Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 1189–1197

www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

Non-linear cyclic model of top and seat with web angle for steel
beam-to-column conections
L. Calado ∗
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Instituto Superior Técnico, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal

Received 18 November 2002; received in revised form 24 March 2003; accepted 24 March 2003

Abstract

The use of steel connections is inherent of every structural steel building. Savings in connection costs as well as improved
connection quality has an impact on all types of buildings. Several analytical models have been developed in the last years to
represent the cyclic behaviour of beam-to-column connections. However very few models have been substantiated by test results
under cyclic loading conditions. For that reason, the implementation of such models in general-purpose structural analysis programs
for steel structures under seismic actions, is in some cases complex and in others impossible. This paper is concerned with a non-
linear cyclic model of top and seat with web angle for steel beam-to-column connections, with damage accumulation and bolts in
cyclic shear. Numerical results are compared with experimental tests in order to evidence the capabilities and the accuracy of the
proposed numerical model.
 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Connections; Cyclic behaviour; Bolts; Steel; Numerical modelling; Damage accumulation

1. Introduction strongly compromised due to the extensive brittle dam-

The use of steel connections is inherent of every struc-
tural steel building, whether it is of one storey or one
hundred storeys. Therefore, the beam-to-column connec-
tion, because of its importance to all construction, is sig-
nificant both economically and structurally. Savings in
connection costs as well as improved connection quality
has an impact on all types of buildings. Because of the
repetitive nature of the connections, even minor material
or labour savings in one connection is compounded and
expanded throughout the entire building. It is important,
then, for a design engineer to understand the behaviour
of the connection, not only from the point-of-view of the
connection as a structural element, but also from the
point-of-view of the connection as a part of the complete
structural system.
Following the Northridge (1994) and Hyogoken-
Nanbu (1995) earthquakes, the confidence of structural
engineers in welded moment resisting connections was
∗
Tel.: +351-21-8418219; fax: +351-21-8418200.
E-mail address: calado@civil.ist.utl.pt (L. Calado).
age detected in several frames. As a consequence of
these observations, a great deal of theoretical and experi-
mental research activity is presently being developed in
the USA, Japan and Europe on the cyclic behaviour of
beam-to-column connections.
Since recently bolted connections, in particular top
and seat with web angles connections, have not been
considered appropriate for structures in seismic areas,
due to their partial strength and semirigidity character-
istics. However, as pointed out by several researchers
including Liu and Astaneh [1], Leon [2], Elnashai et al.
[3], De Matteis et al. [4] and Calado and Mele [5], the
dynamic behaviour of semirigid frames can be parti-
cularly favourable due to the period elongation, related
to the connection flexibility, to the damping increase and
to highly dissipative friction mechanism deriving from
a proper “slip capacity design”. Both these effects act as
a sort of self-isolation of the frame structure, thus lead-
ing to a remarkable reduction of the seismic actions.
It is worth emphasising that in the context of the Euro-
pean Inco-Copernicus Joint Research Project “Reliability
of Moment Resistant Connections of Steel Building
Frames in Seismic Areas” (RECOS) and also of the SAC

0141-0296/03/$ - see front matter  2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0141-0296(03)00067-1
1190 L. Calado / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 1189–1197

Nomenclature
ss stress with damage accumulation
f function for the decrease of the stress
ŝs stress without damage accumulation
ŝsr stress at the last inversion without damage accumulation
ssy yield stress
es strain
esr strain at the last loading inversion
esy yield strain
b ratio between the kinematic stiffness hardening and the modulus of elasticity
R parameter that takes into account the Bauschinger effect and defines the shape of the transition curve
between the elastic and plastic zones [7]
ITd total damage index
Icd damage index related with the complete semi-cycles
⌬Icd damage index related to the actual semi-cycle
+
Nsl,1 ; N⫺ sl,1 forces to start the slip
+
Nsl,2 ; N⫺ sl,2 forces at the end of the slip
Ny+ ; N⫺ y yield forces
Ny,o+
; N⫺ y,o yield forces for zero displacement
+
dsl,1 ; d⫺sl,1 displacement at the beginning of the slip
+
dsl,2 ; d⫺sl,2 displacement at the end of the slip
dy+ ; d⫺ y yield displacement

