t oo d ens e .
Again un d er c erta in c onditi o ns where we hav e a unif o rm

,
s t an d o f l arge timb er we run 4 times taking strips equi v al ent

, ,
t o o n e- t welf th o f a fo rty Thi s p l an we b eli e v e giv es b e tt er re sults

.
, ,
than t wo s trip s ea ch co v ering V3 o f t he who l e .
Thes e no t e s giv e s o me i d ea O f ho w we a tt emp t t o ca rry o n o ur

wo rk bu t in the l ast analy sis this c ru ising bu siness resol v es itself
,
i nto o ne O f perso nal cap acity and a tt entio n u p on the part O f t he

c ru i se r ra th er than th e me tho d empl o y e d A ca reful c o nscie n .
,
tio us and hard-wo rking woo ds man who m we ca n d epend u p o n

t o go o v er th e gro un d is mo re val u a bl e t han a mo re exp e rt c ru is e r
who t ake s mu ch f o r grant e d There w a s a tim e when I ho pe d
.
t o d e v el o p ti mbe r c ruis in g t o a p o in t fro m which we c o ul d l o ok

up o n o ur e stimat es as b e ing abso l u t ely reliabl e b u t so l o ng as ,
there are in flu enc es tha t wil l wo rk u p o n t he min ds O f me n there ,
will be v ari ati o n an d erro r A man may d o exc ell ent wo rk t o

.
d ay and b e t o ta lly u nfi t t o b e in the woo ds t o-morro w all fo r ,
rea so ns which no ne O f u s can exp l a in A man mu s t hav e c o nfi .
d enc e o r he will be O f littl e v al u e O n t he o ther hand I t hink I .
may safely say t ha t t he grea t es t el ement o f unce rta inty a nd e rro r

in men s wo rk is t he ir p ro n en ess t o f ee l t ha t fa miliarity has de
’
v e l o p e d inf al lib i l ity The man who n e v er d ev el o p s ab so l u t e

.
c o nfi d en c e in his e y e a n d j u dgme n t a n d who ch ec ks himself u p
frequ ently sel d o m go e s far wro ng

,
.
There is t o o a n o ther s i d e t o t his who l e ma tt e r o ne O ft en

, , ,
negl ec t ed b u t of grea t imp o rta nc e a nd tha t we c o nsi d er in o u r

, ,
w o rk as b e st we ca n Tha t is t he s ta nd ard o f u til i z a ti o n O f t he

.
timber As a ma tt er O f fac t there is su rprising differenc e in t he

.
way timb er is c u t tho u gh I c o ul d n o t d efi ne t his as a perc e nt a ge

,
.
A c o nc ern milling it s o wn timb er c u ts cl o s er t han o ne s elling it s

l o gs ; and there is v ari ati on w ith t he marke t it self Then oc ca .
2 02 A M ANUAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
'
s io n all y tra c t is c u t with such carel essness tha t t he yield is
a
v ery ma t eri ally c u t d o wn W e hav e t o mee t t he wi shes O f o ur

.
c u s t o mers if c l e arly exp r e ss e d b u t we p ro t ec t o ur s el v e s b y a n

,
exp lic it s t a t emen t o f t he kin d O f utili z atio n which o ur e stimat es

i mply and by an exac t showing o f t he b asis o n whi ch the w o rk
,
wa s d o n e .
Tim b er Qu al it y While the above a pp lies s pecificall y

.
to the Dou g las fir country much the sam e m e thods are ,
em p loy ed in the Int e rior and C alif ornia with resort to ,
oth e rs O f less intensiv en e ss similar to those in use e ls e

,
where when stands ar e li g hter or less valuabl e The pre

, .
cedin g however is ina d e q uat e in on e fi e ld O f importance

, , ,
in that qu ality O f timb e r has be e n g iv e n scant emphasis “
T his throu g hout the re g ion is no l e ss imp ortant a factor

in value than q uantit y In fact in very much t e rritory
.
,
timb e r has no commercial valu e unl e ss its products are

sui t able for other than ordinary buildin g purp oses .
In the case O f Dou g las fir and timbers associated with

it wes t O f the C ascades this matter is S implifi e d by the
fact t hat lo g gra d es in st e ad O f lumber g rades are ma d e
the usual basis O f q ualit y ratin g the lo g gra d in g rules in ,
force in the mark e t thus furnishin g the standard to which

the field man works S ince however both dimension
.
, ,
and lumber q ualit y enter into these their a pp lication is ,
not simpl e .
The g radin g rules for Dou g las fir lo g s in forc e on P u g et

S oun d follow ; those O f th e oth e r lo g markets are v e ry
similar Sp ruce is commonly g rad e d like fir W ith cedar
. .
,
becaus e O f th e variety of products into which the wood

may b e manufacture d g ra d in g vari e s from time to tim e
,
and locally H e ml ock lo g s and those O f th e sp e ci e s

.
rar e ly m e t ar e somet imes class e d In t wo lo g g ra d e s those ,
”
above 1 6 in d iamet e r and surfac e clear a n d a ll oth e rs , .
No 1 ( also called Fl ooring) lo g s shall b e lo g s in the

.
len g ths O f 1 6 to 3 2 f ee t a n d 3 0 inches in d iam e t e r insi d e

t he bark at th e small end a n d lo g s 34 to 4 0 fe e t 2 8 inch e s ,
in diam e t e r insi d e th e bark at th e s m all e n d which in th e ,
j ud g ment O f th e scal e r contain at l e ast 5 0 pe r c e nt O f th e

scaled cont ents in lumber in the g rades O f NO 2 C lear .
and b e tter .
PR AC TIC E OF T IM B E R S IMA TI NG
E T 203
No 2 ( or M erchanta ble ) lo g s shall be not less t h an 1 6

.
feet lon g and which havin g d e fects which p revent th e ir

,
g radin g NO 1 in the j ud g ment O f the scal e r will be

.
, ,
suitable for the manufactur e O f lumber princi p all y in

t h e g rades O f M erchan table and better (M erchantable .
lumber must be free from knots or other defects in size

or numbers such as to weaken the piece ) .
N0 3 ( als o call e d N0 2 ) log s shall be not les s t han 1 6

feet lon g which havin g defec ts that prevent t heir bein g
,
graded hig her are in the j ud gment O f the sea l e r suitable

, , ,
for t he manufacture O f C ommon lumber .
Cu ll l ogs s h all be a ny lo g s which in the j ud g ment of

the scaler will not cut 33 % pe r cent O f so u nd t imbe r .
An es sential to r e liabl e timber g radin g is expe rien ce a ,
back groun d O f knowled g e O f the out t u m O f similar tim -
ber In t h e nex t place close examination of the stand

.
,
is re qu ired as to the number and size O f limbs and knots

and for indications of these or of other defec ts t hat , ,
may lie beneath the surfac e A ge is a hel p here ( t h ese .
stands are commonl y even a g ed over consi d erable areas )-

.
M an y cruisers g o no farther than t his and set percenta g e

fi gures for lo g g rades as the result O f a broad j udg ment .
Wh en fur t h er detail is thou g ht desirable the volume ,
ta bles before mentioned are O f assis tance g ivin g as some ,
O f them do for a tree O f g iven diameter ta p er and mer , ,
c hantable len g th the pe rcenta g e ea c h succes sive 3 2 foot -
lo g bears to tota l contents One sta ndard volume table .
contains the followin g directions

Determine the pe rcenta g es O f the different g ra des as
“
conta in e d in a g iven p ercenta g e O f th e trees on each 40

acres by selectin g for instance an avera g e tree on each
, ,
tall y and carefully d et e rminin g the p e rcenta g e O f the

different grades O f lo g s contain e d in thes e sam p le trees
”
and a p plyin g the avera g e to all trees on t h e forty .
TO ill ustrat e in the notes on p a ge 1 9 9 1 1 tr e es 4 6 M

, , ,
feet are scored down in the column of livin g fir g ivin g an

, ,
avera g e volume of 4 20 0 4 inches t a p er and 4 lo g s may fit

.
t his timb e r ; if so a tree y iel d in g 4 3 30 fee t ( see extract from

,
ta p er table ) g iv e s a clos e a pp roximation Of such a tree .
a 3 2 butt lo g constitutes 3 7 pe r cent t h e sec ond lo g 28

'
, ,
204 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
pe r cent and the third 2 1 pe r cent while t op diameters

, ,
are a pproximately 33 2 9 and 25 in ches res p ectivel y

, .
One O f these log s is larg e enou g h for NO 1 ; it may or may .
not be cl e ar enou g h S econd and third log s are O f su ffi

.
cient s iz e and likel y to be O f a q uality to pu t t hem in

, ,
the second g rade .
M ethods in this branc h of th e work h owever vary , ,
g reatly A few in the endeavor to reduce the field O f

.
,
j ud g ment have g one into much detail an d devised forms

,
O f notes which record trees b y sizes and lo g g rades in eac h
tree as its contents is estimated Of the p ercenta g e O f .
successiv e lo g s it may be said that t h e above relations

,
ar e fairl y ty pical that is to say in normal fir timber

larg e enou g h so that lo g g rades are O f importance about ,
3 5 p er cent O f the total contents O f trees is contained in

the butt lo g if cut 3 2 feet lon g the second lo g will add ,
2 5 to 3 0 p er cent more and about 2 0 p er cent will be ,
in the third lo g B reaka g e and defect may throw out

.
these relations and they are different in ex tremely tall

,
or short timber .
NO TE . H lf l ga o s are giv en in t he o ri gin l t b l

a a es .
S in ce a larg e s h are Of
the timber O f t h e fir reg ion is
r e alized on by its owners in the form not O f lumber but
O f lo g s the inducement is small to g o further than the lo g
,
in q uality work in that r eg ion I t is otherwise however .

, ,
in the reg ions characterize d by p ine where there are no ,

PR AC T IC E OF T IM B E R E S T I MA T I NG 2 05
log markets and timber enters t h e commercial field in

the shap e Of lumber wit h its g reat ran g e in q uality an d
value H ere the Forest Se rvice endeavorin g in its o wn
.
,
business to g et away from t he j ud g ment O f the in dividual

a p plied in too broad a way has started a lin e O f in quiry
,
t h at s h ould in time prove serviceable to business Lo g .
grades in t his case a g ain are made the basis to whic h the
field man works but mill and yard studies carry in g the
, ,
product O f those lo g s throu gh the p rocess of man uf actur e

to point O f sale afford a means O f g oin g further to an
, ,
es timate O f lumber q ualit y and value Definitions O f the .
lo g g rades that have been formed for y ell ow p ine follow ,
and brief notes on the y ield O f those g rades may be serv

ic eabl e to some althou g h w ith a smal l fiel d covered it
, , ,
ha s be en fo und already that lo g s g raded by the same man

un der t h e same rul es vary considerabl y by localit y in
t h eir y ield of hi gh grade lumber .
Yellow P ine Lo g Grades O f the U S Fores t S ervice . . .
Clear logs shall be 22 inches or over in diameter in side

the bark at the sma ll end and not less than 1 0 fe et lon g .
Th ey s h all be reasonabl y strai g ht g ra ined practically -

,
surface clear and O f a character which in the j ud g ment

,
O f the scaler are capable O f cuttin g not les s than 25 pe r
cent O f t h eir scaled contents into lumber O f the g rades O f

C Select and better .
S ho p logs sha ll be 1 8 inches or over in diameter inside

t h e bark at the small end not less than 8 feet lon g and
, ,
which in the j ud g ment O f the scaler are capable O f cut

tin g not less than 3 0 pe r cent O f their scaled contents
into lumber O f the g rades O f NO 2 Sh op and better
. .
R ou gh logs s h all be 6 in ches or over in diameter inside

t h e bark at t h e small end and not less than 8 feet lon g ,
h avin g defects which in the j ud g ment O f the scal e r pre

vent t h eir classification into either O f t h e two above
g rades .
Lo g s cut from rat h er larg e and hig h class timber at

diff erent p oints of interior Ore g on g raded accordin g to ,
t he above rules hav e y ielded as fol lo ws :

,
C lear lo g s 6 0 6 5 pe r cent NO 2 Sho p and better about

—
.
,
hal f O f it of g rades B and C Select .

2 06 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
S hop log s cent NO 2 S hop and better a fif t h

4 0—4 5 pe r .
,
to a fourt h B and C .
R ou g h lo g s have y ielded about 1 5 pe r cent NO 2 S ho p .
and better .
Fo r t h e No vic e
From the foreg oin g it will be inferred
.
that t he best timber cruis in g in the P acific reg ion is a

highly exp ert business re q uirin g in addition to accuracy
,
and alertness thorou gh personal trainin g and j u d g ment

,
in high deg ree There are alwa y s learners in the fiel d

.
,
h owever and occasionall y inexpert men are so situated

,
that with whatever e qu ip ment they can comman d they

must do their best to size u p the q uantit y and value O f
timber To such a caution in respect to the loss O f ap
.
,
p arent volume that breaka g e shake and decay ma y ,
cause and the very larg e part that location and especially ,
q uality play in the value O f timber is an essential service

, .
Then it is true and worthy O f re g ard that in thes e cir

c u ms t anc e s simple met h ods may actuall y g ive the best
resul ts .
A man may learn muc h in a lo g gin g operation where

timber similar to that he is concerned with can be e x
a min e d after it is fell ed and bucked into lo g s H e can .
see how muc h is broken u p w h ether the timber is rotten ,
or sound and from the cross cuts and surface indications

,
O f t h e lo g s ex amined at close ran g e g et an idea O f th e p rev
alence O f knots shakes and other blemishes Then he

, .
can scale u p the lo g s from a number O f trees ascertain ,
in g the total len g th utilized and t h e q uantit y of mer

chantable timber derived from each tree This he will .
attach to its len g t h and base d iameter and endeavor to

link u p with trees O f similar dimensions standin g .
S uc h work as this will enable a man to understand a

volume table and he may even g et enou g h measures to
,
make one for h imself in some size g rou ps with which he ,
may check published volume tables Or old devices and .
short cuts may be tried out with the idea of sharp enin g
1
1
Such as the fo llo wing
Av erage t he b a se diame t er O f t he t ree and the t o p diame t er O f
it s merc hantabl e ti mb er ; ge t t he sc al e o f a l o g O f t ha t d ia me t er
PR AC T IC E OF T IMB E R E S T IM A T ING 2 07
t he O bservation a nd trainin g th e j u d gment The best .
result that can come from such work ( it can be g ain ed

onl y with time and exp e rienc e an d some men never will ,
ac quire it ) is the capacity to make a close estimate of the

contents O f a tree standin g .
C onten t s O f the avera g e tre e in a p iece O f timber O b ,
t a in e d by met h o d s O f t his kind may be made a sta rtin g ,
poin t for the next st ep in the proc e ss A man may coun t .
a ll the trees standin g on a small p i e ce of g roun d usin g ,
safeg uard s that he will r e adily t hink u p to g et all the

trees in and not to coun t any a second t ime If th e terri .
tory is too larg e for that sam p le acres in a ny numb e r ,
can be run out in fa ir avera g e g roun d an d th e tr ee s coun ted

u p on them A s quar e acr e is 20 9 f ee t on a side about
1
.
,
8 0 p aces A circular acre is 2 36 feet in diameter

. Or .
,
some form O f the stri p met hod may be used as des cribed
on th e p r e ce d in g pa ge s The area O f g roun d without tim
.
ber shoul d be t hrown out ; sin gle tr ee s or bunch e s that ar e

of exce p tional size and q uali t y shoul d b e treated separatel y .
M aterial loss from breaka g e e nt e rs when about 1 0 0 feet

in merchan t abl e l e n g t h is p asse d and runs u p to nea rly or ,
'
q uite 5 0 pe r cent on very broken l an d wit h heavy t imber .
T he above com p ared with r e al ly a d eq uate p ro fe s

, ,
s io n al cru isin g is only an exp e d i ent ; still ca rri e d out by

, ,
a clear headed man it m i g ht reall y b e worth more than

-
what pass e s oftent i mes as som e thin g more ambitious .
S uch a man too can sometimes fin d out what he wants

, ,
to know or mana g e to p rot e ct his o wn int e rests in matters

'
O f this kin d without r e sort to timber cruisin g S ome

,
.
m e n al so hav e j u d g ment on the contents O f a bo d y O f

timber as a whole who ar e unfamiliar with a systematic
timber est imate a n d would be slow and un certain in the
,
execution O f it .
32 f ee t l o ng ; mul tiply by t he numb e r O f 32 foo t l o g s l ess o ne -
ha l f l o g .
O r t o b as e diame t e r a d d o ne —half O f ba s e d iame t er a nd d iv id e

,
b y 2 ; mul t iply b y 8 s q u a re a nd d iv i d e b y 1 2 The re s u l t is t he

. ,
.
n u mb er O f fee t in t he s ti ck p e r foo t O f it s l eng t h 3 t o 5 per .
c e n t may s o me ti me s b e a d d e d f o r c o nt en ts a b o v e t he p o int
s t a t ed .
1
Fo r a ca u tio n o n thi s h ea d s ee p age 1 8 7 ,
.
PA R T V
'
TAB LES
SE C H O N I T ABLES RE LATING T O PAR TS I AND 11

. 21 0
SE C TI O N II T ABLES RE LATING T O PAR TS III A ND IV

. 2 35
SE CTI O N III MIS CELLANEO US TABLE S A ND INFO RMATIO N

. 293
SE C T I O N I
TAB LE S RELAT ING T O PAR TS

.
I
STADI A R E D U CTI O NS
SO LUTI O N O F T RI AN GL ES
T R AVER S E T ABL ES
LO GARI T HM S O F NUM B E RS
L O GAR I T HMI C SINES C O S I NES
, , TAN GE NTS , AND
TAN GENTS
SUP PLEM E NT AR Y T AB LE S O F SMALL ANGL ES
NATUR AL SI NES A ND C O S INES
NATUR AL T AN GENTS A ND C O TAN GENTS
SPE CI MEN L ETT ERI NG
T AB LE S RE LA T ING TO PAR T S I A ND II 21 1 .
STADIA RE DUCT I O NS
H i o r zo n t a l Di t ns a ce
D iff e re n c e O f E le v a t io n
0 00 0 29 0 58 0 0 0 0
1 74 2 04 2 33 2 0 0 0
3 49 3 78 4 07 4 0 0 0
5 23 5 52 5 80 6 0 0 0
6 96 7 25 7 53 7 0 0 0
8 68 8 97 9 25 9 0 0 0
10 40 10 68 10 9 6 1 1 0 0 0
12 10 12 38 12 66 0 0 0
13 78 14 06 14 34 0 0 0
15 45 15 73 16 0 0 0
17 10 17 37 17 6 0 0 0
18 73 19 19 2 0 0 0
20 80 20 8 0 0 0
22 18 22 4
. 0 0 0
23 73 23 9
m
0 0 0
25 25 25 0 0 0
26 74 26 9 0 0 0
28 20 28 4 0 0 0
29 62 29 8 0 0
31 01 31 2 0 0
32 36 32 0 0
33 67 33 9 0 0
34 94 35 5 0 0
36 17 36 7 0 0
37 35 37 4 0 0
38 49 38 7 0 0
39 58 39 6 0 0
40 62 9 0 0
41 61 41 7 0 0
4 9~ 56 42 1 0 0
45 43 9 0 0
2 12 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D SME N
S O LU TI O N O F TR IANG LE S
T he figure may refresh to good pur

pose the memor y O f the fi e ld worker .
I n it are graphically represented t h e

functions (sine cosine secant and , , ,
ta ngent) of th e angle B A C T he .
cosine cosecant , ,
and cotang e nt O f
B A C are respect
iv e l y the sine ,
secant and tangent O f C A D th e , ,
complement of B A C .
R e presented as ratios the functions ,
O f the angle A in the right angled -
triangle A B C are as follows
S ine A C os
ine A
T angent A Secant A
By these formulas and the us e O f the tables of sines and