Steel Project, which started immediately after the ŝs⫺ŝsr es⫺esr

Northridge earthquake to address the specific problem s∗s ⫽ es∗ ⫽ (2)
ksssy keesy
of beam-to-column connections, a great interest in bolted
configurations as an alternative to the standard welded The parameters ks and k⑀ related with the amplitude
connections, was developed [6]. of the stress and strain are obtained by imposing that
In this paper a non-linear model to simulate the cyclic the stress-strain curve to be asymptotic to the kinematic
behaviour of bolted connection is proposed and dis- hardening curve:
cussed. The model takes into account the degradation of ŝs→s+yo ⫹ Ekines (3)
the strength properties of the material with the accumu-
lation of plastic strains and the cyclic behaviour of the From the equation proposed by Menegotto and Pinto
bolts in shear. The accuracy of the proposed model is [8] it is possible to obtain the following Eq. (4):
verified through the comparison between numerical s∗s →b e∗s ⫹ (1⫺b) (4)
simulation and experimental tests.
Replacing the relative stress and the relative strain (2)
in the Eq. (4), the latter can be re-written as:
2. Stress-strain relationship for steel

The model developed [7] for the stress-strain relation-

ŝs→ 冋 册 冋
ksssy
keesy
b es ⫹ ksssy(1⫺b)⫺
ksssy
be ⫹ ŝsr
keesy sr 册 (5)

ship for steel under uniaxial cyclic loadings, is based on Comparing (3) with (5) the following Eqs. (6) and (7)
Menegotto and Pinto [8] model, reformulated to take can be obtained:
into account the effects of unloading. In this reformul-
ks Ekin
ation new expressions are proposed to assess the ⫽ ⫽1 (6)
relationship between the relative stress (ss∗)and the rela- ke Eb
tive strain (e∗s ): s+yo⫺ŝsr ⫹ Ekinesr
ks ⫽
(1⫺b) es∗ (1⫺b) ssy
s∗s ⫽ b e∗s ⫹
冑 1 ⫹ |e |
R ∗R
(1) (7)
s ŝsr b esr
⫽ 1⫺ ⫹
(1⫺b) ssy 1⫺b esy
The relative stress and relative strain can be obtained
[7] by the following Eq. (2): The implementation of this stress-strain relationship
 L. Calado / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 1189–1197 1191

not only needs the assessment that the stress as function beam-columns, welded joints and beam-to-column con-
of the strain but also the evaluation of the tangent stiff- nections proposed to adopt as unified failure criterion the
ds reduction of the energy dissipated in a cycle to 50% of
ness . that dissipated by the same structural component made
de
The main expressions to assess this stress-strain of an elastic perfectly plastic material, cycled under the
relationship, which take into account the partial same amplitude. The proposed value of 50% can be
unloading, are [7]: adopted for a safe assessment of the damage accumu-
lated in structural components. Hence, this value is not
ds∗s to be considered as the best fit of experimental results,
∗ ∗
dŝs dŝs ds de de∗s de∗s but can be regarded as a possible reference value in dam-
⫽ ∗⫻ ⫻ ⫽ ∗⫻
s s
∗
(8) age assessment procedures.
des dss de des dss
s des
dŝs In a Log-Log domain Eq. (14) represents a straight
line with a slope equal to –1 / m called the fatigue resist-
ds∗s 1 ance line, which identifies the safe and unsafe regions.
⫽ (9)
dŝs ksssy Thus the value of stress taking into account the damage
accumulation can be obtained from the following Eq.
des∗ 1 (15):
⫽ (10)
des keesy
ss ⫽ ŝs ⫻ (1⫺f(Id)) (15)
ds∗s 1
⫽ b ⫹ (1⫺b) (11) The function for the decrease of the stress (f) can be
des∗ [1 ⫹ |es∗|R]1+1/R obtained through experimental tests [10]. Analytically
dŝs
des 冋
⫽ E ⫻ b ⫹ (1⫺b)
1
[1 ⫹ |e∗s |R]1+1/R 册 (12)
the function f can be represented by the following Eq.
(16):
f(Id) (16)
The previous equations were deducted assuming an

increasing load. For decreasing load the deduction is
similar [7].
To take into account the damage accumulation due to
cyclic loading it is necessary to include into the stress-
strain relationship a damage index that should consider
the deterioration in the previous complete semi-cycles
and the deterioration in the current semi-cycle. A poss-
ible equation for the total damage index, may be written
as follows [7]:
ITd ⫽ Icd ⫹ ⌬Icd (13)
The damage index related with the complete semi-
cycles is constant during each semi-cycle while the dam-
age index related to the current semi-cycle is function
of the current strain and can be assessed through the
following Eq. (14):
冦
0 ⇐ Idⱕ0.295
⫽ 0.3168Id⫺0.0936 ⇐ Id苸]0.295;0.960]
19.7332Id⫺18.7332 ⇐ Id ⬎ 0.960
The assessment of the stress is carried out in two steps
[7]: a first step where the stress is evaluated without the
consideration of the damage accumulation (ŝs) and a
second one where the stress is corrected to take into
account the damage of the current semi-cycle. In this
methodology the correction of the stress is made at the
end of the current semi-cycle.
To check the accuracy and the validity of the proposed
model for the stress-strain relationship of the steel with
due consideration of partial unloading and damage
accumulation, several experimental tests were performed

1
⌬Icd ⫽ ⫽
ey 冉
|es⫺esr|
冊
m

(14)
Nj K
In this equation Nj is the number of complete semi-
cycles to failure and m and K are parameters dependent
on the typology and the mechanical properties of the
component under consideration and may be obtained by
a statistical evaluation.
In this context failure is associated with an achieve-
ment of a given level of deterioration of the mechanical
properties of the material or structural component. Some
authors [9] based on experimental results obtained dur-
ing extensive testing programs carried out on beams,
at the Laboratory for Structures and Strength of
Materials of the Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisbon [7].
Comparison between experimental data and numerical
simulation in general shows good agreement. Concern-
ing the strain energy stored until the failure it was veri-
fied that the error obtained is less than + 8% showing
the ability of the model to be used in cyclic simulations.
3. Numerical model for bolts in shear
To adequately model the cyclic behaviour of bolted
connections it is fundamental to simulate the behaviour
of bolts in shear. The model proposed is based on an
1192 L. Calado / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 1189–1197

elasto-plastic behaviour with kinematic hardening and

takes into account the slip between the connected
elements. In this model the ovalization of the hole and
the changes in the preloading force of the bolt are not
considered. The damage accumulation is considered in
the stress-strain relationship of the material.
Under monotonic loading the behaviour of a bolt in
shear can be represented by the following force-displace-
ment curve, Fig. 1.
In Fig. 1 four different zones can be defined: elastic
behaviour before the slip; slip; elastic behaviour after
the slip; plastic behaviour with hardening. Under cyclic
loading several possibilities can be considered for the
force-displacement curve of the bolt, Fig. 2.
As the damage accumulation is considered in the
material, the lines that define the kinematic hardening
are constant during all the cyclic behaviour. To com-
pletely define the behaviour of the bolt in shear under
cyclic loading it is necessary to define the following
parameters, Fig. 3.
In order to define the N–d curve it is necessary to
know, at the beginning of each semi-cycle, the main
points of the behaviour of the bolt, namely the points
related with the beginning and the end of the slip and
the point associated with the yield. Through the knowl-
edge of these points it is possible to define the force N
as a function of the displacement:
N(d) (17)

冦
Nsl,1 ⫹ Ge ⫻ (d⫺dsl,1) ⇐ d ⬍ dsl,1
Nsl,1 ⫹ Gf ⫻ (d⫺dsl,1) ⇐ d苸[dsl,1;dsl,2[
⫽
Nsl,2 ⫹ Ge ⫻ (d⫺dsl,2) ⇐ d苸[dsl,2;dy[
Ny,0 ⫹ Gkin ⫻ d ⇐ dⱖdy