,
t angents all the parts of a ny right an gl e d t riangl e may be

,
-
obta ined if two sides or an acute angle and a side are , ,
g iven .
Al l the parts and th e area of an

obliqu e t riangl e ma be btained if
y O
an
y thr ee parts including one side
are given L e t A B C represent

.
,
b ,
the angles and a b c the opposite

, , ,
s ides O f an oblique triangle t he n

, y
the solutions are as given on the
next page .
T ABL E S RE LAT ING TO PAR T S I A ND 11 213
Gi v en S ght
ou
A B , , a C, b , c C —
l so o
a
“ 1 B
s in A
A , a, b B , C, c i
s n B =
a
= —-
C ( l B)
0
1 80 A
a s in C
s in A
z
a s in B i
s n C
A , B C, a , Area A rea
2 s in A
C , a, b H A + B) = 90 ° —
% C
ta n fl A —
B )
— B)
B = — B)
cos 5 (A --
+ B )
c ( “ I
i
-
b)
co s é (A
- —
B)
sin é (A
—
+ B)
( a b)
sin 1} (A — B)
é
—
a b sin C
a, b, 0 aw+ b + e
T hen sin % A
cos } A 7
tan % A ~
s (
s a
)
B, C S imilar formulas
Area
2 14 TR AV E R S E IY& I{ LJB
'
Di t s . 1 Di t s . 2
Gourse De p L at De p L at
L at . . . . .
O I o I
0 15 89 4 5
30 0 000 0087 0 1 75
45 (l 9 999 01 31 9 99 8 0 262
1 0 9 99 8 0 1 75 9 997 0 34 9
15 99 98 021 8 99 95 04 36
30 999 7 0262 9 9 93 0524
45 9995 0305 9 99 1 061 1
2 0 9 99 4 0349 9988 0 69 8
15 9 9 92 0393 9985 0 785
30 9 9 90 0 436 99 81 0872
45 99 88 0480 9 9 77 09 60
3 0 9 98 6 0523 9 9 73 1 047
15 99 84 0567 9 968 1 1 34
30 9 98 1 0610 9 963 1 221
45 9979 0654 9 957 1 308
4 0 9976 069 8 9 95 1 1 395
15 9 9 73 074 1 9 945 14 82
30 9 9 69 0785 9 938 1 569
45 9 9 66 08 28 993 1 1 656
0 9 962 0 872 99 24 1 743
15 9 958 09 1 5 99 1 6 1 830
30 9954 095 8 9 908 1 91 7
45 9 950 1 002 9 89 9 2004
0 9 945 1 045 9 890 20 91
15 994 1 1 089 9 881 21 77
30 99 36 1 1 32 9 87 1 2264
45 9931 1 1 75 9 861 2351
7 0 9 925 1 21 9 9 851 2437
15 9920 1 262 9 84 0 2524
30 99 14 1 305 9 829 261 1
45 9 909 1 34 9 98 1 7 2697
8 O 9 903 1 392 9 805 2783
15 9 89 7 1 4 35 9 79 3 2870
30 9 890 1 4 78 9 7 80 2956
45 9 884 1 52 1 9 767 304 2
9 O 9 877 1 564 9 754 3 129
15 9870 1 607 9 740 32 15
30 9 863 1 650 9 726 330 1
45 9 85 6 1 693 9 71 1 3387
10 0 9 84 8 1 736 9 696 3473
15 9 840 1 779 9 681 3559
30 9833 1 822 9 665 3 64 5
45 9 825 1 8 65 9 849 3730
11 0 9 8 16 1 908 9633 381 6
15 9808 1 9 51 9 61 6 39 02
30 979 9 1 9 94 959 8 3987
45 97 90 2036 9 581 40 73
12 0 9 78 1 2 079 9 563 41 58
15 9 772 3122 9545 4244
30 9763 21 64 9526 4 329
45 9753 2207 9 507 44 1 4
13 0 9 744 2250 9 487 44 9 9
15 9734 2292 9 4 68 4 584
30 9 724 2334 9447 4669
45 97 1 3 2377 9 4 27 4 754
14 0 9 703 24 1 9 9 406 4 838
15 9 692 2462 9 385 49 23
30 968 1 2504 9 363 5 00 8
45 9 670 2 54 6 9 34 1 509 2
15 0 9659 2588
De p . L at .
Course
I n
st . 1
TR AV E R S E T ABL E 215
I fis t . 7 Di t s . 9 Di t s . 10
Course
L at . De p . L at . L at . De p . L at De p .
—
.
0 I
89 45
9 99 7 061 1 9997 9 997 0 785 9996 0 873 30
9 9 94 0 91 6 9993 9992 1 1 78 99 91 1 309 15
99 89 1 222 99 8 8 99 8 6 1 571 99 85 1 745 89 0
9 9 83 1 527 99 81 9 979 1 9 63 997 6 2 1 81 45
9 9 76 1 83 2 99 73 996 9 2356 99 66 261 8 30
99 67 21 38 9963 9 958 274 8 99 53 3054 15
9 9 57 2443 9951 99 45 3141 9 939 3490 88 0
994 6 2 74 8 99 38 9 931 3533 9923 3926 45
9933 30 53 9924 9 914 39 26 9905 4 362 30
99 1 9 3358 9908 9 89 6 431 8 9 885 479 8 15
9 904 3664 9 8 90 9 877 4 71 0 9 86 3 5234 87 0
9 88 7 3968 9 871 9 855 5 1 02 9 839 5 669 45
9 869 4273 9851 9 832 5494 9 8 13 61 05 30
9 850 45 78 9 829 980 7 5886 97 86 6540 15
9 829 4 883 9805 9 781 6278 9756 697 6 86 0
9 808 5188 97 80 9 753 6670 9725 741 1 45
9 784 54 92 9753 97 23 7061 96 92 7846 30
760 5797 97 25 9 69 1 74 53 9657 828 1 15
9734 6101 9 696 9 658 784 4 961 9 871 6 85 0
9706 6405 9 664 9622 8 235 9580 9 150 45
9 678 6709 9632 9 58 6 8626 9540 9585 30
964 8 70 1 3 9597 9 54 7 90 1 7 9497 001 9 15
9 61 7 731 7 9 562 9 507 9408 94 52 04 53 84 0
958 4 7621 9 525 9 4 65 798 940 6 0 887 45
9 550 79 24 94 8 6 9 421 01 88 9 357 1 320 30
9 51 5 8 228 944 5 537 8 0578 9307 1 754 15
94 78 8531 9 4 04 9329 0 968 9255 2 1 87 83 0
944 0 8 834 9 360 9200 2620 45
9401 9 137 931 6 9 144 30 53 30
9361 944 0 9269 90 87 34 85 15
9 31 9 9 74 2 9 2 21 9027 39 1 7 82 0
9 276 0044 9 1 72 8 9 65 4 34 9 45
9231 034 7 9 121 8 902 4 78 1 30
9 1 85 0 64 9 9069 8836 521 2 15
9 1 38 09 50 90 1 5 8 769 564 3 81 0
9090 1 25 2 8 960 8 700 6074 45
9040 1553 8 903 8629 6505 30
8 9 89 1 854 8844 855 6 6 935 15
8937 2155 8785 84 81 7365 80 0
8883 24 56 8723 84 0 4 7794
872 8 275 6 8660 8325 8 224
8772 3057 85 96 8245 8 652
8714 335 7 8 53 0 8163 90 8 1
8 6 55 3 656 8463 80 79 9 509 45
8595 3956 8394 799 2 9937 30
8533 4 255 8 324 7 905 . 0364 15
84 70 4 554 8 252 78 1 5 07 9 1
8 40 6 4 8 52 81 78 7723 1 21 8 45
834 1 51 51 81 04 7630 1 644 30
8 274 544 9 8027 7534 2070
. 15
820 6 574 7 7950 74 37 24 95 77 0
8 1 37 60 44 78 70 7 338 2920 45
8066 634 1 77 90 723 7 3345 30
79 9 4 66 38 7707 71 34 3769 15
79 21 6 935 76 24 7030 4 1 92 76 0
78 46 723 1 7538 6 9 23 4 61 5 45
7 770 7527 7452 681 5 5038 30
7693 78 22 7364 6705 54 60 15
7 61 5 8 11 7 7274 6593 588 2 75 0
De p . Lat . De p | . De p . La t
Course
Di t s . 8
TR AV E R S E T ABL E
Di t s . 1 Di t s . 2 Di t s . 3 Di t s . 5
sourss
De p . L at . De p . L at . L at . De p
_
Q I
1 15 1 9 29 6
. 2 8 944
. 1 3 1 52 74 45
30 2672 9 273 5 345 8 909 8 1 82 3362 30
45 2 714 9 249 5429 8 874 8123 3572 15
16 0 2 756 9 225 55 1 3 8838 8063 3 782 74 0
15 279 8 9 20 1 559 7 880 ] 800 2 399 1 45
30 2840 9 1 76 5 680 8765 7 94 1 4201 30
45 2882 9 1 51 5764 8 727 7879 441 0 15
17 0 2 924 9 1 26 584 7 8 689 78 1 5 4 61 9 73 0
15 2 965 9 1 00 5931 865 1 7751 4 8 27 45
30 3007 9074 6014 861 2 7686 5035 30
45 9048 60 97 8572 7620 524 3 15
18 0 30 90 9 021 6180 8 53 2 7553 545 1 72 O
15 3 1 32 8 9 94 6263 84 9 1 74 85 5678 45
30 3 1 73 89 66 634 6 84 50 74 1 6 5865 30
45 3 2 14 89 39 6429 8408 734 7 6072 15
19 0 3256 8 910 65 1 1 8366 7276 6 27 8 71 0
15 3297 8 882 6594 8323 7204 64 85 45
30 33 38 8853 6676 8279 71 32 6 690 30
45 3379 8 824 6758 8235 7 059 689 6 15
20 0 3420 8794 6840 819 1 69 85 7 1 01 70 0
15 0 3461 8 764 6922 8 14 6 69 1 0 7306 45
30 3502 8 733 7004 81 00 6834 751 0 30
45 35 43 8 703 7086 8054 6757 7 71 5 15
21 0 3584 8672 7 167 8007 6679 79 1 8 69 0
15 3624 8640 7249 79 60 6600 8 1 22 45
30 3665 8 608 7330 791 3 6521 8325 30
45 3706 8 576 7411 7864 6440 8528 15
22 0 374 6 8544 7492 78 1 6 6359 8 730 68 0
15 3 78 6 85 1 1 7573 776 6 6277 8932 45
30 3827 8 478 7654 7726 61 94 9 1 34 30
45 3867 8444 7734 7666 61 1 0
. 15
23 0 9 205 39 07 84 10 78 1 5 7 61 5 60 25 9537 67 0
15 9 1 88 3947 8376 7 895 7564 5 940 9 737 45
30 9 171 3 9 87 834 1 7 975 751 2 5853 9937 30
45 9 1 53 4 027 8 306 8055 7459 5 766 15
24 0 9 1 35 40 67 8 271 8 1 35 7406 5 677 033 7 66 0
15 9118 4 1 07 8 235 8214 7353 5588 053 6 45
30 9 1 00 4 147 8 1 99 829 4 729 9 549 8 0735 30
45 908 1 4 1 87 8 1 63 8 373 7214 5407 0 933 15
25 0 9 063 4226 8 126 8452 71 8 9 531 5 1 1 31 65 O
15 9 048 4 266 8089 8 531 7034 5223 45
30 9 02 6 4305 8 05 2 8 61 0 7078 5 1 29 1526 30
45 9 007 4 344 801 4 8 68 9 7021 5035 1 722 5
26 0 89 88 4 384 79 76 8 767 69 64 4 940 1 9 1 9 64 0
15 8 9 69 44 23 7937 8 84 6 6 90 6 4 844 21 14 45
30 8 9 49 4462 7 89 9 89 24 6 848 4 747 231 0 30
45 8 930 4501 7860 9002 6789 4 64 9 2505 15
27 0 89 10 4 54 0 7 820 9 080 6730 4 550 2700 63 0
15 8 890 4 579 7780 9 1 57 667 1 44 51 2 89 4 45
30 8 870 4 61 7 774 0 9 235 661 0 4351 3087 30
45 8850
. 4 656 7700 9 31 2 6550 4249 .328 1 15
28 0 8889 4 69 5 7 659 9 38 9 64 88 4 14 7 34 74 62 0
15 8 809 4 733 761 8 9 4 66 6427 4 045 3666 45
30 8 788 4 772 7576 9 543 63 65 394 1 3858 30
45 8 767 48 1 0 7535 9 620 6302 3836 4 049 15
29 0 8746 4 84 8 74 9 2 9 69 6 623 9 3 731 4240 61 O
15 8 725 4 886 74 50 9 772 6 1 75 3 625 44 3 1 45
30 8 704 4 9 24 7407 9848 61 1 1 35 1 8 4 62 1 30
45 8682 49 62 7364 99 24 604 6 3 4 10 4 81 1 15
30 0 8660 5000 7321 598 1 330 1 5000 60 0
De p . L at . De p . L at . De p . De p . L at .
Di t s . 1 Di t s . 2 Di t s . 5
TR AV E R S E T ABL E 217
Di t s . 7 D ist . 9
Lat . De p . L at . De p . L at . De p .
1 8 4 12
7454 8 707 70 90 1379 6727 40 51
737 2 90 0 1 6 99 6 1 71 5 6 621 44 30
7288 9 295 6 90 1 2051 6514 48 07
7203 958 8 6 804 2386 64 0 4 5 1 85
71 17 9881 6706 27 21 6 29 4 5561
7030 660 6 3056 61 8 1 5938
694 1 04 66 6504 339 0 60 67 63 1 3
6 851 0 758 6402 3723 5952 66 89
6760 1 04 9 6297 40 5 6 5835 7064
6 668 6 1 92 4 3 89 571 6 7438
65 74 1 631 6085 4 72 1 5595 7812
64 79 1 92 1 5976 5053 54 73 8 1 85
63 83 221 1 5866 53 84 534 9 8557
6285 2501 5754 571 5 5224 8930
6 1 86 27 90 564 1 604 5 5097 9301
60 86 30 78 5527 63 75 4 9 68 9 672
59 85 3366 54 1 1 6705 4 838 004 3
588 2 3654 5294 70 33 4 706 041 3
5778 394 1 51 75 7362 4 562 0782
5673 . 4228 5055 7 689 44 37 1 1 51
5565 45 1 5 4 93 4 8 01 7 4 300 1 51 9
54 59 4800 48 1 1 8343 4 1 62 1886
53 51 50 86 468 6 8669 4 022 2253
5241 53 7 1 4 5 61 8 99 5 3 881 261 9
5 129 5655 44 33 9 320 3738 2 9 85
501 7 5939 4 305 9 645 35 93 3350
4 903 6222 4 1 76 99 69 34 47 37 1 5
4 78 8 6505 4043 02 9 2 329 9 40 78
46 72 678 8 39 1 0 061 5 3 1 49 44 42
4 554 7070 3776 09 37 2998 4804
44 35 7351 3640 1 25 8 2845 51 6 6
4 31 5 7632 3503 1 580 269 1 5527
419 4 79 1 2 3365 1 900 2535 5887
4072 8 1 92 3225 2220 2375 6 24 7
394 8 8 472 308 4 2539 2 21 9 6606
3 823 8 750 2941 2858 2059 69 65
3 697 90 29 27 9 7 31 75 1 8 97 7 322
3570 9 306 265 1 34 93 1 733 7 6 79
34 4 2 9 583 2505 380 9 1 5 68 8 036
331 2 9 800 2356 4125 1401 . 8 39 1
31 8 1 2207 444 1 1 233 8 74 6
3049 04 1 1 2056 4 756 1 063 9 1 00
29 1 6 0 68 6 1 904 50 70 0891 9 453
278 1 0960 1 750 5383 0719 9 806
2645 1 234 1 595 569 6 0644 . 0 1 58
250 9 1 507 1 438 6 00 8 03 68 050 9
23 70 1 779 1 28 1 63 1 9 0191 0 859
2231 205 1 1 1 21 6 630 00 1 2 1 20 9
209 1 2 322 09 61 6 940 729 831 1 557
7249 . 1 905
1 866 28 63 0636 755 8 9 465 2252
1 662 3 1 32 64 71 7866 9280 2599
1 5 17 340 1 0305 81 73 909 4 294 4
1 37 1 366 9 0 1 38 84 7 9 8905 3289
1 223 39 37 fi 99 70 87 85 8716 3683
1 075 4203 9 800 90 90 8525 397 6
09 25 44 70 9 628 9394 8332 43 1 8
0774 4 735 94 56 9697 8 14 8 465 9
0 622 5000 9282 794 2 5000
De p . L at . De p . L at . De p . L at .
Di t s . 7 Di t s . 8 Di t s . 9
Cours e
2 18 TR AVE R S E T ABL E
I fist 2 Di t s 3 Di t s 4 Di t s 5
Cours e
. . . .
L at . De p . L at . De p . L at . De p . L at . De p .
59 45
7223 0 1 51 5849 522 6 44 65 0302 3081 537 30
7 1 88 0226 5782 5339 4 376 04 52 2970 55 65 15
7 142 0301 5 71 5 5451 4 287 0602 2 858 5 752 59 0
709 8 0375 564 7 5563 4 1 96 0 75 1 2 746 5 939 45
7053 0450 5579 5 675 4106 0900 2632 6 1 25 30
7007 0524 551 1 5786 4014 1 049 25 1 8 631 1 15
6 9 61 059 8 544 1 589 8 39 22 1 1 97 2 402 649 6 58 0
691 5 0672 5372 6008 3 8 29 1 345 2 286 6681 45
6868 0 74 6 5302 61 1 9 3736 1 4 92 2 1 70 6 865 30
6821 0819 5231 6229 364 2 1 639 2052 7049 15
6 773 0893 5 1 60 6339 35 4 7 1 786 1 934 7232 57 0
6726 0 9 66 50 8 0 6449 3451 1 932 1 8 14 741 5 45
6 678 1 039 50 1 7 6558 3355 2077 1 69 4 7597 30
6629 1 111 4 944 6 667 3259 2223 1 573 7779 15
65 8 1 1 184 4 871 6 776 3 1 62 23 68 1 452 79 60 56 0
653 2 1 25 6 4 798 6884 30 64 25 1 2 1 329 3 1 40 45
64 83 1 328 4 724 69 92 29 65 2656 1 206 8 323 30
64 33 1 400 4 64 9 7 1 00 28 66 2800 1082 850 0 15
63 83 1 4 72 4 575 7207 2 766 2 9 43 0 958 8679 55 0
6333 1 54 3 4499 73 1 4 2 6 66 3086 8857 45
6 2 82 1 6 14 44 23 7421 25 65 3228 0706 9 035 30
6231 1 685 4 34 7 7527 24 63 3370 0579 921 2 15
6 180 1 756 4 271 7634 23 61 351 1 04 51 9 389 54 O
6 1 29 1 8 26 41 9 3 7739 2258 3652 0 322 9 565 45
6077 1 89 6 4116 784 5 2 1 54 3793 0 1 93 97 41 30
6025 1 966 4038 7950 2050 3933 0063 9 91 6 15
59 73 2036 3959 8 054 1 94 5 4073 3 9932 . 009 1 53 0
5920 21 06 3880 8 1 59 1 840 4 21 2 9 80 0 0365 45
5867 2 1 75 3801 8263 1 734 4 350 9668 0438 30
581 4 2244 3721 8367 1 628 44 89 0611 15
5760 23 1 3 3 640 8 4 70 1520 4 626 9 40 0 0783 52 0
5 70 6 24 82 3 560 8 573 1 413 4 764 9 266 0 955 45
5652 2 450 3478 8675 1 304 4 901 9 1 30 1 1 26 30
5 59 8 251 8 339 7 8 778 1 1 95 5037 8994 1 29 6 15
5 54 3 258 6 33 14 8 8 80 1 086 51 73 8 857 1 466 51 0
5488 2654 3 23 2 898 1 0976 530 8 8 720 1 635 45
5432 2722 3 1 49 9082 0865 5443 8 581 1 80 4 30
5377 2789 3065 9 1 83 0754 5578 8442 1 972 15
'
532 1 2856 298 1 9 2 84 064 2 551 2 8 30 2 2139 50 0