The previous equations are valid for increasing displace-

ments. In the case of decreasing displacement it is neces-
sary to change the signal of the displacements and the
forces except for df(d, N). In the following the main
points in a semi-cycle are presented taking into account
all the possibilities of the inversion of the loading in the

Fig. 2. Behaviour of a bolt in shear under a cyclic loading.

previous semi-cycle. The expressions presented are valid

for the reversal of the displacement form increasing to
decreasing. Similar equations can be obtained for the
opposite case.
It is thus necessary to assess the displacement between
Fig. 1. Behaviour of a bolt in shear under a monotonic load. two yield displacements (dy+ ;d⫺ y ), Fig. 4.
 L. Calado / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 1189–1197 1193

Point 4 N+y ⫽ N+y,o ⫹ Gkind+y

(21)
N+y ⫽ N+sl,2 ⫹ Ge ⫻ (d+y ⫺d+sl,2)
N+y,o⫺N⫺
y,o ⫹ (Ge⫺Gf) ⫻ df
d+y ⫽ ⫹ d⫺ (22)
Ge⫺Gkin y

The distance d between the yield points (1) and (4) has
a constant value and can be assessed by the following
Eq. (23):
N+y,o⫺N⫺
y,o ⫹ (Ge⫺Gf) ⫻ df
d+y ⫺d⫺
y ⫽ (23)
Ge⫺Gkin
There are two different cases for the assessment of the
main points, which are the attainment, or not of the yield
in the previous semi-cycle, as shown in Fig. 5:
In the case that the yield is not reached in the previous
semi-cycle, the negative yield point can be assessed from
the following Eqs. (24) and (25):
N+y,o⫺N⫺
y,o ⫹ (Ge⫺Gf) ⫻ df
y ⫽ dy ⫺
d⫺ +
(24)
Ge⫺Gkin
Fig. 3. Parameters used to define the complete cycle.
Ny⫺ ⫽ N⫺
y,o ⫹ Gkin ⫻ dy
⫺
(25)
For the case that the yield is reached in the previous
semi-cycle the negative yield point can be obtained
through the following Eqs. (26) and (27):
N+y,o⫺N⫺
y,o ⫹ (Ge⫺Gf) ⫻ df
y ⫽ dr⫺
d⫺ (26)
Ge⫺Gkin
Ny⫺ ⫽ N⫺
y,o ⫹ Gkin ⫻ dy
⫺
(27)
The other points are obtained in a similar way, the point

Fig. 4. Assessment of the displacement between two yield displace-

ments.

From this figure it is possible to obtain the following

Eqs. (18) to (22):
y ⫽ Ny,o ⫹ Gkin ⫻ dy
N⫺ ⫺ ⫺
Point 1 (18)
N+sl,1⫺N⫺
d+sl,1 ⫽ d⫺
y ⫹
y
Point 2 (19)
Ge
Point 3 d+sl,2 ⫽ d+sl,1 ⫹ df
(20)
N+sl,2 ⫽ N+sl,1 ⫹ Gf ⫻ df Fig. 5. New variable after the inversion of the displacement.
1194 L. Calado / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 1189–1197