5265 29 22 2897 9384 0529 5845 8 1 62 2306 45
5208 29 89 28 1 2 9 4 63 04 1 6 5978 8 020 2472 30
5 1 51 30 55 2 727 9583 0303 6 1 10 7878 2 638 15
5094 3121 2 641 9 682 0 1 88 6242 7735 2 803 4 9 0
5037 31 87 25 55 0074 6374 7592 29 67 45
'
9 780
4 979 3252 2469 9 879 9 958 65 05 744 8 3131 30
4 9 21 3 31 8 23 82 99 76 9 842 6 635 7303 3294 15
4 863 3 383 229 4 0074 9 726 6 765 7 157 3 457 48 0
4 8 04 34 47 2207 01 7 1 9 60 9 6895 70 11 3 61 8 45
474 6 35 12 21 1 8 0268 9 49 1 7024 68 64 3 78 0 30
4686 3576 2030 0364 9373 7 1 52 67 1 6 3940 15
4 627 3640 1 941 04 6 0 9 254 7280 6568 4 100 47 0
4 567 3704 1 851 0555 9 135 74 07 64 1 9 4 259 45
4 507 3767 1 76 1 0 65 1 9015 7534 6 26 8 44 18 30
4 44 7 3830 1 671 0745 8895 76 61 6 1 18 4576 15
4 38 7 38 93 1 580 0 84 0 8 774 7786 59 67 4 733 4 6 0
4 32 6 3956 1 4 89 0934 8 652 79 1 2 581 5 4 890 45
4 265 40 1 8 1 3 98 1 027 853 0 8 036 5663 5045 30
420 4 4080 1 306 1 1 20 840 7 8 1 61 5509 520 1 15
41 42 4 1 42 1213 8 284 8284 535 5 5355 4 5 0
2 1 21 3
De p L at . De p . L at .
Di t s . 4 Di t s . 5
TR A VE R S E T ABL E 2 19
Di t s . 6 Di t s . 7 Di t s . 8 Di t s . 9 Di t s . 10
6ours e
L at . De p . L at . De p . L at . De p . Lat . De p . L at . De p .
— n
O I O I
30 1 5 4 5340 59 45
30 1 69 8 0452 031 4 55 28 8 930 0 603 754 7 5678 61 63 0754 30
45 1564 0 678 0 1 58 579 1 8753 0 903 7347 60 1 6 594 1 1 1 29 15
31 0 1 430 090 2 0002 60 53 85 73 1 203 7 145 6353 5 71 7 1 504 59 0
15 1 29 5 1 12 6 6314 8393 1502 6942 6690 549 1 1 877 45
30 1 1 58 1 350 9 685 6575 821 1 1 80 0 6 738 7025 5264 2250 30
45 1 02 1 1 573 9525 6835 8028 209 7 653 2 7359 5035 2621 15
32 0 0 883 1 795 9 363 7094 7844 2394 63 24 7 69 3 4 805 2992 58 0
15 0 744 2017 9 201 7353 7658 2689 61 1 6 8025 45 73 3361 45
30 0603 2238 9037 7 61 1 74 71 2984 5905 8 357 4339 3730 30
45 . 0462 2458 7868 7283 3278 5694 8 688 41 04 4097 15
33 0 0320 2678 8707 8 1 25 7094 71 54 80 90 1 8 38 67 44 64 57 0
15 0 1 77 28 98 8540 838 1 690 3 3863 5266 9 346 3629 48 29 45
30 00 33 31 1 6 8372 8 636 671 1 4 1 55 50 50 9674 3389 5 194 30
45. . 98 88 3334 8203 88 90 65 1 8 4446 4 832 000 1 3147 5557 15
34 0 9742 3552 8033 9 144 6323 4 735 4 61 3 0327 2904 59 1 9 56 0
15 9595 3768 7861 9 39 6 61 27 5024 4 393 0652 2659 6280 45
30 944 8 3984 7 6 89 9 64 8 59 30 53 1 2 4 1 71 0977 241 3 6641 30
45 9 29 9 4 200 7515 9900 5732 5600 3 94 8 1 300 2 1 65 7000 15
35 0 9 149 44 1 5 734 1 0 150 5 532 5 886 3724 1 622 1 91 5 7358 55 0
15 . 8998 4 629 71 65 04 00 533 1 61 72 3498 194 3 1 664 45
30 8 847 4 842 69 8 8 064 9 5129 64 56 3270 2263 1 412 8070 30
45 8694 5055 681 0 0897 4 926 6 740 304 2 2582 1 1 57 8425 15
36 0 8541 5267 6631 1 14 5 4721 7023 2 81 2 2901 0902 8 779 54 0
15 8387 54 79 6451 1392 4516 7305 258 0 321 8 0644 9 1 31 45
30 8 231 5689 6270 1 638 4 30 9 7586 2 34 7 3534 0386 94 82 30
45 8 075 589 9 60 88 1 88 3 4 100 7 8 66 21 1 3 3849 01 25 9832 15
37 0 79 1 8 61 09 5 904 21 27 389 1 8 145 1 87 7 419 3 9 864 53 0
15 7760 631 8 5720 237 1 3680 8424 1 640 44 76 9 600 0529 45
30 7 60 1 65 26 5535 2 61 3 34 68 8 701 1 402 4789 9 335 0876 30
45 744 1 6733 5348 2 855 3255 89 77 7 1 1 62 51 00 90 69 15
38 0 7 2 81 6940 5 1 61 309 6 30 4 1 9253 092 1 54 1 0 8801 1 566 52 0
15 71 1 9 71 4 6 4 9 72 333 7 2 829 9 528 0 679 5 71 8 853 2 1 90 9 45
30 6956 735 1 4 783 3576 2 609 9 801 04 35 6026 8 261 2251 30
45 6793 755 5 4 592 38 1 5 239 1 0074 0 1 90 6333 7988 25 92 15
39 0 6629 775 9 44 00 4052 21 72 0 34 6 6 99 43 6 639 77 1 5 29 32 51 0
15 64 64 79 62 4 207 4 2 89 1 951 0 61 6 9 695 6943 7439 3271 45
30 629 7 8 1 65 40 1 4 45 25 1 730 08 8 6 944 6 7247 71 62 3 60 8 30
45 61 31 83 66 381 9 76 1 1 507 1 1 55 9 1 96 755 0 68 84 3944 15
40 0 59 63 85 67 3623 4 99 5 1 284 1 423 8 944 7851 6 604 4279 50 0
‘
15 5794 8767 3426 5229 1 059 1 690 6 8691 6323 6 461 2 45

30 5624 8 967 3228 54 6 1 0832 1 95 6 8 437 8450 604 1 4 94 5 30
45 54 54 9 1 66 3030 569 3 0 60 5 2221 8 1 81 8748 5756 5276 15
41 0 5 283 9364 2 830 5 9 24 0377 24 85 7924 9045 54 71 560 6 49 0
15 51 1 0 95 61 2629 6 1 54 0 1 47 2748 7666 934 1 5 1 84 5935 45
30 4 937 9 757 2 4 27 63 83 99 1 6 301 0 740 6 9 638 4 89 6 6282 30
45 4 763 99 53 2 22 4 661 2 9 685 327 1 7 145 99 29 4 60 6 6588 15
42 0 4 58 9 0 1 48 2020 6 839 94 52 3530 6883 4 314 69 1 3 48 0
15 44 1 3 0342 1 8 15 7066 92 1 7 3789 6 620 051 3 40 22 723 7 45
30 42 37 0535 1 609 729 1 8982 404 7 6 355 0803 3728 7559 30
45 4 059 0728 751 6 874 6 4 304 6089 3432 15
43 0 38 81 0920 1 1 95 7740 8508 4 560 5822 1 380 31 35 8 200 47 0
15 3702 1111 09 8 6 79 63 8 270 4815 5553 1 666 2837 85 1 8 45
30 35 22 1 30 1 0 776 81 85 8030 5068 5284 1 952 2537 8 835 30
45 334 2 1 49 1 0565 84 06 77 89 5321 50 1 3 2 23 6 223 6 9151 15
44 0 3 1 60 1 68 0 0354 8 626 754 7 5573 4 741 251 9 19 34 94 66 4 6 0
15 29 78 1 8 67 014 1 8845 7304 5 823 44 67 2 801 1 630 9779 45
30 27 95 2055 4 9928 5 90 64 7060 60 73 4 1 93 30 8 2 1 325 30
45 2 61 1 224 1 97 1 3 9 28 1 681 5 63 21 39 1 7 33 61 101 9 040 1 15
45 0 2 42 6 24 26 94 77 94 97 6569 65 69 3640 3 640 0 71 1 07 1 1 45 0
De p . L at . De p . L at . De p . L at , Dep . L at .
Di t s . 6 Di t s . 9 Di t s . 10
Course
LO G A R I T H MS OF NU MBE R S
00 4 3 008 6 0 1 28 0 1 70 0212 0 2 53
0414 0 4 53 0 492 0 53 1 0 569 0 60 7 0645
0 79 2 0828 0 8 64 089 9 0 934 0969 1 00 4
1 1 39 1 1 73 1 206 1 239 1 271 1 303 1 33 5
1461 1 492 1 52 3 1 55 3 1 58 4 1614 1 6 44
3 9 79 39 9 7 40 1 4 40 3 1 40 4 8 40 6 5 40 8 2 40 9 9 4 1 16 4 1 33
4 1 66 4 18 3 4 200 42 16 4 2 32 4249 4 26 5 4 28 1 4 29 8
4314 4 3 30 4 346 436 2 4 3 78 4393 4 409 4 4 25 4 4 40 4 4 56
4 4 72 4487 4 50 2 4 51 8 4 533 4 548 4 5 64 4 5 79 4 59 4 4 60 9
4 62 4 4 6 39 4 6 54 4 66 9 4 683 46 98 4713 4 72 8 4 74 2 4 75 7
69 90 70 1 6 70 2 4 70 6 7
7 0 76 7101 71 10 7 1 52
7 1 60 7185 71 93 7235
72 43 726 7 7 2 75 73 1 6
73 2 4 73 4 8 73 56 73 9 6
TA B LE S R E L A T E NG TO P AR T S I UWD
J II 22 1
L OGA R I TH MS OF NU MB ERS
55 74 74
56 75 5 1
57 76 2 7
58 7 70 1
59 7 774
60 78 4 6
61 79 1 7
62 79 8 7
63 8 0 55
64 8 1 22
8 79 1
9 7 77 9 78 2 9 78 6 9 79 1 9 79 5 9 8 00 9 805 9809 98 14 98 1 8
96 9 8 23 9 8 27 9832 9 8 36 98 4 1 9845 9 8 50 9 8 54 9 8 59 9 863
97 9 8 68 9 8 72 98 77 9 88 1 9886 9 8 90 98 94 9899 9 903
98 99 12 9 9 17 9921 9 9 26 9 9 30 9 934 9 9 39 9 9 43 9948 9 9 52
99 9 9 56 9961 99 65 9969 9 9 74 9 9 78 9 983 998 7 999 1 9 996
5 6
22 2 A M AN UAL FO R N OR TH E R N W O O D S M E N
LO G A R I TH MI C S INE S C OS I NE S , ,
A n gle S in . D . 1 ’
Cos . D . 1
’
T an . D . 1 ’
C ot .
° ’
90 0
C os . D . 1 ’
S in . D . 1 ’
C ot . D
. 1 '
T an . A n gle
T ABL E S RE LA T IN G TO PAR T S I AND 11 2 23
TANGE NTS , A ND C O T A NG E NT S
An gle Sin . D 1.
’
Cos . D . 1 ’
T an . D . 1 ’
C ot .
Cos . D 1.
’
S in . D . 1 ’
C ot . D . 1 ’
Tan . A n gle
224 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D SM EN
LOGAR I THM IC S INE S C OS INE S , ,
An gl e -
Sin . D . 1 ’
C os . D . 1 ’
D . 1 ’
Cot .
Co s . D 1 .
’
S in . D . 1 ’
C ot . D 1 .
’
An gle
TA B L E S R E LA TIN G T O A
P RTS I A ND 11 225
TANGE NTS AND C O TANGEN TS

,
2 26 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D SM E N
LOG AR I TH MI C S INE S C OS INE S

, ,
T ABL E S RE LAT ING TO PAR T S I A ND II 2 27
TANGE NTS , A ND C O TANGENTS
An gle Sin . D . 1 ’
D . 1 '
C ot .
Cos . D . 1 ’
S in . D . 1
’
Cot . D . 1
'
T an . A n gle
2 28 A M AN UAL FO R .
NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
TA B L E S R E LA TING TO PAR T S I A ND II 22 9
2 30 A MAN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D S ME N
NATURAL S INE S A ND C O S I NE S
A . Sin . Co s .
C os . S in . A . S in . A .
T ABLE S RE LAT IN G TO PA R T S I A ND II 23 1
NATUR A L S INE S A ND C O SINE S — co n tin u ed
A . Sin . Cos . A . Sin . Cos . A . S in . C os .
Cos . Sin . A . Cos . S in . Cos . Sin . A .

NAT UR AL TANG E NTS A ND C O TA NGE NTS
Tan . C ot . A . Tan .
° ’ "
. 0 00 00 0 00 90 30 . 1317 30
’ '
50
' 40 1 34 6 20
00 29 0 9 ’
.
'
50 1 376 10
.
'
. 00 5 8 1 8 40 .
’ 0 °
. 00 8 7 2 7 30 8 . 1405 82
'
. 0 1 1 636 20 0
’
1 43 5 50
!
'
.
. 0 1 4545 10 20
'
. 1 46 5 40
'
° ' '
. 0 1 7 4 55 89 30 . 1 49 5 30
' '
' 40 1 52 4 20
0 20 36 50 /
.
'
50 1 55 4 10
.
'
. 0 23 28 40 .
0 °
. 026 19 30
'
9 . 1 58 4 81
'
029 10 20 10
’
16 1 4
’
.
'
. 50
. 0 320 1 10 20
’
. 1644 40
’
° ’ ’
. 0349 2 88 30 . 1 6 73 30
’ '
' 40 1 703 20
0 3 78 3 50 !
.
’
50 10
.
' 1 7 33
. 0 40 7 5 40 .
' ° °
. 0 4 36 6 2 2 90 38 30 10 . 1 76 3 80
'
. 0 46 58 20 10 ’
1 79 3 50
’
' .
0 49 49 10 ’ '
.
20 . 1 8 23 40
° ’
. 0 524 1 87 30 . 1 8 53 30
’
’ ’
. 0 5533 50
' 40 . 1883 20
! '
. 0 5824 40
' 50 . 1914 10
' ° °
. 061 16 30 11 . 1 9 44 79
'
. 0 640 8 20 10
’
19 74 50
’
' .
. 0 6 700 10 20
’
. 2 00 4 40
’
° '
. 0 69 93 86 30 . 20 3 5 30
’
’ '
. 0 72 8 5 50
' 40 . 20 6 5 20
’ ’
. 0 75 7 8 40
' 50 . 20 9 5 10
' ° °
. 0 78 70 30 12 . 2 1 26 78
'
0 8 16 3 20 10
' ,
2 1 56 50
.
0 8 4 56 ' .
10 20
' ’
2186 40
.
° '
. 0 8 74 9 85 30 . 221 7 30
'
' ’
0 90 4 2 ' 40 2 24 7 20
.
50 '
.
’
. 0 9 33 5 40
' 50 . 2 2 78 10
° °
. 0 9 6 29 1 0 3 8 5 4 30
'
13 . 2 30 9 77
0 9 9 23 1 0 0 78 0 20
'
10
' '
2 339 50
.
1 02 1 6 ' .
. 10 20
'
. 23 70 40
,
° '
. 105 10 9 5144 84 30 . 2 40 1 30
'
' '
10 80 5 ' 40 2 4 32 20
.
50 '
.
'
. 1 10 9 9 40
' 50 . 2 462 10
°
. 1 139 4 30
'
14 . 2493 76
°
1 1 6 88 20
'
' '
10 2524 50
.
1 19 83 ' .
10 '
2 5 55 '
20 40
.
. .
. 1 2 2 78 .
83
°
30
'
. 2 58 6 30
'
' '
. 1 2 5 74 50
' 40 . 26 1 7 20
' '
. 1 28 69 40
' 50 . 26 48 10
° °
. 1 3 165 30
'
15 . 2 6 79 75
C ot . Tan . A . C ot . Tan . A .
T ABL E S RE LA T I NG TO PA R T S 1 A ND II 2 33
NATU R AL TANGE NTS A ND C O TANGE NTS

2 34 M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D S ME N
S E C T IO N II
TAB LE S RELATING T O PARTS III AND IV

VO LUM E S O F C YLI ND ERS ( LO GS ) IN C UBI C FE ET
A R E AS O F C I R CL ES O R B AS A L AR E AS
C O R D W OO D R UL E
NEW HAM PS HI R E R ULE
NE W Y O R K STANDAR D R ULE
S CRIB NER LO G R UL E LE G AL I N M INNE S O TA
,
D E CIM AL R ULE O F THE U S FO R E S T SE R V I C E

. .
D O YLE R ULE
M AI NE L O G R ULE
QUE B E C R ULE
NE W B R UNS WI C K R ULE
C LAR K S I NTE R NATI O NAL R ULE
’
SPAUL DING R ULE O F C O LUM B I A R I VE R

B RI TI S H C O LUM B IA R ULE
VO LUM E TABLE S
A E as t ern
.
1 W hit e Pine by th e Scribner R ul e

. 26 1
2 3 , R e d ( No rwa y ) Pin e b y t he Sc r ib ner R ul e
. 262
4 W hit e Pi ne as sawe d in Ma ssac h u s e tts
. 2 63
5 W hit e Pi ne in C o rd s
. 2 64
6 Sp ru c e in C u b ic Fee t
. 264
7 Sp ru c e In Fee t B o ard M eas u re
, . 265
8 Sp ru c e I n C o rds 266
9 Heml o c k by t he Scribn er R u l e
. 26 7
10 Heml oc k a s s aw e d In Ne w Hamp shir e
. 2 68
11 W hit e ( p aper) B irch in C o rd s
. 2 68
12 R ed O a k as s aw e d in Ne w Hamp shir e
. 2 69
13 Peel e d Po plar I n C o rd s
. 27 O
14 S ec o nd Gro wt h Ha rd W o o d s In C o rd s
. . 27 O
15 Fo rm He ight Fa c t o rs fo r S o u thern Ha rd W o o d s
. 27 1
16 17
, No rthern Ha rd W o o ds In B o ard M ea s ur e 272 , 273
18 Lo ngl ea f Pi n e in B o a rd M ea sur e
. 2 74
19 Lo bl o lly Pine by t he Sc ribner R ul e
. 275
B W est ern ; Not es on W es tern Vol u me Ta bl es
. 276
20 W es t e rn W hit e Pi n e I n B o a rd Fee t
. 28 1
21 W e st ern Y ello w Pi n e In B o a rd Fee t
. . 28 2
22 W e st ern Y ell o w Pi ne ( 1 6 foo t l o g l engt hs)
. 28 3
23 Lo dgep o l e Pi n e i n Fee t B o ard M ea s ur e a nd
.
, ,
in R ailro a d T i es
24 W e st ern Larc h in B o a rd M ea su re
.
25 E ngel ma n n Sp ru c e in B o ard M ea s ur e
.
26 D o ug la s Fir o f t he C o a st
.
27 D o u gla s Fir o f t he I nt erio r