at the beginning of the slip being assessed by the impo- of the beam and the column were respectively a IPE300
sition of a load equal to N⫺sl : and a HEB200. Angles L120 × 120 × 10 and two rows
of preloaded M16 grade 8.8 bolts (preloading force of
Nr ⫹ Ge ⫻ (d⫺
sl ⫺dr) ⫽ Nsl,1
⫺
⇒
87.9 kN) were used to connect the column to the beam
sl,1⫺Nr
N⫺ (28) (clearance in holes 1 mm). The material used for the
sl ⫽ dr ⫹
d⫺
Ge column, beam, and angles was steel S235 JR. The conti-
nuity of the connection through the column was ensured
where Nr and dr are respectively the force and the dis-
by 12 mm thick plate stiffeners, fillet welded to the col-
placement corresponding to the actual inversion.
The final point of the slip can be obtained by the Eqs. umn web and flanges.
(29) and (30): The specimen was T-shaped beam-to-column subas-
semblage, consisting approximately of a 1000 mm long
sl,2 ⫽ Nsl,1 ⫹ Gf ⫻ (dsl,2⫺dsl,1)
N⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺
beam and a 1800 mm long column. Due to the character-
(29)
y ⫽ Nsl,2 ⫹ Ge ⫻ (dy ⫺dsl,2)
N⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ istics of the test set-up the column was the horizontal
element while the beam was the vertical one, Fig. 7.
G e ⫻ d⫺
y ⫹ Nsl,1⫺Ny ⫺Gf ⫻ dsl,1
⫺ ⫺ ⫺
The developed model uses the stress-strain diagram
sl,2 ⫽
d⫺ (30)
Ge⫺Gf for all structural elements with the damage accumulation
In order to apply this model it is necessary to pre-defined previously presented. The behaviour of the bolt in shear
the clearance of the bolt (df), the applied preloading force follows the model previously presented. The panel zone
(P), the yield load (Ny), the stiffness (Ge, Gkin, Gf) and and the deformation of the angles are also taken into
the slip factor (m). account in the numerical simulation.
In this model all structural elements are simulated by
finite elements of beam with geometric and mechanical
4. Numerical model for beam-to-column properties analogous to the real elements. In Fig. 8 the
connections with top and seat web angles numerical model for a bolted beam-to-column connec-
tion is presented.
The numerical model developed and presented in this The accuracy and capability of the proposed numeri-
paper is based on a component model and allows the cal model for use as top and seat with web angle connec-
simulation of beam-to-column connections with top and tions in numerical simulations of the hysteretic behav-
seat web angle under cyclic loading. iour of beam-to-column connections can be analysed by
The connection experimentally and numerically stud- comparing the force-displacement curves and accumu-
ied was a typical beam-to-column connection with top lated energy shown in Figs. 9–11.
and seat web angle as shown in Fig. 6. The cross sections Comparison between numerical and experimental

Fig. 6. Connection type considered.

 L. Calado / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 1189–1197 1195

Fig. 7. Test set-up.

Fig. 8. Numerical model for beam-to-column connection with top and seat web angle.
1196 L. Calado / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 1189–1197
Fig. 9. Experimental force—displacement curve of a bolted connec-
tion.
Fig. 10. Numerical force—displacement curve of a bolted connec-
tion.
Fig. 11. Accumulated energy of a bolted connection.
results allows to conclude that the proposed numerical
model is able to simulate, with a good level of accuracy
until failure, the behaviour of beam-to-column connec-
tion with top and seat web angle. The force-displacement
curve and the accumulated energy are appropriately
modelled showing the suitableness of this numerical
model to simulate the damage accumulation of the
material and the non-linear behaviour of the bolts. One
of the advantages of this numerical model is that it does
not need experimental tests for its calibration. It needs
as input data the geometric and mechanical character-
istics of the connection.
5. Conclusions
A numerical model for top and seat with web angle
connections, which takes into account cyclic loading
conditions, the Bauschinger effect, the shear behaviour
of the bolts and the damage accumulation, is presented
in this paper. Comparisons are drawn with cyclic experi-
ments. The proposed model generally predicts well the
entire behaviour of the beam-to-column connection until
failure. The shape of the curve, the number of cycles
until the failure and the accumulated energy are well
simulated. Based on these results, it is the author’s opi-
nion that the proposed numerical model can be
implemented in structural analysis programs for the pre-
diction of the inelastic behaviour of steel structures with
top and seat with web angle connections subjected to
earthquake loads. Extension of the proposed numerical
model to other types of connections, like extended end
plates, is intended to be developed in the near future.
Acknowledgements
The work reported in this paper was supported with
grants from the FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tec-
nologia (Portugal). The author acknowledges the MSc
level research work of António Brito that provided the
numerical simulation for this paper, and Mr. João Fer-
reira for his assistance with elaboration of experi-
mental tests.
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