.
28 W a shingt o n He ml o ck in B o a rd M ea su re
.
‘
29 W a shi ngt o n R e d C e dar in B o ard M ea su re
.
30 C alifo rnia Sugar Pine in B o ard M easur e

.
e
a
N m mo mmfi N w m fi o fl N wm
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2 38 M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D S M EN
AR E A OF CIR CLE S OR BASAL AR E AS

( Giv es l
a so C o nt e n t s o f Cy l in d e rs o n e f o o t l o ng )
ABL E S LAT I NG PAR T S III AN D 23 9
'
T RE To IV
24 0 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D S ME N
T ABL E S RE LA T IN G To PAR T S III A ND IV 24 1
—
h —
r H -d r lv
-l t — —H —
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v —
IH V fi r-U —
h -d r-i H V —h -i v-i
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l v- d v— d v-{ v l — —H—H—H—H—
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v h- i i—
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H—l - v v d r- IH v -l
lv H —-h —
— —H —‘ — —
v v iv
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h -d — l - lv l lv ir r -t
M — ——H——H— — —H— —
ifl r Iv h h i r l v i
l —I —
‘ H—h—
l h—
i fl i v —H —
Q
1 —
1 —4 — -1 —
7 1 7 1 9 7
24 2 MANUAL F OR NO R TH E R N W O O DS M E N
NE W Y O R K S TANDAR D D IM IC K , , OR
G LE NN S FALLS R ULE’
D AM E
I TE R IN INCH ES
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
. 38 . 41 . 45 . 49
. 47 . 52 . 57 . 62
56 . 62 . 68 . 74
66 . 72 . 79 . 86
. 75 . 82 . 90 98
. 84 . 93
94
03
. 13
. 22
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
. 77 . 82 . 87 . 93 . 98
. 96
T AB L E S RE LA T ING TO PAR T S III A ND I V 24 3
u m m ma w «
mm o w w w a
v mo o n w m
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25 0. A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
P R O VI NCE O F QUE B E C
Ta b le of C f S w L g
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D AMI E TE R IN I NCH ES
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1 1 1 6 22 31 40 46 55 69 82 9 2 1 1 0 1 28 1 47
1 2 1 8 24 34 44 50 60 75 9 0 1 00 1 2 0 1 4 0 1 6 0
1 3 19 26 37 48 54 65 81 9 7 1 0 8 1 30 1 5 2 1 73
1 4 2 1 28 40 51 58 70 8 7 1 05 1 1 7 1 4 0 1 6 3 1 8 7
1 5 2 2 30 42 55 62 75 9 4 1 1 2 1 2 5 1 5 0 1 75 2 00
1 6 24 32 45 59 67 8 0 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 33 1 6 0 1 8 7 2 1 3
1 7 25 3 4 48 62 71 8 5 1 06 1 2 7 1 4 2 1 7 0 1 9 8 2 2 7
1 8 27 36 51 66 75 9 0 1 1 2 1 35 1 50 1 8 0 2 1 0 240
1 9 2 8 38 54 70 79 9 5 1 1 9 1 4 2 1 5 8 1 9 0 22 2 2 5 3
2 0 30 4 0 57 73 8 3 1 00 1 2 5 1 5 0 1 67 2 0 0 2 33 2 67
21 31 4 2 59 77 8 7 1 05 1 3 1 1 5 7 1 75 2 1 0 2 4 5 2 8 0
2 2 33 4 4 62 81 9 2 1 1 0 1 37 1 65 1 8 3 2 2 0 2 5 7 2 9 3
23 34 46 65 84 9 6 1 1 5 1 4 4 1 7 2 1 9 2 2 3 0 2 68 3 0 7
2 4 36 4 8 68 8 8 1 0 0 1 2 0 1 50 1 8 0 2 00 2 4 0 2 80 3 2 0
2 5 37 5 0 71 9 2 1 0 4 1 2 5 1 5 6 1 8 7 2 0 8 2 5 0 2 9 2 33 3
2 6 39 5 2 74 9 5 1 0 8 1 3 0 1 6 2 1 9 5 2 1 7 2 6 0 30 3 34 7
27 40 54 76 9 9 1 1 2 1 3 5 1 69 2 0 2 22 5 2 7 0 3 1 5 3 60
28 4 2 5 6 7 9 1 0 3 1 1 7 1 4 0 1 75 2 1 0 2 33 2 8 0 3 2 7 373 4 3 2
29 43 58 8 2 1 0 6 1 2 1 1 4 5 1 8 1 2 1 7 24 2 2 9 0 3 38 38 7 4 4 7 5 0 7
30 45 60 8 5 1 1 0 1 2 5 1 5 0 1 8 7 22 5 2 50 3 0 0 350 4 00 4 6 2 5 2 5
31 4 6 6 2 8 8 1 1 4 1 2 9 1 5 5 1 9 4 2 3 2 2 5 8 3 1 0 3 6 2 4 1 3 4 78 5 4 2
32 4 8 6 4 9 1 1 1 7 1 33 1 6 0 2 0 0 2 4 0 2 6 7 32 0 3 73 4 2 7 4 9 3 5 6 0
33 4 9 6 6 9 3 1 2 1 1 3 7 1 6 5 2 0 6 2 4 7 2 75 3 3 0 3 8 5 4 4 0 50 9 5 77
3 4 5 1 68 9 6 1 2 5 1 4 2 1 7 0 2 1 2 22 5 2 8 3 3 4 0 3 9 7 4 53 5 2 4 5 9 5
35 5 2 7 0 9 9 1 2 8 1 4 6 1 75 2 1 9 2 6 2 2 9 2 350 4 08 4 6 7 5 4 0 6 1 2
3 6 5 4 72 1 0 2 1 3 2 1 5 0 1 8 0 22 5 2 7 0 3 00 3 6 0 4 2 0 4 8 0 5 55 6 3 0
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4 0 6 0 8 0 1 1 4 1 4 7 1 6 7 2 0 0 2 50 3 00 3 33 4 0 0 4 67 533 6 1 7 700
T ABL E S RE LA T ING To PAR T S III A ND IV 25 1
P R O VINCE O F QUE B E C
Ta b le of C ont ents of S w L ga B m n d D im
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312 348 367 39 9 431 4 63 495 5 22 1 1

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39 7 4 43 467 50 7 548 58 9 630 6 65 1 4
4 25 4 75 500 544 587 6 31 6 75 712 15
4 53 5 07 5 33 58 0 627 6 73 72 0 76 0 1 6
482 5 38 567 616 6 66 71 5 76 5 8 07 17
51 0 5 70 6 00 652 7 05 75 7 810 8 55 1 8
5 38 6 02 6 33 689 74 4 8 00 8 55 9 02 1 9
567 6 33 6 67 72 5 78 3 8 42 9 00 9 50 2 0
59 5 6 65 7 00 76 1 822 884 9 45 9 97 21
6 23 69 7 73 3 79 7 862 9 26 9 9 0 1 0 4 5 22
652 7 28 7 67 8 34 9 01 9 6 8 1 0 3 5 1 09 2 2 3
680 76 0 8 00 8 70 9 4 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 8 0 1 1 4 0 24
708 79 2 8 33 9 06 9 79 1 0 5 2 1 1 2 5 1 1 8 7 2 5
737 8 23 867 9 4 2 1 0 1 8 1 09 4 1 1 7 0 1 2 3 5 2 6
76 5 8 55 9 00 9 79 1 05 7 1 1 3 6 1 2 1 5 1 2 8 2 2 7
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8 22 918 9 6 7 1 05 1 1 1 36 1 2 2 0 1 3 0 5 1 3 7 7 29
8 50 9 5 0 1 0 00 1 0 8 7 1 1 75 1 2 6 2 1 3 50 1 4 2 5 30
8 78 9 8 2 1 0 3 3 1 1 2 4 1 2 1 4 1 3 05 1 3 9 5 1 4 7 2 3 1
9 0 7 1 0 1 3 1 0 6 7 1 1 6 0 1 2 5 3 1 3 4 7 1 4 4 0 1 5 2 0 32
9 3 5 1 0 4 5 1 1 0 0 1 1 9 6 1 2 9 2 1 38 9 1 4 8 5 1 5 67 33
9 6 3 1 0 77 1 1 33 1 2 3 2 1 3 3 2 1 4 3 1 1 5 3 0 1 6 1 5 3 4
9 9 2 1 1 0 8 1 1 6 7 1 2 6 9 1 3 7 1 1 4 73 1 5 75 1 66 2 3 5
1 0 2 0 1 1 4 0 1 2 0 0 1 305 1 4 1 0 1 5 1 5 1 6 2 0 1 7 1 0 36
1 0 4 8 1 1 7 2 1 2 33 1 3 4 1 1 4 4 9 1 5 5 7 1 6 6 5 1 7 5 7 37
1 0 7 7 1 2 0 3 1 2 6 7 1 3 7 7 1 4 8 8 1 5 9 9 1 7 1 0 1 8 05 3 8
1 1 0 5 1 2 3 5 1 30 0 1 4 1 4 1 5 2 7 1 6 4 1 1 755 1 8 5 2 3 9
1 1 3 3 1 2 67 1 3 3 3 1 4 50 1 5 67 1 68 3 1 8 0 0 1 9 00 4 0
25 2 A MANUAL FO R NO R THE R N WO O D S M E N
P R O VI NCE O F QUE B E C
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11 5 77 59 6 623 651 6 78 715 76 1 8 07 8 34 8 71 9 17

12 6 30 6 50 680 71 0 74 0 78 0 8 30 880 9 10 9 50 1 000
13 68 2 70 4 7 37 76 9 8 02 8 45 899 9 53 9 8 6 1 02 9 1 0 8 3
14 7 35 75 8 79 3 8 28 8 63 910 9 68 1 0 2 7 1 0 6 2 1 1 08 1 1 77
15 78 7 8 12 8 50 887 9 25 9 75 1 0 3 7 1 1 0 0 1 1 3 7 1 1 8 7 1 2 5 0
16 8 40 867 9 07 9 47 9 8 7 1 0 4 0 1 1 07 1 1 7 3 1 2 1 3 1 2 6 7 1 3 3 3
17 892 921 9 6 3 1 0 0 6 1 0 4 8 1 1 0 5 1 1 76 1 2 4 7 1 2 8 9 1 3 4 6 1 4 1 7
18 9 45 9 75 1 0 2 0 1 0 6 5 1 1 1 0 1 1 7 0 1 2 4 5 1 3 2 0 1 3 6 5 1 4 2 5 1 5 0 0
19 9 9 7 1 0 2 9 1 0 7 7 1 1 2 4 1 1 7 2 1 2 35 1 3 1 4 1 3 9 3 1 4 4 1 1 5 0 4 1 5 8 3
2 0 1 05 0 1 0 8 3 1 1 33 1 1 8 3 1 2 3 3 1 3 0 0 1 3 8 3 1 4 6 7 1 5 1 7 1 58 3 1 6 6 7
2 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 3 7 1 1 9 0 1 2 4 2 1 2 9 5 1 3 6 5 1 4 5 2 1 5 4 0 1 5 9 2 1 6 6 2 1 7 50
2 2 1 1 5 5 1 1 9 2 1 2 4 7 1 3 0 2 1 3 5 7 1 4 3 0 1 5 2 2 1 6 1 3 1 6 6 8 1 74 2 1 8 3 3
2 3 1 2 0 7 1 2 4 6 1 303 1 36 1 1 4 1 8 1 4 9 5 1 59 1 1 6 8 7 1 74 4 1 8 2 1 1 9 1 7
24 1 2 6 0 1 300 1 3 6 0 1 4 20 1 4 8 0 1 5 5 0 1 6 6 0 1 76 0 1 8 2 0 1 9 0 0 2 00 0
25 1 3 1 2 1 3 5 4 1 4 1 7 1 4 7 9 1 5 4 2 1 6 2 5 1 7 2 8 1 8 3 3 1 8 9 6 1 9 7 9 2 0 8 3
2 6 1 3 6 5 1 4 0 8 1 4 7 3 1 5 38 1 6 0 3 1 6 9 0 1 7 9 6 1 9 0 7 1 9 7 2 2 05 8 2 1 6 7
2 7 1 4 1 7 1 4 6 2 1 5 3 0 1 5 9 7 1 6 6 5 1 7 5 5 1 8 6 7 1 9 8 0 2 0 4 7 2 1 3 7 2 2 50
2 8 1 4 7 0 1 5 1 7 1 5 8 7 1 65 7 1 7 2 7 1 8 2 0 1 9 3 7 2 05 3 2 1 2 3 2 2 1 7 2 3 33
29 1 5 2 2 1 5 7 1 1 6 4 3 1 7 1 6 1 78 8 1 8 8 5 2 0 0 6 2 1 2 7 2 1 9 9 2 2 9 6 2 4 1 7
3 0 1 5 7 5 1 6 2 5 1 70 0 1 7 7 5 1 8 5 0 1 9 5 0 2 0 7 5 2 2 0 0 2 2 75 2 37 5 2 5 0 0
3 1 1 6 2 7 1 6 7 9 1 7 5 7 1 8 3 4 1 9 1 2 2 0 1 5 2 1 4 4 2 2 7 3 2 3 5 1 2 4 5 4 2 58 3
3 2 1 6 8 0 1 7 3 3 1 8 1 3 1 8 9 3 1 9 73 2 0 8 0 2 2 1 3 2 3 4 7 2 4 2 7 25 3 3 2 6 6 7
3 3 1 7 3 2 1 78 7 1 8 7 0 1 9 5 2 2 0 3 5 2 1 4 5 2 2 8 2 2 4 2 0 2 5 0 2 2 6 1 2 2 7 50
3 4 1 78 5 1 8 4 2 1 9 2 7 2 0 1 2 2 0 9 7 2 2 1 0 2 3 5 2 2 4 9 3 2 5 78 2 6 9 2 2 8 3 3
35 1 8 37 1 8 9 6 1 9 8 3 2 07 1 2 1 58 2 2 75 2 4 2 1 2 5 6 7 2 6 5 4 2 77 1 29 1 7
36 1 8 9 0 1 9 5 0 2 0 4 0 2 1 3 0 2 2 2 0 2 3 4 0 2 4 9 0 2 6 4 0 2 7 3 0 2 8 5 0 3 0 0 0
3 7 1 9 4 2 2 0 0 4 2 0 9 7 2 1 8 9 2 2 8 2 2 4 0 5 2 55 9 2 7 1 3 2 8 0 6 29 2 9 3 08 3
3 8 1 9 9 5 2 05 8 2 1 5 3 2 2 4 8 2 3 4 3 2 4 70 2 6 2 8 2 78 7 2 8 8 2 3 0 0 8 3 1 6 7
3 9 2 0 4 7 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 0 2 30 7 2 4 0 5 2 5 35 26 9 7 2 8 6 0 2 9 5 7 3 08 7 3 2 5 0
4 0 2 1 00 2 1 6 7 2 2 67 2 3 6 7 2 4 6 7 2 600 2 7 6 7 2 9 33 3 03 3 3 1 6 7 3 3 3 3
T ABL E S RE LAT I NG TO PAR T S III A ND IV 2 53
NE W B R UNSWIC K LO G R ULE
UND E R S I ZE D LO G S
g 7 in h t t h t
A l o g m ea s u rin c es a e o p c o n t ains t wice as man y su pe l
rficia
f l gt h
e e t as it s o w n e n
g 8 in h 2 5 t im l gh
.
A l o g m ea s u rin c es ,
4
es it s e n t
g 9 in h 3 t im l gh
.
A l o g m eas u r in c es , es it s e n t
g 1 0 in hes 4 t im l gh
.
A l o g meas u rin c es it s e n t .
254 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O D S ME N
CLAR K S INTE R NAT I O NAL

’
LO G R ULE
L ng t h
e Fee t
V l
o u me B o ar d Fe e t
10 10 15 15 15 20 20
15 15 20 20 25 25 30
20 25 25 30 35 35 40
30 30 35 40 45 50 50
35 40 45 50 55 60 65
45 50 55 65 70 75 80
55 65 70 75 85 90 100
65 75 85 90 100 1 10 1 20
80 90 1 00 1 10 1 20 1 30 1 40
90 105 1 15 1 25 1 40 1 50 1 60
105 1 20 1 30 1 45 1 60 1 70 185
1 20 1 35 1 50 1 65 1 80 1 95 2 10
1 35 1 55 1 70 18 5 20 5 220 2 40
1 55 1 75 1 90 2 10 23 0 2 50 2 70
1 70 195 2 15 23 5 2 55 2 75 3 00
1 90 215 235 2 60 28 5 3 05 3 30
2 10 23 5 2 60 28 5 3 15 3 40 36 5
2 30 2 60 28 5 3 15 3 45 3 70 4 00
2 55 285 3 15 345 3 75 40 5 4 40
2 75 3 10 345 375 4 10 445 4 75
3 00 33 5 3 70 40 5 4 45 4 80 5 20
3 25 3 65 40 5 4 40 4 80 52 0 5 60
3 50 395 4 35 4 75 5 20 560 6 05
3 80 4 25 4 70 5 10 560 60 5 6 50
40 5 4 55 500 5 50 6 00 6 45 695
4 35 48 5 5 40 590 6 40 695 74 5
4 65 5 20 575 6 30 68 5 7 40 '
79 5
495 555 6 10 6 70 7 30 79 0 8 50
5 30 5 90 6 50 715 77 5 8 40 90 0
560 6 25 6 90 75 5 8 25 8 90 9 55 1
59 5 66 5 73 5 8 00 8 75 9 45 10 1 5 1
6 30 70 5 7 75 8 50 9 25 1 000 10 75 1
665 745 8 20 8 95 9 75 1 0 55 1 1 35 1
70 5 78 5 86 5 9 45 1 0 30 1 1 10 1 195 1
7 40 8 25 9 10 9 95 108 5 1 1 70 1 26 0 1
78 0 8 70 960 1 0 50 1 1 40 1 2 30 1 325 1
8 20 9 15 10 10 1 1 00 1 200 1 29 5 1 3 90 1
8 60 9 60 1 0 60 1 1 55 1 260 1 36 0 1 4 60 1
9 00 10 0 5 1 1 10 1 215 1 3 20 1 4 25 1 5 30 1
9 45 10 55 1 1 60 1 2 70 1 380 1 490 1 6 00 1
9 90 1 1 00 1215 1 33 0 1 44 5 1 56 0 1 6 75 1
035 1 1 50 1 2 70 1 390 1 5 10 1 6 30 1 750 1
0 80 1 20 5 1325 1 4 50 1 575 1 700 1 8 30 1
T AB LE S RE LA T ING To PAR T S III A ND I V 2 55
SPAULDI NG LO G R UL E OF C O LU M BIA R IVE R
D AM ETE
I R IN I NC HES
12 38 47 58 71 86 1 03 12 1 14 1 162 1 84 2 07 23 1 2 56
14 55 67 82 1 00 12 0 14 1 1 64 189 2 14 24 1 269 29 8
16 50 63 77 94 1 14 1 37 16 1 18 8 2 16 24 5 2 76 3 08 34 1
18 57 70 87 1 06 129 1 54 18 1 2 11 24 3 27 6 310 34 6 3 84
20 63 78 96 1 18 14 3 171 2 01 235 2 70 306 34 5 38 5 4 26
22 69 86 1 06 130 1 57 1 88 22 1 2 58 29 7 3 37 3 79 4 23 4 69
24 76 1 16 14 2 1 72 2 06 24 2 2 82 324 368 4 14 4 62 5 12
26 82 10 1 125 1 53 18 6 22 3 2 62 305 35 1 398 448 500 5 54
28 1 09 13 4 1 64 2 00 24 0 28 2 32 8 3 78 4 28 482 5 38 59 6
30 94 1 17 14 4 1 76 2 14 2 57 302 3 52 4 05 4 59 5 17 577 6 39
32 10 1 12 5 1 54 1 88 22 8 2 74 32 2 3 76 4 32 490 552 6 16 6 82
34 1 07 1 32 1 64 2 00 24 3 29 1 34 2 39 9 4 59 52 1 58 6 654 72 5
36 1 13 140 1 74 2 12 2 58 308 36 2 4 22 486 5 52 62 0 6 92 7 68
38 12 0 14 8 183 22 4 2 72 32 5 38 2 446 5 13 582 6 55 73 1 8 10
126 1 56 1 92 2 36 28 6 342 4 02 4 70 54 0 6 12 69 0 7 70 8 52
1 32 1 64 2 02 24 8 3 00 3 59 4 22 4 93 5 67 64 3 724 8 08 89 5
1 38 1 72 2 12 2 60 3 14 376 442 5 16 59 4 6 74 75 8 84 6 9 38
4 6 14 5 1 79 2 22 2 72 32 9 3 94 4 63 54 0 62 1 7 05 79 3 885 98 1
151 18 7 2 32 2 84 3 44 4 12 4 84 5 64 64 8 73 6 8 28 9 24 1024
50 1 57 19 5 24 1 2 95 3 58 4 29 5 04 5 87 6 75 7 66 8 62 9 62 106 6
4 59 4 92 52 6 56 1 59 7
5 35 574 6 13 6 54 6 96
6 12 6 56 70 1 74 8 79 6
688 738 78 9 84 1 8 95
7 65 8 20 8 76 9 35 995
84 1 9 02 9 64 1 0 28 1 09 4
9 18 9 84 1 052 1 1 22 1 1 94
9 9 4 1 06 6 1 139 12 1 5 1 29 3
1 07 0 1 1 4 8 1 22 6 1308 1 39 2
1 1 4 7 12 3 0 1 3 14 1 4 02 14 92
1 224 13 12 1 4 02 1 4 9 6 1 59 2
1 300 13 9 4 14 9 0 1 58 9 1 6 9 1
1 376 1 4 7 6 1 578 1 6 8 2 179 0
1 4 53 1 558 1 66 5 1 7 76 1 8 90
1 5 30 1 64 0 1 7 52 1 8 70 1 9 90
1 606 1 72 2 184 0 19 6 3 208 9

1 68 2 18 04 1928 2 056 2 1 88
1 7 59 1 8 86 2 0 16 2 150 2 28 8
1 8 36 19 68 2 1 04 2 24 4 2 388
1 9 12 2 0 50 2 19 1 2337 24 87
2 56 A M ANUAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
SPAULDI NG LO G R UL E — co n fi r med
D AM
I E TE R IN INC H ES
6 73 713 7 55 7 98 843 889 9 36 9 84 1 03 3 1 08 6 1 1 34 1 18 6

78 5 831 880 931 983 103 7 1 09 2 1 1 4 8 1 205 1 26 7 1 3 23 1 3 83
897 9 50 1 0 0 6 1 064 1 12 4 1 18 5 1 24 8 1 3 1 2 1 3 77 14 4 8 1 5 12 1 58 1
1 009 1 0 6 9 1 1 32 1 1 9 7 1 2 6 4 1 3 33 1 4 04 1 4 76 1 54 9 1 62 9 1 70 1 1 77 9
1 1 2 1 1 1 88 1 2 58 1 33 0 1 4 05 14 8 1 1 5 60 1 6 4 0 1 72 1 18 10 18 9 0 19 76
12 33 1307 1 3 84 1 4 6 3 1 54 5 1 6 29 1 7 1 6 1 8 04 1 893 199 1 2079 2 1 74

1 34 6 1426 1510 1 59 6 1 6 8 6 17 78 1 8 72 1 9 68 2 06 6 2 1 72 226 8 2 3 72
1 4 58 1 544 1 6 35 1 72 9 1 8 2 6 1 9 2 6 2 02 8 2 1 32 2 238 2 353 24 57 25 6 9
1 5 70 1 6 62 1 760 1 8 6 2 1 9 66 2 0 74 2 1 8 4 2 29 6 24 1 0 25 3 4 2 64 6 2 766
1 682 1 78 1 1 886 1 9 9 5 2 1 07 22 2 2 2 3 4 0 24 6 0 2 5 82 271 5 2835 2 9 64
1 79 4 1 9 00 20 12 2 12 8 224 8 2 3 70 24 9 6 2 6 24 2 754 28 96 3 024 3 162

1 9 06 2 0 19 2 1 38 2 26 1 238 8 25 18 2 652 2 7 88 29 2 6 3 077 32 13 3360
20 18 2 1 38 22 64 239 4 2 52 8 2666 2 8 08 2 9 52 3 09 8 32 58 34 02 3 5 58
2 13 0 22 5 7 2 39 0 2 52 7 2 6 69 2 8 14 2964 3 1 16 32 7 0 3439 3 59 1 3 75 5
22 4 2 2 376 2 5 16 26 6 0 28 1 0 2 962 3 12 0 328 0 3 44 2 3620 3 78 0 3 9 52
2 3 54 24 9 5 2 64 2 2 79 3 2 950 3 1 10 32 76 34 44 3 6 14 38 0 1 3969 4 1 50
24 6 6 26 14 2 7 68 292 6 3 09 0 3 2 58 3 4 32 3 6 08 3 78 6 3 98 2 4 15 8 4 3 48
25 7 9 2 73 3 28 94 3 0 59 32 3 1 3 4 07 3 58 8 3 7 72 3 9 59 4 1 63 4 34 7 4 54 6
2 69 2 2 8 52 3 02 0 3 19 2 3372 3 556 3 74 4 39 36 4 132 4 344 4 53 6 4 74 4
2 8 04 2 9 70 3 14 5 332 5 35 1 2 37 04 39 0 0 4 1 00 4 304 4 525 4 72 5 4 94 1
1 2 1239 12 9 3 1 34 8 1 4 04 1 4 6 1 1 51 9 1 5 78 1 638 1 700 1 76 3 1 82 7

1 4 144 5 1 50 8 1 572 1 6 3 8 1 704 1 7 72 1 8 4 1 1 9 1 1 19 83 2 0 56 2 13 1
1 6 1 6 52 1 72 4 1 79 7 1 8 72 1 9 4 8 2 02 5 2 1 0 4 2 1 8 4 22 66 23 5 0 24 36
1 8 1 8 58 1 939 2 022 2 1 0 6 2 1 9 1 22 7 8 2 3 6 7 24 57 2 55 0 2 64 4 2 74 0
20 2 0 6 5 2 1 55 22 4 6 234 0 2 4 3 5 2 53 1 2 6 3 0 2 730 28 33 2 9 38 3 04 5
22 2 27 1 2 3 70 24 70 2574 2 678 2 78 4 28 93 3 003 3 1 16 3 232 334 9

24 2 4 78 2 58 6 269 6 28 08 2 9 22 3 03 8 3 1 56 3 2 76 34 00 3 52 6 3 6 54
26 2 68 4 28 0 1 29 2 0 3 0 42 3 165 329 1 34 1 9 354 9 3 6 83 38 19 3 9 58
28 28 9 0 3 0 16 3 14 4 3 2 76 34 08 3 54 4 36 8 2 3 8 22 3966 4 1 12 4 2 62
30 3 097 32 3 2 3369 35 10 3 6 52 3 79 7 39 4 5 4 09 5 4 24 9 44 06 4 56 7
32 3 3 04 344 8 3 59 4 3 744 389 6 4 05 0 4 2 08 4 36 8 4 532 4 700 4 8 72

34 35 10 3 66 3 38 19 3 9 78 4 139 4 3 03 4471 4 64 1 4 8 16 4 9 94 5 1 76
36 37 16 3 8 78 4 04 4 4 2 12 4 38 2 4 5 56 4 734 4 9 14 5 1 00 528 8 54 8 0
38 39 23 4 09 4 4 26 8 444 6 4 6 26 4 8 09 4997 5 18 7 538 3 5 58 2 5 78 5
4 130 43 10 4492 4 68 0 4 8 70 5 06 2 52 6 0 54 6 0 5666 58 76 6090
4 33 6 4 52 5 4 7 16 4 9 14 5 1 13 5 3 15 5523 5 73 3 594 9 6 1 70 6 39 4
44 4 54 2 4 74 0 4 94 0 5 14 8 53 56 55 6 8 5 78 6 6 006 6 2 32 64 6 4 6698
4 6 4 74 9 4 9 56 5 1 66 53 8 2 56 0 0 58 2 2 6 04 9 6 2 79 6 5 16 6 758 7 00 3
4 9 56 5 1 72 53 9 2 56 1 6 584 4 6 0 76 63 12 6 552 6 8 00 7 0 52 7304
50 5 1 6 2 5 3 87 56 1 6 58 5 0 6 08 7 6 32 9 6 57 5 6825 7 08 3 7 34 5 76 1 2
AB LE S
T RE LA T IN G To PAR TS III A ND IV 25 7
SPAULDI NG LO G R UL E — cont in u ed
D AM
I ET E R IN INC H ES
ft
12 1960 2 02 8 2 09 8 2 169 2 24 1 23 15 2 39 0 24 6 7 254 5 262 5 2 7 06 2 78 9
14 2 28 6 2 36 6 24 4 7 2 53 0 2 6 14 27 00 2 78 9 2 8 78 2 96 9 3 06 2 3 1 57 3 25 3
16 26 1 3 2 7 04 279 7 28 92 2988 3 08 6 3 18 6 3 28 9 3 39 3 3 5 00 36 0 8 3 7 18
18 294 0 3 04 2 3 14 7 32 53 3 36 1 3 4 72 3 58 5 3 7 00 38 1 7 3 9 37 4 0 59 4 18 3
20 3 2 66 3 38 0 34 9 6 36 1 5 3 73 5 3 8 58 3 9 83 4111 4 24 1 4 3 75 4 5 10 4 64 8
22 3 5 92 37 1 8 3 84 6 3 9 76 4 1 08 4 24 4 4 38 1 4 522 4 66 5 4 8 12 49 6 1 5 1 13
24 3 9 2 0 4 0 56 4 19 6 4 3 38 4 4 82 4 63 0 4 78 0 4 9 34 509 0 52 50 54 12 55 78
2 6 4 24 6 4 3 94 4 54 5 4 6 9 9 4 8 55 50 1 5 5 1 79 5 34 5 55 1 4 5 68 7 58 6 3 6 04 2
4 57 2 4 73 2 4 8 9 4 5 06 0 5 2 28 5 4 00 5 578 5756 5 9 38 6 1 24 6 3 14 6 5 06
30 4 8 9 9 5 070 524 4 54 2 2 56 02 5 78 6 5 9 75 6 167 6 362 6 56 2 6 7 65 69 7 1
32 52 2 6 5 4 08 5594 5 784 59 76 6 1 72 637 2 6 5 78 6 786 7 00 0 72 1 6 74 36

34 55 5 3 5 74 6 5 944 6 14 5 63 4 9 6 558 6 77 1 6 98 9 72 1 0 74 3 7 766 7 79 0 1
36 58 8 0 6 084 6 2 94 6 5 06 6 722 6 9 44 7 1 70 74 00 763 4 7 8 74 8 1 18 8 36 6
38 6 2 06 64 22 6 64 3 6868 709 6 7330 7568 78 1 1 8 0 58 83 12 8 56 9 88 3 1
40 6 5 32 6 76 0 69 92 723 0 74 7 0 77 1 6 7 9 66 8 2 22 8482 8 750 9 020 9 2 96
_
68 58 709 8 734 2 7 5 9 1 7 84 3 8 1 0 2 8 36 4 8 6 3 3 8 906 9 1 8 7 94 7 1 9 76 1

4 4 7 1 84 74 36 76 9 2 7 9 52 8 2 1 6 84 8 8 8 76 2 9 04 4 9 330 9 6 24 9 92 2
4 6 75 1 2 77 74 8 04 2 83 1 4 8 59 0 8 8 74 9 1 6 1 94 56 9 7 5 5
4 8 784 0 8 1 12 8 39 2 8 6 76 8 9 6 4 9 2 6 0 9 5 6 0
8 1 66 8 4 50 8 74 1 9 0 5 7 9 33 7 9 64 5 9 9 5 9
258 A MANUAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
B R I T ISH C O LU M BIA LO G SCALE

E stablis h ed b y the g overnment and derived from the ,
follo win g rule : Deduct 1 % inches from the mean d iam

eter of the lo g at the sma l l end ; s quare the result an d mul
'
t ipl y b y 78 54 ; deduct V ; divide b y 1 2 ; multi p l y by the

.
len g th of the lo g in feet .
L o g s more t h an 4 0 and not over 5 0 feet lon g to be scaled

as two lo g s of e q ual len g th the butt lo g taken as 1 inc h ,
larg er than th e to p L o g s over 5 0 and not over 6 0 feet

.
lon g to be treated similarl y but with 2 inches rise allowed ,
to the butt lo g ; and so on 1 inch of rise bein g added for ,
each 10 feet or p art thereof over 4 0 feet .
D I A M E TE R IN I NC H ES
ft
1 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 13 15 16 18 2 0 22 24 26
10 34 43 53 63 74 8 7 1 0 0 1 1 4 1 30 14 6 1 63 1 8 1 2 00 22 0 2 4 1 2 6 3
12 41 5 2 6 3 76 89 1 04 12 0 137 1 55 1 75 195 217 24 0 2 64 289 3 15

14 48 6 0 73 8 8 1 04 12 1 14 0 1 60 18 1 2 04 2 28 2 53 280 3 08 33 7 368
16 55 6 9 84 10 1 1 19 1 39 1 60 1 83 20 7 2 33 26 1 290 320 3 52 38 6 42 1
18 62 77 9 4 1 1 3 1 34 1 56 180 2 06 2 33 2 62 293 326 360 39 6 434 4 73
20 69 8 6 1 05 1 2 6 1 4 9 1 73 200 22 9 2 59 292 32 6 36 2 4 00 44 0 4 82 52 6
22 76 94 115 1 38 1 64 19 1 2 2 0 252 2 8 5 32 1 35 8 39 8 44 0 4 84 5 30 5 78
24 8 3 103 1 2 6 151 1 78 2 08 2 4 0 2 74 3 1 1 3 50 39 1 4 34 480 52 8 5 78 631
26 8 9 1 12 1 3 6 164 19 3 226 2 6 0 2 9 7 33 7 379 4 24 471 52 0 5 72 62 6 6 83
28 9 6 12 0 1 4 7 1 76 2 08 24 3 2 8 0 32 0 3 63 4 08 4 56 507 5 60 6 16 675 73 6
30 1 03 1 29 1 57 1 89 22 3 2 60 3 00 3 4 3 38 9 4 37 489 54 3 6 00 6 60 72 3 78 9
32 1 10 1 37 168 201 238 2 78 32 0 36 6 4 1 5 4 6 6 52 1 579 6 4 0 70 4 77 1 84 1

34 1 17 14 6 1 78 2 14 2 53 29 5 34 0 3 8 9 4 4 1 4 9 6 5 54 6 15 680 74 8 8 19 8 94
36 12 4 1 55 1 89 227 268 3 12 36 0 4 1 2 4 6 6 52 5 58 6 6 52 72 0 79 2 867 946
38 13 1 163 1 99 2 39 28 3 33 0 3 8 0 4 3 5 4 9 2 554 6 19 688 760 8 36 9 16 999
40 138 1 72 2 10 2 52 29 7 34 7 4 0 0 4 57 5 1 8 58 3 6 52 724 80 0 8 80 964 1 05 1
T ABL E S RE LA T I NG To PA R T S II I A ND I V 2 59
B R I T IS H C O L UM BIA LO G SCAL E co nfi h u e d
D AM
I ETER IN I NC H ES
36 39 41 44 47 50 53 57 60
360 38 7 4 14 443 4 72 5 03 5 34 5 67 600
4 32 4 64 4 97 53 1 56 7 6 0 3 64 1 6 80 72 0
50 4 54 1 5 80 62 0 661 7 04 74 8 79 3 840
576 6 19 6 63 70 8 7 56 8 04 8 55 9 06 960
64 8 696 74 6 797 8 50 905 96 1 1 02 0 1 08 0
72 0 7 73 82 8 8 86 9 4 5 1 00 5 1 068 1 1 33 1 2 00
79 1 8 50 9 11 9 74 1 03 9 1 106 1 1 75 1 2 46 1 32 0
8 64 928 9 94 1 0 63 1 1 33 1 2 07 1 282 1 3 60 144 0
9 3 6 1 00 5 1 0 7 7 1 1 51 1 22 8 1 307 1 38 9 14 73 1 560
1 0 0 8 1 08 2 1 1 6 0 124 0 1 3 22 1 4 08 1 4 9 6 1 58 6 1 679
1 08 0 1 16 0 1 2 4 3 1 32 8 14 17 1 50 8 1 6 02 1 7 0 0 179 9
1 1 52 1 2 37 1 32 5 1 4 1 7 1 5 1 1 1 6 09 1 70 9 1 8 13 19 1 9
1 2 24 1 3 14 1 4 08 1 50 5 1 6 0 6 1 7 0 9 18 16 1 92 6 20 3 9
1296 1 3 92 14 9 1 1 5 94 1 70 0 1 8 1 0 1 92 3 2 0 39 2 159
1 36 8 14 69 1 574 1 6 8 2 17 9 5 1 9 1 0 2 03 0 2 1 53 2 2 79
1 44 0 1 54 6 1 657 1 7 7 1 1 88 9 2 0 1 1 2 1 37 2 2 66 239 9
1 63 67 71 74 78 82 86 90 94 99 1 03 1 07
10 63 4 6 69 7 05 74 3 78 1 8 20 860 90 1 94 3 98 5 1 02 9 1 074
12 76 1 8 03 84 7 891 93 7 9 84 1 0 32 1 08 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 82 1 2 35 1 28 9
14 888 9 37 98 8 1 04 0 1 09 3 1 1 48 1 2 04 1 2 6 1 1 32 0 1 3 79 14 4 1 1 50 3
1 6 1 0 1 5 1 07 1 1 1 2 9 1 18 8 1 24 9 1 3 12 1 376 14 4 1 1 5 0 8 1 57 7 1 64 7 1 718
1 8 1 1 4 1 1 2 0 5 1 27 0 1 337 14 05 14 75 1 54 7 1 62 1 1 6 9 7 1 7 74 1 8 52 19 3 3
2 0 1 2 6 8 1 3 39 1 4 1 1 1 4 85 1 56 1 1 639 17 19 18 0 1 1 8 8 5 19 7 1 2 058 2 14 8
22 1 39 5 1 4 72 1 5 5 2 1 634 1 7 1 7 1 8 03 1 8 9 1 19 8 1 2 074 2 1 68 22 64 2 36 2
24 1 522 1 6 06 1 6 9 3 1 7 8 2 1 8 74 1 9 6 7 2 06 3 2 16 1 22 6 2 236 5 2 4 70 2 577
26 1 6 4 9 1 74 0 1 8 34 1 9 3 1 2 0 3 0 2 1 3 1 22 3 5 2 34 2 24 5 1 2 56 2 2 676 2 79 2
28 1 775 1 874 1 975 2 0 7 9 2 1 8 6 22 9 5 24 0 7 2 52 2 2639 2 75 9 28 8 2 3007
30 1 9 02 2 008 2 1 1 6 2 22 8 23 4 2 2 4 5 9 2 5 79 2 702 2 8 28 2 9 56 308 7 3 222
32 2 02 9 2 142 2 2 58 2 3 76 24 98 2 62 3 275 1 2882 3 0 16 3 1 53 329 3 34 3 6

34 2 1 56 2 27 6 2 3 99 252 5 2 654 2 78 7 2 9 23 3 06 2 3 2 05 33 5 0 34 9 9 36 5 1
36 228 3 24 10 2 54 0 2 6 73 2810 29 5 1 3 09 5 3 24 2 339 3 3 54 7 370 5 38 6 6
38 24 10 2 54 3 2 68 1 2 82 2 29 6 7 3 1 15 3 2 67 34 22 3 58 2 3 74 4 39 1 1 4 08 1
40 2 536 2 6 77 2 8 22 2 9 70 3 123 3 2 79 34 39 3 6 02 3770 3 94 1 4 1 17 4 29 5
26 0 A M A N UAL F O R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
B R I T ISH C O LU M BIA LO G SCALE — con t inued
D AM
I E TE R IN I NC H ES
ft
1 1 12 117 12 1 12 6 131 1 36 14 7 1 52 1 57 1 63
10 1 1 2 0 1 1 66 12 14 1 2 6 2 13 1 2 1 362 1 4 66 1 5 1 9 1 574 1629 1
12 1 34 3 1 39 9 1 4 57 1515 1 5 74 1 6 35 1 759 1 823 1 888 1 9 55 M

14 1 56 7 1 6 3 3 1 6 9 9 1 76 7 1 8 37 19 0 7 20 5 2 2 12 7 2 203 22 8 0 N
16 1 79 1 1 8 6 6 1 9 4 2 2 02 0 2 09 9 2 180 2 34 6 24 3 1 2 5 18 26 0 6 M
18 2 0 1 5 209 9 2 1 8 5 22 72 2 36 1 2 4 52 2639 2 73 5 2 8 32 29 32
O
O
20 22 39 2 3 32 2 4 28 2 52 5 2 62 4 2 72 5 2 9 32 3039 3 14 7 32 5 8
O
O
22 24 6 3 2 6 70 2 777
e
2 5 66 2 886 29 9 7 32 2 5 3 34 3 34 6 2 3 58 3
24 2 68 7 2 79 9 2 9 13 3 030 3 1 4 8 326 9 35 1 9 36 4 6 3 77 7 39 0 9
26 29 11 30 3 2 3 1 56 32 8 2 3 4 1 1 3 54 2 38 1 2 39 5 0 4 09 1 4 23 5 5 41
28 3 13 5 32 6 5 3 39 9 3 535 3 6 7 3 3 8 1 4 39 5 8 4 10 5 4 2 54 4 4 06 4 56 1 5 0
30 33 59 3 4 99 36 4 1 378 7 3 9 3 6 4 0 8 7 4 24 1 4 39 8
1
4 558 4 72 1 4 886 0
32 358 3 373 2 38 8 4 4 039 4 1 9 8 4 359 4 5 2 4 4 69 1 4 8 6 2 503 6 5 2 1 2 1

0
34 38 07 3965 4 12 7 4 292 4 8 07
1
4460 4 63 2 4 985 5 1 66 535 0 5 53 8 0

36 4 03 0 4 1 98 4 37 0 4 54 4 508 9 5 2 78 54 7 0
5
4 72 3 4 9 04 5 665 58 6 4 0
38 4 2 54
5
4 4 32 4 6 12 4 79 7 4 98 5 5 17 7 5372 557 1 5 774 5 98 0 6 190 0
40
5
4 4 78 4 665 4 8 55 504 9 52 4 7 5 44 9 5 6 55 58 64 6 077 6 29 4 65 1 5 0
1 74 18 0 186 192 19 8 2 04 2 10 2 17 22 3 23 0 2 3 7 24 3
10 1 74 2 1 8 0 0 1 8 59 19 1 9 1 98 0 2 04 2 2 1 0 5 2 1 69 22 33 2 2 9 9 2 36 6 2 4 33
12 2 09 1 2 1 60 223 1 2 30 3 2 3 76 24 50 2 52 6 2 6 02 2 68 9 2 759 2 839 2920

14 2 4 39 2 52 0 26 03 2 68 7 2 7 72 28 5 9 2 94 7 3036 3 127 32 1 9 3 3 12 34 0 7
16 2 78 7 28 8 0 2 9 75 30 7 1 3 1 68 326 7 3 3 68 3 4 70 3 57 3 3678 3 78 5 38 9 3
18 3 1 36 32 40 334 7 3 4 54 3 5 64 3 6 76 3 78 9 39 03 4 02 0 4 1 38 4 25 8 4 38 0
20 3 4 84 3600 3 7 18 38 3 8 39 60 4 08 4 4 210 4 337 44 67 4 598 4 73 1 4867
22 3 8 33 396 0 4 09 0 4 222 4 3 56 44 92 4 63 1 4 77 1 4 9 13 50 5 8 52 0 4 535 3

24 4 1 8 1 4 32 0 44 6 2 4 606 4 75 2 4 90 1 505 1 52 05 536 0 55 1 8 56 7 7 58 4 0
26 4 529 4 68 0 4 8 34 4990 5 14 8 53 0 9 5 4 72 5 638 58 07 59 7 7 6 151 6 32 7
28 4 8 78 5 04 0 52 0 6 5 3 74 54 4 4 57 1 7 58 93 6 0 72 6 2 53 6 4 37 6 624 68 1 3
30 5 22 6 54 0 1 5 5 78 575 7 59 50 6 12 6 6 3 14 6 5 06 6 70 0 68 9 7 7 09 7 730 0
32 5 5 75 5 76 1 59 4 9 6 1 4 1 6 3 36 6 53 4 6 73 5 6 9 39 7 14 6 7357 7570 7 7 87
3 4 59 2 3 6 12 1 6 32 1 6 52 5 6 7 3 2 6 9 4 3 7 1 56 73 7 3 7 59 3 78 1 6 8 04 3 8 2 73
36 64 8 1 6 69 3 6 9 09 7 128 73 5 1 7 5 77 78 07 8 04 0 8 2 76 8516 8 76 0
38 684 1 70 6 5 7 29 3 752 4 775 9 79 9 8 8 24 0 848 6 8 7 36 8 98 9 9 24 7
40 72 0 1 74 3 7 7677 7 92 0 8 1 68 84 19 8 6 74 8933 9 196 9 4 62 9 73 4
T ABL E S RE LA T I NG TO PAR T S III A ND I V 26 1
V O LU ME ABLE No W III E PI NE BY THE SCR I B NE R

I IE
'
T . 1 .
I J
I IL
To t a l H ight
e of T re e F eet
80 90 1 00 1 10 1 20 1 30 1 40 1 50
2 1 70
B ased o n 3 0 00 tr ee s cut in Ne w Y ork the L ak e , S tates ,
a n d C ana d a cut as a rul e into 1 6 foot logs

,
T hese -
. l d
sea e
with du e allowance for crook and breakage but not for ,
decay O riginal
. .
26 2 A MANUAL FO R NO R TH E R N W O O D S ME N
VO LUME TABLE NO 2 R E D PI NE I N B O AR D
. .
, FE E T B Y
, THE
MI NNE S O TA SC R IB NE R R UL E
( Tr e e s un d er 13 0 Y e a rs O ld )
To t a l H e igh t in Fee t
In h c es
V O LU ME TABLE No 3 R E D PI NE I N B O AR D
. .
, FE E T BY
, T HE
MI NNE S O TA SC R IB NE R R ULE
( Tre e s ov e r 2 00 Y e a rs O ld )
T ABL E S RE LA T ING To PAR T S III AND IV 26 3
The p recedin g tables from M innesota timbe r cut into

16 foot lo g s an d scaled strai gh t and soun d
-
By H H . . .
C ha p man .
VO LU M E T ABLE NO 4 . WH I TE PI NE IN FE E T — B O AR D
M E ASUR E
( Fr om St at e Fo res t e r o f M as sac h us e t t s)
To t a l He igh t of Tre e Fe e t
In h
c es
Gives yield of trees from 5 foot stum p to 4 inches in 1

7
the t op as sawed into round or waney ed g ed or bot h roun d -

,
and s q uare ed g ed lumber In the smallest sizes of trees

-
, .
ap p reciabl y more may be obtain ed by cuttin g to a smaller

size in t h e t op .
26 4 A M ANUAL FOR NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
V O LU ME T ABLE No . 5 . W H I TE PI NE IN C O R DS
( F m St
ro at e F t
o re s e r o f M h a s sa c u se t ts )
To t a l H ighte of T re e F e et
In h c es
I ncludes volum e of tree above foot from ground and

up to 4 inche s diamet e r in the top .
V O LU ME T ABLE No . 6 . SP R UCE IN CUBIC FE E T
To t a l H e igh t of Tre e Fe e t
In h
c es 55 60 65 75 80 90
T ABL E S RE LA T IN G TO PA R T S III A ND I V 265
T able NO 6 gives volume of tree from ground to tip

.
excl u sive of branc h es I ncludes bark whic h is about 1 2 1;

.
,
7
per cent of the total volume B ased on 2 500 t rees cut in .
M aine Ne w H amps h ire and Ne w Y ork calipered eac h 4

, , ,
feet computed separately and averaged O riginal

, , . .
T his table may without great modification be applied to

ot her soft wood species regard be ing had to the remarks on
,
tree form on pages 159 1 65 of this volume B alsam fir —

.
,
however is believed to be pretty uniformly somewhat

,
slimmer t han spruce h aving as would appear fr om t he

, ,
results of a study on fir made by M r Z o n of t he U nited .
S ta tes Forest Servi ce 8 per cent less volume for th e same

,
breast diameter and h eigh t .
V O LUME T ABLE NO . SP R UCE

7 . IN FE E T B O AR D
,
ME ASU R E
To t a l H e ight of T r ee F ee t
In h
c es 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 90
B ased on 2500 t rees scaled in 1 6 foot log le ngt hs up to -
6 inches in diameter by the M aine rule and discounted

from 5 to 10 per cent P urports to give the yield in edged
.
lumber of average spruce trees in economical woods and

.
mill practice .
2 66 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O DS M E N
VO LUME T AB LE No . 8 . SPR UCE IN C O R DS
To t a l H e ight of Tree F ee t
In cheS 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
T able No 8 derived from T able No 6 by deducting

. .
a fair allowance for waste in stump also volume of top above ,
4 inch es diameter and dividing by 9 6 usual number of cubic

, ,
feet solid wood in a piled cord T he values in this table

, , .
are very clos e ly confir med by a table for second growth

spruce based on 7 1 1 trees that was made up in 1 903 by
M r T S W oolsey of the U nited S tates Forest S ervice
. . . .
T his ta ble may b e used for balsam fir but in general wit h ,
some deduction For t he amount of th is deduction see

.
th e preceding page .
T AB L E S RE LA T IN G To PAR T S III A ND W 26 7
YIELD OF HE MLOC K B AR K
Wh ere t h e tanbark in dustry is lar g e and well org anized ,
224 0 lbs of dried bark constitute one cord

. On e thou .
sand fee t o f he mlock timber lo g scale y ields cord , ,
usual l y u p to a cord in some cases S mall t hrif t y h em

, .
,
lock if closel y ut ilized at t h e saw as in parts of New

, ,
E n g land y ields about } cord pe r M

, 7 .
VO LU ME TAB LE No . 9 HE M LO C K BY
.
, T HE SC R IB NE R R ULE
( Fr om Bul l e t in No . 1 52 , U S D pt Ag i l t
. . e . r cu ur e , by E . H . H o t hing ham)
Ba
sed on 5 34 trees cut in t h e Lake S ta tes and scaled
from a 2 foot stum p to diameter g iven in
- foot lo g
len g ths C rook breaka g e and defect not al lowed for
. , ,
.
268 A M A N UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D SM E N
VO LU ME ABLET No 1 0 H E ML O C K I N B O AR D FE E T
. .
(F m R p t
ro e or N H Fo res t C o m mis s io n f o r 1 90 6 7 )
. .
—
B as e d on 3 1 7 s e cond growth tre es grown in Ne w Hamp

s h ire cut with good economy (4 % to 6 5 inches in the top )
,
—
and sawed into edged boards and scantli ng Figur es .
derived from actual tally of t he sawed lumber .
V O LU ME T ABLE NO . 11 .PAPE R BI R C H IN C O R DS
( Ad p t d f
a e ro mR p e o rt of N . H F t C mmi i
. o res o ss o n f o r 1 9 0 6— 7 )
B as e don 4 2 7 tr ee s cut to b e saw e d V olumes giv e n are .
of used portion of tree o nl y O riginal figures by Forest .
S ervice men in cubic feet converted into cords at the ratio

of 9 6 cubic feet solid per cord .
T ABL E S RE LA T ING To PAR T S III A ND I V 26 9
VO LUME AB LE T No. 12 . RE D O A K IN B O AR D FE E T
(F m R p t
ro e or of N . H F
. o r es t C o mmis s io n fo r 1 9 0 6— 7 )
B ased on about 700 tr ees tallied through saw mil ls by

members of U nited S ta tes Forest Service T rees from 5 0 .
to 8 0 years of age cut o ff at from 5 to 9 inches at t h e top

, .
L umber saw e d round or waney edged ; 85 per cent of -
the product 1 § inch boards surveyed as 1 inch ; balance 1

- 1
inch plank .
T able ma y be us ed for other second growt h h ard wood

species when simil arly cut and manuf actured .
2 70 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D S M E N
'
VO LU ME TABLE N o . 13 . PE E LE D P O PLAR I N C O R DS
( Ad p t d f m R p t
a e ro e or of N . H F
. t C mmi i n f
o res o 1 90 6 7 )
ss o or -
To t a l H eight of Tr e e Fe e t
In h
c es
B ased on 2 8 9 trees cut for pulp wood Al l diameter .
measures except diameter breast h igh taken on the wood

surface after peeling off th e bark O riginal figures in .
cubic feet converted into cords at t h e ratio of 90 cubic

,
feet solid wood per cord .
TABLE 14 . SE C O ND G R O WT H H AR D WO O DS IN C O R DS
To t a l H eight of Tre e Fe et
Nu m b e r T re e s per C d or
From study by H arvard Forest S chool on oak thinnings .
W ood used up to 2 inc h es in diameter 8 0 cubic feet .
solid wood per cord .
T he stu d y showed t h at w hen the bolts from the trees

3 to 5 inc h es in breast diam e ter were piled by t h emselves ,
there were 25 0 bolts and 6 7 cubic feet in a cord ; wood

fr om the 5 to 7 inch trees piled together gave 1 73 bolts
-
and 7 9 3 cubic feet ; from the 7 to 9 inc h trees 1 33 bolts -

,
and 9 1 cubic feet .

T ABL E S RE LA T I NG TO PAR T S II I A ND I V 27 1
FO R M H E I G HT FAC TO R S FO R SE CO ND G R OWT H
HAR D WOO DS IN C O R DS
( Ut ili e d t o 1 inc h in diame t e ; 8 0 u b i fe e t o lid w o o d p e c ord )
z r c c s r
11 5 Are a B re as t H igh X F H F
.
C o ds o f 1 28 C ub ic Feet
$ 5
. . . r of
0
T ot a l He ight in Fe e t
Di m a et er
B re as t High
In h c es S q Ft . . F orm He ig ht Fact ors
. 660
SAM E FO R C HE ST NUT E X T R AC T WO O D
( Small e r t r e es u s e d to 5 in h ; 9 0
c bi f t
es l id w d p
cu d) c ee so oo er c o r Sec
t H igh X F H F
.
t io na l A re a B re as C d f 12 8 C b i F
. . . or s o u c eet of
A bove tables from B iltmore T imber T ables , by

H o war d Krin bill , copy ri gh ted .
272 A M ANUAL FO R NO R TH E R N WO O DS M E N
To use caliper or estimate t h e breast diameter of t h e

,
tree or stan d and g et t h e total h ei g ht Th en m ul tiply .
the basal area in s q uare feet ( see table on pa g e 238 ) by

t h e proper factor in t h e table above The p roduct g ives .
t h e result in cords C onsiderable sta nds of timber

.
s h oul d be divided into diameter g roups .
E x ample 1 A 10 inc h tree is 5 0 feet h i gh

.
-
Ho w muc h .
cordwood is in it ? 54 5 (basal area ) X 35 ( form hei gh t

. .
factor) 1 9 cord ; or 1
. 19 number of suc h .
trees re q uired for a cord if closel y utilized .
E xample 2 A bunc h of chestnut avera g in g 8 0 feet

.
tal l and runnin g 1 3 to 1 7 in c h es in diameter to be cut ,
into ex tract wood proves after caliperin g to h ave a total

,
basal area of 95 s q uare feet 9 5 X 29 ( form h ei gh t . .

.
factor in second table above ) number of cords

in t h e s t and .
VO LUM E T ABL
E No HAR D WO O DS IN BOAR D
. 16 .
.
FE ET , BY SC R IB NE R R ULE
T HE
(h orn R . A B th t n N g n
. ro er oMi h )
, e au ee , c .
Nu mb er of Si t x e e n- Fo o t L ogs
In hc es
S tumps avera g e about feet hig h One and t wo l o g3 .
trees may either be short trees or those that above a ,
cert ain hei g ht ar e fault y or defective .
E l m in t he sizes above 18 inches y ields about 1 0 pe r

c ent more t h an t h e above figures .
T AB L E S RE LAT ING To PA R T S III A ND W 2 73
VO LU M E TABLE N 1 7 NO R T HE R N HAR D WO O DS ( BI R C Ho . .
,
B E E C H A ND M APLE ) BY T HE SC R IB NE R R ULE
(Ad ap t e d fro m B ul l e t in NoU S F
. 2 8 5, . . orest S e rv ice ,
by E . H Fr t hingh m)
. o a
Nu mb e r of 1 6— f oo t Lg o s
In h c es Vb l um
'
e B o ar d Fe et In hc es
B ased on 8 00 trees cut in the L ake S tates scaled from

ta p er mea sures in lo g s feet lon g from a stum p 1 foo t
h i g h to to p diameters found in actual logg in g : fi gures
even ed by curves A s no all owance was made for crook .
and defect considerable discount is necessary in mos t

,
t imber .
N T O C mp i n b t w n t h l in t hi t b l nd t h p ding
E o ar s o e ee e v a u es s a e a e re ce
h w t ik ng diff n h w th f m dif
.
s o s s r i nd t h t t indi t
ere ces , a e ex ca es o e s e ar os e , ro
fere n n t
ces I f m n d n dn l mb ing p t i nd m t h d f
ree or a sou es s , u er ra c ce , a e o s o t e
c or ding n d mp t ing T h
a co i i
u nd g t n b f h ppli
b lig e c ru s er s u er o a io e o re e a es
it h t nd t h p int n d h wil l d w ll t h k
.
e n
er I ti t nd
r ac ce o u e rs a ese o s, a e o e o c ec
t h t bl
e a e wit h l l p t i nd n l l t imb
e u se s o ca Th t d n h w
r ac ce a o o ca er a o e, o
will p p l y t h gh t t h di t ib t i n f t he pe i
.
e v e r,t h t bl e a es a r ou ou e s r u o o s c es .
2 74 A M A NUAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O DS ME N
VO LUM E TABLE NO . LO NGLE AF PI NE IN B OAR D

18 .
, FEE T,
BY T HE SC R IB NE R R ULE
B ased on 6 14 tre e s cut in Alabama s c aled as a rule in

1 6 foot lo g s
-
. H ei g ht of stump e q ual diam e ter breast
high B y Franklin B R eed of t h e U S Forest S ervice
. . . . .
S hortl e af p in e as shown by other work of the S ervice

, ,
follows Lon g leaf closely .

T AB L E S RE LA TIN G To PAR T S III A ND I V 275
VO LUM E T ABLE No .LO BLO LLY PI NE BY T HE

19 . .
SC R IB NE R R ULE
( Ashe in B ll
u e t in No . 24 N C G l gi l n d E n mi Su ey )
. . . eo o ca a co o c rv
T ot a l H eig ht of Tre e — Fe et
In h
c es C o n t e nt s B o ar d Fee t In h c es
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
OOOO OOOO
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 30 14 0 1 50
160 1 70 18 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
200 2 20 24 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
230 260 290 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
270 300 330 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
310 3 50 380 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
360 4 00 440 1
4 10 4 60 500 53 0
4 70 52 0 5 70 6 10
5 30 59 0 64 0 69 0
600 6 60 72 0 78 0
660 74 0 8 10 8 70
73 0 820 9 00 9 60 1 02 0
8 10 9 10 990 1 06 0 1 130
890 990 1 09 0 1 1 70 1 24 0
9 70 1 09 0 1 19 0 1 28 0 1 350
1 06 0 1 180 1 29 0 1 39 0 1 4 70
1 1 50 12 8 0 14 0 0 1 5 00 1 59 0
1 24 0 138 0 1 510 1 620 1 710
1 50 0 1 6 30 1 75 0 1 860
16 10 1 75 0 1 88 0 1 98 0
172 0 1 8 70 2 0 10 2 130
1 84 0 20 00 2 14 0 22 50
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 30 2 270 23 8 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22 70 2 4 00 251 0
B ased on measurement of about 3 000 trees scaled in

foot lo g len g ths (with some s h orter lo g s to avoid waste )
from a stum p 1 or foot hi g h to to p diameters sta ted .
A llowance made for normal but not excessive crook and ,
not for defect or breaka g e W ith the same outside d imen .
sions y oun g er trees yiel d sli g htl y less t h an old ones : 40 to

4 5 y ear old trees y ield about 1 0 % les s t han above fi g ures .
2 76 A MA NUAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O DSM E N
NOTE S O N W E STE R N VOLUME TAB LE S
The tables w h ic h follow are representative and t h e

most reliable in existence ; all are in use in work of impor
t ance . No one h owever either E ast or W est should
, , ,
harbor t he idea t h at suc h tables will work his salvation .
Few will re q uire caution as to the difference between

lo g scale and saw product I t is well understood that de.
feet h as to be sp eciall y al lowed for The bi g part break .
a g e play s in t h e y ield of C oast timber was emph asized in

ea rlier p a g es .
The fact t h at trees may h ave been scaled for a volume

table by a s cale rule different froIn t h e one by whic h
timber in q ues tion is actually to be scaled will be con
s id e re d of conse q uence only if the two rules vary enou g h
to si gnify amon g the inevitable errors of estimatin g I f .
t h at is the case a comparison should be worked out not ,
a difficult undertakin g Th en vary in g p ractice in appli

.
'
cation o f t h e scale rule itself mi gh t make noticeable

diff erence The g eneral conclusion is that before tru st
.
,
in g a ny volume ta ble on res p onsible work t h e cruiser ,
h ad better t e st it to see ho w it fit s his timber and practice .
Further it is in dispensable w h en such tables are relied

, ,
on t h at the exact nature of t h e table itself should be u n

,
d e rst o o d and field practice governed accordin g ly Thr e e .
diff erent kinds of tables are in fact re p resented , , .
In No 23 for lod g ep ole p in e total hei gh t of t h e tre e

.
, ,
is used as t h e basis of hei g ht classification S ome men .
will fin d it stran g e to work in that dimension ; it is habitual

with others however The g eneral reliabilit y of tables
, .
of this kind was discussed on pa g es 17 0 and 1 7 1 and it ,
is necessary h ere to add onl y a su gg estion on t h e h ead of

timber utilization When the table in question was made
.
u p t h e lo g s were scaled to a diameter of 6 in ches at t he

,
‘
t op . If actual utilization in a g iven localit y falls s h ort

of t h at a very few measurements on down trees will
,
enable a man to make pro p er deduction If for in stance .

, ,
actual utilizati on of lod g epole p ine should fall one lo g

len g t h lower than the stan dard a 6 inc h l 6 foot lo g ,
- - ,
T AB LE S RE LA T I NG To PAR T S III A ND I V 2 77
scalin g 1 8 feet by t h e S cribner rul e may be deducted ,
from t h e tabular values I t is not a large p ercenta g e of

.
sizable timber I f lo g s are cut and s ea l e d in lon g er lengt hs

.
t h an 16 feet ad j ustment may be made on somew h at t h e

,
same plan as exp lain ed on p a ges 1 72 and 1 73 This

, .
l ast ad j ustment may be made in any kind of ta ble .
In most of t h e western tables total h ei gh t is neglected

and t h e trees are classified b y number of merc h antable
l o g len g t h s Th at follows t h e usual practice in western
.
c ru is mg , practice connected app arentl y wit h t h e grea t

h ei gh t of t h e timber Th ere are h owever two t ypes of
.
, ,
tables in this class t h ose in whic h t h e timber is scal ed

u p to a sin g le fix ed diameter and those in whic h t he t o p
'
diameter varies wit h actual utilization No s 2 8 and 22 . .

,
tables for W ashin gton h eml ock and for y ell ow p ine of
t h e S out hwest i l lustrate t h ese two t yp es
, .
The chances of error in connection with ta bles of t h e

t yp e of No 22 (leavin g out of account now individual
.
variation of form ) ma y be ill ustrated as fol lows : A

tree 3 1 in ches in breast diameter with fiv e 16 foot lo g s is -
given a V olume of 1 4 1 0 feet and t h e fi g ure is based ( see

table 2 1 ) on utiliz ation to a 1 3 inc h t o p l imit If very -
.
close utilization should secure another lo g len g t h above

t h at t h e fact would not g reatl y concern an estimator
,
because it would be so small in vol ume p roportionall y .
E ven if one less lo g were taken out t h an t h e t able con

templates it wo uld amount to but 9 7 feet 7 pe r cent of
, ,
the tabul ar volume Wh at is of more im p ortance ho w

.
,
ever is t h at the hei gh t at which t h e tree reach es 13

,
inch es diameter be estimated correctl y Sh oul d t h is .
h ei gh t be set a l o g len g th too low and t h e tree scored do wn

as of four lo g s instead of fiv e t h e value deriv e d from t h e ,
table would be 1 230 feet in stead of 1 4 10 13 pe r cent too ,
little An error of e q ual amoun t results if t h e tree is

.
scored a lo g t oo lon g .
T ables of t h e t y pe of No 28 scal in g t h e logs u p to a

sm
.
,
all diameter uniform in all sizes of timber present an ,
app earance of great er accuracy but as a matter of fact ,
muc h larg er err ors t h an t h e above may arise from care

2 78 A M ANUA L FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DSM E N
less use of suc h tables A chi e f reason is t h at men tend

.
s tron g l y to tally timber as y ieldin g the l o g len g t h s to
whic h they are acc ustomed in practice whic h in the case ,
of large trees dep arts widel y from t h e t h eoretical utiliza

tion Thus a 3 6 inch 5 lo g h emlock is given in table 28
.
,
- -
a s h a v in g 3 4 30 feet of timber In lo gg in g h owever.

, ,
somewhere about 128 feet in lo g len gt h s would be go t out

of it If t h en a cruiser tallied it as a 4 l o g tree his table
.
, ,
-
,
would g ive him 2530 feet over 2 6 per cent less t h an t h e

,
true volume Th at mi gh t indeed in a g iven case j ust about

.
make due breaka g e and defect allowance but suc h a re ,
sult accidentally arrived at is no j ustification of t h e p ractice .
The user of t h ese tables then of w h atever descri p tion

, , ,
must realize t h eir exact nature and govern h is field work

accordin g l y Jud g ment also must supplement t h eir use
.
,
and some men havin g arrived at direct fir st h and grasp

, ,
-
of timber q uantit y find tables of use onl y in cidentall y

, .
On pa g es 1 9 6 to 1 9 7 V olume tables produced b y sc al

ing lo g s dec reasin g b y a re g ular taper as if trees were ,
conical in form were referred to as in wide use in Oregon

,
T ABL E S RE LA T I NG To PAR T S III A ND I v 2 79
and W ashin g ton In t h e a ppl ication of t h ese to stan ding

.
timber somewhat the same difficul ties are met as above ,
w hile ot h ers arise due to t h e fact t h at only a very un usual

tree t hrou gh out its merch antable len gt h has a true tap er .
Normal and al so unusual relations in north wes tern trees

are ill ustrated above The inference is ea sy t h at tables .
of t h e kin d mentioned are best left t o t h e use of exp ert s .
The first four of t h e above sets of fi g ures for Dou g las ,
fir repres ent normal form The bod y of t h e tree is see n

, .
to h ave less taper than eit h er t h e butt l o g or t h e t o p ; t h e

larg er t he tree s diameter t h e faster t h e taper normally
’
and t hat s h ows in t h e butt lo g p articul arl y On t his last .
fact rests t h e p ractice of cruisers of takin g base diameter

prett y high usuall y and fre q uentl y discountin g t h e diam
eter ascertained by measure Th eir effort rea ll y is to .
line the bas al diameter wit h t ha t at t h e t op of t h e first

lo g and t h ose above it .
Tre e s No 5 and 6 are repres en t a tive of q uick and slo w

.
ta p er or w h at amoun ts to t h e same t hin g of s h ort and

, ,
tall timber On t h e same base diameter one tree h as

.
twice t h e contents of the ot h er No 6 is a tree of very . .
unusual taper h owever , .
O t h er nort h western s pecies wit h t h e excep tion of ,
cedar h ave form in general similar to fir but a mu c h

, ,
t hinn er bark as No s 7 to 1 0 for h emloc k and noble fir

, .
, ,
il lustrate Very h eavy ta per hi gh u p in t h e trees is als o

.
s h own here The bearin g of t his last fact on t h e appli

. .
c ab ilit y of a strai gh t ta p er volume ta ble is i ll ustrated-
below from tree No 1 0 in t h e series ( S ee also dis cussion on

. .
p a g es 1 9 6 and T he error in one case is 3 p er cent t h e ,
other 1 5 p er cent T his last error is seen to be incurred

.
b y in clusion in the reckonin g of a lo g t h at contains onl y

2 p er cent of the volume of the tree and t h at likel y to be ,
broken u p in fellin g The practice of commercial cruisers .
in neg lectin g the contents of trees above a diameter e qual

about h alf the base diameter is t hu s rationaliz ed
C nt n t f 4 l w l g
o e s o tu l t p
o er o s , ac a a er
C nt nt f 4 l w l g g l t p
o e s o o er o s , re u ar a er
C n t nt f 5 l g
o e s o t lt p
o s , ac u a a er
C n t nt f 5 l g g l t p
o e s o o s , re u ar a er
C n t nt f fif t h l g
o e s o o
28 0 A M A NUAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
.
The remain in g fi g ures ill ustrate variation of form and

irreg ularit y No s 1 1 and 1 2 havin g t h e same diameter
. .
,
breast hi g h and also at the to p of the lo g s used are y e t ,
1 3 p er cent a part in contents w h ile t h e second pair of ,
matched trees diff er by 1 9 pe r cent of t h e avera g e value ,
in eac h case The taper of t h e body of these trees is

.
re g ular h owever ; t he variation is in the butt and to p

,
lo g sections the former bein g far more si gnificant Trees

, .
No s 1 5 and 1 6 show some real irreg ularit y thou gh not h

.
,
in g ex treme M uc h wider departur es from t yp e t h an

.
a n y of t h ese could in fact be chosen .
In conclusion a contrast Will be drawn between present

,
commercial methods and the use of volume tables In .
the construction of these it is customary to t hrow out

swell butt and other abnormalit y of form and t h at , ,
done the tables derive stren g th from the l aw of avera g es

, .
S in g le trees may depart from t h e t y pe and a certain

amoun t of variation g oes with a g e but the table based , ,
on a lar g e number of trees and applied to larg e numbers ,
if t ha t is d o n e in t he s ame way t he meas u res be hind t he t a ble

were t aken g ives res ul ts th a t are trustwort hy W it h in
,
reasonable limits P resent d ay commercial estimates may

.
-
be e q uall y correct but that d e pends on a different t hin g

,
on the abilit y of the cruiser to size u p each tre e as

seen on t h e basis of h is trainin g of every descri p tion
, .
T AB L E S RE LA T I NG To PAR T S III A ND I V 2 81
VO LUM E T ABLE N 20 WE STE R N WH I T E PI NE

o . .
, IN
B O AR D FE E T BY T HE SC R IB NE R R UL E
,
( F m B ll t in N 36 U S F
ro u e t S i )
o .
, . . o re s e r v ce
From timb e r g rown in northern I daho .
Tre es scal e d to a to p diamet e r inside bark of 6 t o 8

inch es H ei ght of stu m p
. 2 to 3 feet All tr ee s scaled .
as thou g h sound L oss by breaka g e w as 4 p e r cent

. .
Loss due to invisible rot was 5 p er cent .

2 82 A MA N UAL FOR NO R T H E R N W O O DS M E N
VO LUM E TABLE N 2 1 WE S TE R N YE LLOW PI NE

o . . IN
B OAR D FE E T BY T HE SC R IB NE R R ULE
,
( F m B ul l t in N 36 U S F
ro e t Se i )
o .
, . . o re s rv c e
M easurements by T S W oolsey Jr in A rizona

. .
, .
, .
Trees scal e d to 8 inch t o p inside bark

-
strai g ht and -
sound Allow 3 to 15 p e r cent for d e fects The s o call e d

. .
-
black j ack vari e t y r eq uires a further reduction of

about 1 2 p er cent h avin g a smaller v olume t h an the olde r
,
”
y ellow p ine .
TAB LE S RE LAT I NG To PAR T S III A ND I V 283
VO LU M E T ABLE NO . 22 WE S TE R N Y E LLO W PI NE B Y
.
,
T HE SC R IB NE R R UL E
S me
a t re e s cl ifi d b y 1 6 f oo t l og l ngt hs
ass e - e
Numb e r of 1 6- f oo t L g
o s
b re a s t B asis
In hc es V l um
o e B o ar dF e et
The values in t his table are materiall y hi g her than

t h ose of other Forest S ervice tables for the same s p ec ies
made in C alif ornia and Ore g on .
28 4 A MAN UAL FO R NO R TH E R N WO O DSME N
VO LUM E ABLE
T LO D G E PO LE PI NE IN B OAR D
NO . 23 .
,
FE E T BY T HE SC R IB NE R R ULE
,
( F m B ll t in N 36 U S F
ro u e t S i )
o .
, . . o res e r v ce
Tot a l H ight
e of Tr e e Fe et
Figures by T ower a n d R edin g ton from tr ee s cut in

Gallatin C ount y M ontana T rees se al e d in lo gs 10 to
, .
1 6 feet lon g u p to 6 inche s in t o p .
YI E LD O F L O DG E PO LE PI NE IN R AILROAD T IE S
( F m S t dy b y S t d n t
ro u f Uni it y f W hing t n)
u e s o v e rs o as o
A g N mb Ob t in d p Tv e ra e u er a e er re e
H e wn T ie s S aw e d T ies
In h
c es M e dium Sh ort
—
60 80
’
un de r 60
'
R esults from 2 6 7 trees cut in eastern Ore g on : H ewn ties

from t imber not less than inches in diameter made ,
7 inc h es thick ; sawed ties 6 by 8 inc h es ; both kinds 8 feet

, ,
lon g A vera g e hei g ht of 10 inc h trees 6 8 feet ; of l 5 inc h

.
-
,
-
trees 8 5 feet ; of 20 inch trees 9 3 feet

,
-
, .
T AB L E S RE LAT I NG To PAR T S III A ND W 28 5
VO LUM E T ABL E No . WE STE R N LA R C H IN B OAR D FEE T

24 .
, ,
BY THE SC R IB NE R R UL E
( F m B ul l t in No 36 U S Fo
ro e t Se
. i ) , . . re s rv ce
Numb e r of 1 6— F o ot L g o s
In hc es In h
c es T re e s
1 94 5
A bove table b y L M ar g olin from timber cut in Flat

.
h ead C ount y , M ontana T rees scaled without all owance

.
for breaka g e and defect which in t his timber amount e d

,
to 5 p er cent In ad d ition 5 p er c e nt or more should be

.
allowed for but t s left if lo g s are driven .

28 6 M A NUAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O DS ME N
T ABLE No . 25 G LMANN SPR UC E

. EN E , IN B OAR D
FE E T BY T HE SC R IB NE R R UL E
,
( F o m B u ll t in N 36 U S F
r e o t S
. i )
, . . o re s e rv ce
From trees cut in C olora d o and U tah measured by

H D Foster S tum p h ei g ht 1 3 3 feet
. . .
—
.
T AB L E S RE LA T IN G To PAR T S 11 1 AND W 287
VO LU ME TABLE No 2 6 DO UG LAS FIR O F T HE C OAST

. .
BY THE SC R IB NE R D E CI MAL R ULE

(U S F t S
. i ) . o r es erv c e
Di m
a eter
Numb e r of T hirt y -t wo- Foo t Lo gs
In hc es V l o u me B o ar dF e et in T e ns
838 9 2 6 1 9
8 86 9 8 5 1 2
9 53 1 06 6 1 l
10 30 1 1 4 7 1 1
1 1 1 8 1 22 5 1 5
1 1 98 13 12 1 0
128 5 13 90 1 6
1 364 1 4 6 5 1 6
B ased on 13 94 tr e es measured in lo ggin g o p erations in

Lane C ount y , O re g on Diam e ters taken outs ide bark
.
, ,
on t h e stump which was ordinaril y about 4 feet hig h are

, ,
closel y comparable with t h e d iameter at breast hei gh t .
Trees scaled w it h out deduction for defect or brea ka g e to ,
a p oint 1 0 inch es in diameter at the to p unless unme r ,
chantable to t his p oint The ma j orit y of t h e lo g s were

.
24 fee t lon g t h ou g h the len g t h varied from 1 6 to 36 feet

, .
2 88 A M ANUAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DSM E N
VO LUM E ABLE N 2 7 D O UG L AS FI R O F T HE I NT E R IO R
T o . .
I N B O AR D FE E T BY T HE SC R IB NE R R ULE
,
( F m B u ll t in N 3 6 U S F
ro e ot S. i ) , . . o re s e rv ce
From t imber cut in Wy omin g and I daho meas ured by

Me ssr R edin g ton and P eters
. .
T AB L E S RE LA T ING To PAR T S II I A ND IV 28 9
VO LU ME T ABLE No . WAS H I NG T O N HE M LO C K BY
28 . T HE
SC R IB NE R D E CI MAL R ULE
( B y E J H anzlik o f U S F
. . s t S r i e)
. . o re e v c
Numb er of h
T irt y -t wo- Foo t Lo gs
In h
c es V l o u me B o ar d Fee t in T e ns
39 47 55
43 52 61
47 58 68 78
52 64 76 87
57 71 84 96
62 77 91 104
67 84 1 00 1 12 140
73 90 1 08 1 22 14 8
80 96 1 16 1 30 1 56
86 104 1 24 1 39 1 65
92 1 12 1 33 148 1 74
00 1 20 14 1 1 58 1 84
06 128 14 9 1 67 19 3
13 13 9 1 58 1 77 2 04
21 14 7 1 68 18 6 2 14
1 56 1 77 1 97 22 6
1 65 186 2 08 2 38
1 73 1 95 2 19 2 50
18 1 2 04 22 9 2 63
1 90 2 13 242 2 78
222 253 29 3
231 2 66 3 10
24 0 2 80 33 0
2 50 2 94 35 1
259 30 8 3 78
B ased on 1 44 0 trees in both pure and mixed s tands

, ,
measured at lo gg in g o p erations at various p oin ts in west

ern W ashin g ton A stum p h ei g ht e q ual brea st diameter
.
allowed Trees s e al e d in 1 6 foot lo g len g ths (wit h trim

.
-
min g allowance) to a diameter inside bark of 8 inc h es .
No deduction for defect or breaka g e .
A ctual ut iliz ation a little over 8 0 per cent of above

fi gures .
The tru e firs are formed V ery nearl y like h eml ock .
290 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N W O O DSM E N
VO LUME AB LE S N 2 9 WASH I NG T O N R E D C E DAR

T o . .
BY T HE SC R IB NE R D E CI MAL R ULE
T ALL T I M B E R
The above and followin g tabl e are based on field

measurements of about 1 200 sound and normal trees
g rown in ful l y stocked mix ed s tands in t h e P u g et S ound
re g ion at elevations from 2 00 to 1 0 00 feet b y A G Jack
, , . .
son o f th e U S Forest S ervice S caled from tap er meas

. . .
u r e me n t s in 3 2 foot lo g s to diameters stated

- Data .
arran g ed to promot e timber g radin g .
C edar scaled in short len g ths if at the same time it is

,
sound of g ood form and fu ll y util ized will y ield more

, , ,
t h an t h ese values On the Ot h er h and t he tree is so

.
larg el y sub j ect to swell butt rot and breaka ge that tables
, ,
must be used wit h great caution an d often discarded

alto g et h er .
T ABL E S RE LA T I NG To PAR T S III A ND W 29 1
SHO R TE R T I MBE R
Dia m First ’
32 L o g S d 32 '
L og
fi)
35
e co n 0
q 223 g
3
T3 fi5 E3
S l 56 56
Di a m .
ca e
Tot a l Tot a l
1 830
12 6 ) 2 1 10
The trees in t his table are reall y of g ood len g t h M ea s .
u re me n t s on s h ort moun ta in timber are not available .
C edar Shin g le B olts V ery defective trees t h e break

.
,
a g e o f lo gg in g operations and somet imes t h e whole

,
usable contents of trees above about 20 inches in brea st

diameter are lar g el y utilized in t his form The bolts are .
cut 5 2 inches lon g and the lar g er p ieces s plit ; they are
then p iled and measured in the cord 8 X 4 feet In .
p resent p ractice from 1 8 to 2 5 bolts make a cord w hic h

carefu l measurement h as shown to conta in of solid wood
about 70 pe r cent of its outs ide contents A cord is .
e quivalent to from 5 00 to 700 feet lo g scale les s in t h e ,
smal ler sizes of timber .

2 92 A M ANUAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O DS ME N
VO LU ME TABLE No 30 SUGAR PI NE IN CALIFO R NIA

. .
BY T HE SC R IBNE R D E CI M AL R ULE
(U S F t S i ) . . o re s erv c e
Nu mb er of Si xt e e n- Foo t Logs
In h
c es Vl o u me B o ar d Fe e t in T e ns In h
c es
79
89
1 00 122
1 13 13 6
12 8 1 52
1 44 1 70 1 89
1 63 1 92 2 18
18 7 2 17 24 7
2 13 24 6 2 79 3 10
24 5 2 78 3 13 34 6
2 80 3 13 34 9 38 6
3 19 3 54 39 0 4 27 4 63
359 39 8 4 35 4 73 5 15
40 1 44 5 482 52 3 567
446 4 93 532 575 62 3
493 54 4 58 6 630 68 1 74 9
54 4 59 8 64 2 6 86 74 0 8 18
5 97 6 53 6 98 74 2 80 1 8 85
652 71 1 75 6 8 00 8 62 9 53
709 76 9 8 14 8 60 923 1 02 2
7 64 829 8 72 921 987 1 090
82 0 8 86 9 30 983 105 1 1 15 9
0 0 0 0 0 0 8 76 943 990 104 6 1 1 16 122 7
0 0 0 0 0 0 9 33 1 0 00 10 5 3 1 1 09 1 18 1 1 29 7
0 0 0 0 0 0 989 1 0 58 1 1 15 1 1 73 12 50 1 366
0 0 0 0 0 0 04 8 1 1 17 1 1 77 1 2 39 13 19 1 4 34
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 76 1 24 0 1 30 5 138 8 1 50 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 23 5 1 30 3 13 70 1 4 56 1 570
0 0 0 0 0 0 12 9 6 1 368 1 4 35 1 52 3 16 3 9
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 358 14 3 1 1 5 00 1 59 0 170 7
14 2 0 14 9 7 1 5 65 1 6 59 1 778
A g t mp h ight
v e ra e s u e s to f ee t
Lg l l ng t hs as c u t
.
o l d in mm
s sca e co er cia e .
SECT IO N III
MI SC ELLANEOUS TAB LE S AND INFORMATI ON

R U L ES FO R ARE A AN D VO LUM E OF
FI GUR ES
W EI GHT OF MAT ERI ALS
HANDY E QUI V ALENTS
NUM B E R O F PLANTS PER A CR E WIT H D IFFERE NT
SPA CI NG
C O MPO U ND I NTER ES T TABLE
TIM E IN W HI CH A SUM W IL L DO U BL E .
T ABLE O F W GE S A T GI VE N R TE S PE R
A A M O NTH
THE B I LTM O R E S TI C K
R ULE S FO R AR E A AND VO L UME O F D IFFERENT
FI GURE S
A re a of M ultiply the length of side by its elf

S q u ar e .
,
or as is said
, square it
, .
A re a of R e c t ang l e M ultipl y t h e base by the altitude

. .
FI GU R E A FI GU R E B FI GU R E C
A re a of Para l l e l ogr am
( Figure A ) M ultipl.
y base a b .
by altitude b c not b y b d ,I f b d and the angle at d are

.
known b 6 may be found by the formula

,
be bd X s ine of a ngl e at d .
Area of Trian g l e .
( Figur e B .
) M ultiply base a b by
altitude c d and divide by 2 .
A r e a o f T rian g l e wit h 3 Sid e s Giv e n ( Figure B ) A d d . .
the 3 sides togeth e r and divide the sum by 2 From this .
half sum take e ach si d e in succession M ultiply the half .
sum and the remainders all together and take the square
root T he formula is
.
C ircumference equals d ia me t e r X
Cir c l e .
A r e a o f C ir c l e ( Figur e.C ) S quare the . diameter ,
multiply by and divide by 4 .

M IS C E LL ANE O US T ABL E S A ND INF O R M AT IO N 29 5
Right - A n g l e d T riang l e . T he
square of the hypothenus e of a
right a ngled triangle equals the
-
su m of t h e squares on the other

two sides or in th e figure
, , ,
AB ’
AG Z
BC Z
,
O N= M .
By mea ns of this r ul e w hen a ny ,
tw o sides of a rig h t angled tr iangle -
are given the third can be

,
F U D IG RE
found .
V o l ume of C y lind e r ( g
Fi ure E ) M ul tipl y t.h e area .
of th e bas e b y the altitude .
V o l ume o f C on e (Figure F ) M ul tiply th e area of th e

. .
base by one third of the heigh t

-
.
FI GU R E E F I GU R E F F I GU R E G FI GU R E H
V o l ume of Prism whe t he r R igh t or Ob liqu e .
(Figure
G ). M ultipl y ar e a of b a se b y the vertical height .
V o l ume of Pyramid ( Figure H ) M ultipl

.
y base by .
one third of the height

-
.
T o M e a su r e t he C o n t e nt s o f a B ox or S o lid wit h Sid e s

at Right A n g l e s t o O n e A n o t h e r M ultiply length by
.
breadth by height I f the dimensions are in fee t the result

.
will be th e contents in cub ic feet .

29 6 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D S ME N
W EI GHT O F MA TERIALS
A c u b ic f oot wa t e r w e i s
of gh
A c u b ic f o o t o f c a s t I ro n w e i s gh ab o u t
A cu b ic f o o t o f w ro u gh
t Iro n o r st ee l w ei
0
gh s ab o u t
Woods wh en t h oroughly seasoned weig h per cubic foot

about as follows Absolute drying in a kiln will lessen .
these figures about 1 0 per cent Green wood is from 50 .
to 80 per cent h eavier .
Whit e pin w hit e p u b al am fi as p en

e, s r ce , s r,
R d p u
e h ml
s k p pl
r ce , e oc o ar
Pit h p in N w y p in b l k p ma p l e
,
c e, w hit or a e, ac s ru c e , e
Whit b i h d m p l t am
e rc k w hit , h re a e, a ra c , e as , ye ll o w bi c hr ,
d k re oa
B c h g map l
ee su ar e
Whit k bl ck bi c h
,
e oa , a r
cord of green spruce pulp wood weighs about 4 500 lbs

A .
fir and wh ite pine a little more A cord of dry spruce pulp .
wood weig hs 3000 to 3 500 lbs P ine fir and poplar are .

, ,
somewhat ligh ter if in exactl y t he same moisture condition .
Green hard wood by the cord varies greatly in weight .
A cord of white birc h spool wood weigh s 6 0 0 0 to 700 0 lbs ; -

.
s ugar maple and

y ellow birc h are 1 0 per cent h eavier ; soft
maple as h basswood and p oplar are somewh at lighter
, , ,
than white birch For green split cord wood 4000 to 60 00 .
lbs are t h e usual limits of wei gh t M edium d ry birch

. .
,
beech and ma p le s p lit 6 6 p er cent solid in t h e p ile wei gh s

, , , ,
about 30 00 lbs to the cord . .
A thousand feet of old g rowt h s p ruce lo g s Andros ,
co gg in scale wei gh s about 6000 lbs and this is p robably

, .
,
t he lower limit for g reen soft wood lumber w hile sout h e rn -

,
y ellow p ine at 8 000 to lbs is the limit in the other .
direction B etween t h ese limits t h ere is wide variation by

.
reason of scale and q ualit y .
S easonin g decreases t h e wei gh t of timber by 30 to 5 0

p e r cent as a rule and at t h e same t ime increases it s ,
strengt h by 5 0 to 1 00 p e r cent .
M ISC E LLANE O US T ABL E S A ND IN FO R MA T I O N 29 7
HANDY E QUIVALE NTS
Th ere are 1 6 0 s quare rods in an a cre .
A s q uare acre is feet on a side .
1 1 8 feet is approx imatel y t h e radius of a c ircular acre ,
8 3 feet of a h alf acre and 5 9 feet of a quarter acre

, .
T here are 5 2 8 0 feet in a mile .
A meter conta ins inc hes ; a kilometer is 62 mile . .
A liter contains 6 1 cubic inc hes — nearly th e contents

,
of a quart .
A h ectare conta ins acres .
A gram weigh s grains T roy weigh t, .
A k ilogram or kilo conta ins lbs avoirdupois .
T h ere are 2 3 1 cubic inches in a U S liquid gall on . . .
T h ere are cubic inches in a U S str uck bus hel . . .
A h orsepower is t h e work done in lifting pounds

1 foot in 1 minute A flow of 5 2 8 cubic feet of water pe r
.
minute with 1 foot fall generates one horsepower .
A miner s inc h is t h e flow of water t hrou gh an orifice

’
1 in c h s q uare under a h ead ( in some S ta tes ) of 6 inc h es .
’
In C al ifornia 5 0 miner s inches e qual 1 cubic foot p er
second e q ual
, acre feet p er d a y nearly an inch an ,
In some S ta tes 4 0 miner s inches e qual t his flow

’
.
NO . OFPLANTS PE R AC RE W ITH
DI FFE R E NT SPACI NG
Sp a c in g
J
3 X O
4 X Q
I
5 X J
C
6 X Q
7 X Q
8 X W
9 X D
C
29 8 A M AN UAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O D S ME N
C O MPO UND I NTE RE S T TAB LE

A mo unt of 3 1 p in ip l f t
r c n y n mb
a f y
a er a u er o ea rs an d at
g n t M p nt iv e ra e rc e
T I ME IN W H IC H A SUM WILL D O UB LE
Simp l I n te e re s t C o mp o u n d I nt e res t
50 y e ars 35 y e a rs
40 y e a rs 28 y ea rs 1 mo n t h
33 y ea rs 4 mo n t hs 23 y ea rs 54 m o n t s h
28 y ea rs 7 m o n t hs 20 y ea rs 25 mont s h
25 y e a rs 17 y e a rs 8 mo n t s h
22 y e a rs 24 m o n t hs 15 y ea rs 9 mont s h
20 y ea rs 14 y e a rs 2 4 mo n t s h
18 y ea rs 7 m o n t hs 12 y e a rs 1 1 5» m o n t s h
16 y e a rs 8 m o n t hs 11 y ea rs 1 1 } mo n t s h
No t e in ab o v e t ab l es t hat a su m at co mp oun d in t ere st d l

ou b e s
w h e n ra t e
o f In t e res t X nu mb e r o f y ears e qu a s l ( v ery l
n e ar y ) 7 1 h h
W it t is re me m
d many p mp o un d
.
b e re ro b l e ms In co Int e re s t ca n b e so v e l d me nt a l y l .
M IS C E LLA NE O US T ABL E S A ND I NF O R M A T I O N 2 99
T ABLE OF WA G E S AT, G IV—E N R ATE S PE R MO NT H

O F T W E NT Y S IX DAYS
D 31 5
T ABLE OF WAGE S AT GI
VE N R ATE S PE R MO NT H
Y
O F T W E NT — S IX DAYS co n tin u e d
THE B ILTMO R E S T IC K 30 1
THE B ILTMOR E STI C K
This implement employ ed to ascertain t h e diameter of

,
’
s tandin g timber w h en h eld at arm s len g t h tan g en t to t h e
trees to be measured was briefly d escribed on p a g e 1 63

, .
R elations between tree stick an d e y e when t h e stick is

, ,
in use are made clear in t h e fi g ure the circle re p res ent in g ,
a section of a tree breast high B X t h e B iltmore stick , ,
A T t h e distance from t h e stick to t h e e y e and 0 M a ,
radius vertical to t h e l ine of si g ht p assin g on one side of

t he tree W it h t his for a p attern it is clear ho w t h e woods
.
man after h avin g determined A T as a matter of p ractice

, ,
can plot circles of di fferent diameters d raw t a nge n t s to

‘
t h em from A and ascert ain by mea surement in eac h case

,
B C t h e p ro p er stick g raduation
, .
The g eometry of the matter is t h at of sim ilar ri gh t

an g led trian g les and consideration wil l show t h e soundn ess
,
of t he formula a p p ended from w hic h may be derived

,
A TX D
’
A T(A T + D)
t h e value of B C for circles of any size and for any arm

reach Wh en t he latter A T has been determined by
.
, ,
trial t h e formula becomes sim p ler Th us wit h A T 25

, .
inc h es
25 D
X/25 ( 25 D)
25 0 25 0
or for D
,
10 inc h es in ch es .
Values of B C for tree diameters from 6 to 6 0 in ch e s an d

distances of 23 to 27 inches h ave been worked out and
are p ublished in the P roc eedin g s of t h e S ociet y of Amer
ican Fore s ters for 1 9 14 pa g e 4 8 , .
A M A NUAL FO R NO R T H E R N WO O DS M E N
The Forest S ervice has e m p loy ed t he B il tmore stick in

measurin g larg e timber on the P acific C oast and els e
where and the t e sts a pp li e d h av e s h own reasonable
,
accuracy A careful analy sis of sou rces of error has devel

.
1
o p ed t h e followin g :
( )
a T iltin g the stick and holdin g it other than vertical
’
to the line of si g ht to t h e trees center are p ractices to be
guarded a g ainst but if reasonable care is used in mani p ula
,
tion errors are ne g li g ible

, .
( b) In app ly in g values derived from plots or tables to

the stick itself re g ard must be had to its t hickness The
, .
stick may w e ll be beveled or a steel s p line ma y be inserted

,
in to it to carry the g raduations .
(c) E rrors aris in g from measurin g a tree t h e narrow or

t h e wide way are g reater than with the caliper ; hence
cross measur e s are the more desirable .
(d) I t is very easy in practice to vary the distance

between t h e stick and the e y e and t h is introduces error ,
that is material thou gh in cont inued work succes siv e

,
errors tend to balance .
(e) M en of ordinary hei gh t h ave a constant t endency

to meas ur e t ree diameter not breast h i g h b u t higher near , ,
t h e e yé level .
To conclude the B iltmore stick r eq uires to be prac t i

,
call y tested before use and co nstant care in a pp lication .
M or e liable to error t h an t h e cali p er in ordinary timber ,
it works less ra p idl y as well While serviceable in its .
field its g eneral use is not to be recommended

, .
1
B ruc e at p revi ous referenc e .

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A MA NU A L

O ne t h ou san d co pi es issu e di J n anuary , 1 909

by n u mer o u s w o o d s me n ha s b ee n gr a t ify i n g L e t ter s

The b o ok h o we v er is n o t ma t eri a lly in c re ase d

b u lk nor h as t h ere b ee n any c h a n ge in i t s c h ief p u r

p ose w h i c h is t o ser v e t he me n who are c a rry ing t he

me n in w h a t e v er se c t i o n t hey are a n d w h a t e v er may

PART I . LAN D S URVEYING

2 Ad j ustments o f the C o mpass

3 Keeping the C o mpas s in O rd er

5 Bl eas uring In acces sibl e L in e s

6 Sta d ia M e as ure ment

7 Units o f D i stanc e and Ar ea

1 R unnin g a C o mpas s L i n e ( B acksight Picke ting

3 M arking L ine s and C o rn ers

4 O rig in a l Surveys a nd R e surv ey s

SE CTI ON V C OMPUT ATI ON AN D O FFI C E W OR K

S E CTI ON VI O N T HE B E AR ING OF LINES

S E CTI ON VII O N O BTAI NING T HE M E R IDI AN

S EC TI ON VIII T HE UNI T E D STATE S PU B LI C

3 Stad i a M easu rement

S E CTI ON III T HE HAND L EV E L A ND C LINOM E TE R

S E CTION I V C OM PAS S A ND PA CING

S E CTI ON V THE TR AVE RS E B OAR D

S E CTI ON VII M E T HO DS O F MAP MA KI NG

A W ith L and alre ady subdivi d ed

B B a sed o n Survey o f R o ad s o r Strea ms

D W es t ern To p o graphy Us é o f C l ino m e t er

S E CTI ON VIII ADVANTAGES OF A MAP SYS T EM

PA RT III . L O G A ND W OOD M EASUREME NT

S E CTI ON III NEw HA M PS HI R E RULE

2 S crib ner a nd D ec i mal R ul es

3 Sp aul ding o r C o l umb ia R i v er R ul e

8 T he o ry o f Scal e R ule s a nd C la rks I nt ernatio na l

S E CTI ON VI SCALING PR A CTI CE

SE CTI ON VII MI LL TAL L I ES .

SE CTI ON VIII C OR D M EAS UR E.

SEC TION I INTR O DU CTI ON

SE CTI ON II INS TR UM ENTAL HE L PS

S EC TI ON III HEI GHT ME AS UR EM ENT

S EC TI ON V PR A C ITC E OF TIM B ER ES TIM ATI NG

A Small and Valuabl e T racts

B Larger a nd L e ss Valu ab l e T racts

D Pa c iﬁc C o ast M e tho ds

S E C T ION II . Ta bles re l a tin

VOLU OF C YL IN DERS (LO GS ) IN C U BI C

SCR I B NE R LOG RU L E LE GAL m MINNE S O TA

I2 . C LARK S I NTE R NATI ONA L R U L E

13 . S PAU L DING R U L E OF C OLU M B IA R IVER

B . W estern; Notes o n W est ern Vol u me Ta bl es 276

24 . W est ern Larch in B o ard M ea s u re

S E C TIO N III . M iscella neou s Ta bl es a nd I nf orma tion

3 . HA NDY E QU IVA LE NTS

S E CTI ON I T H E SUR V E YOR S C OMPAS S

SE CTI ON III M E AS UR E M E NT OF DIS TAN C E

4 C hai ni ng Pra cti c e

6 Sta di a M e asu reme nt

7 Units O f D i stanc e a nd Area

S E CTI ON I V S UR VE YI NG PRA CTI C E

1 R un ni ng a C o mpass L i ne (B acksight Picketing

3 M arki ng L i nes a nd C o rners

5 Age o f Spo t s o r B laze s

S E CTI ON V C OM PUTATI ON AN D OFFI C E WOR K