Alu WDM PDF

By the end of the course, you will be able to:
Explain the main optical transmission concepts

and describe the devices involved in an optical link,
Explain the main impairments occurring within an optical fiber
and quote the solutions used to compensate these impairments,
Explain the main WDM concepts
and describe the components involved in a WDM link,
Explain the propagation penalties due to wavelength multiplexing
and describe the ways to improve the signal transmission,
Describe the architecture of WDM networks in terms of topology, protection
and supervision,
List the new modulation formats and the new detection techniques involved in a WDM
transmission at 40G and 100G, and
List the 5 laser classes according to their risks
and describe the optical safety guidelines.
TOP18075W All Rights Reserved © Alcatel-Lucent 2011

Page 1
This course covers:
WDM Technology,
Optical Transmission Basics,
Optical Transmission Impairments,
WDM Transmission Basics,
WDM Transmission Impairments,
WDM Network Architecture,
40G & 100G WDM Transmission, and
Optical Safety

Page 5
In this module, we’ll cover…
… the main optical transmission concepts, and
… the optical link devices

Page 6
In telecommunications, transmission is the process of sending, propagating and
receiving an analogue or digital information signal over a physical point-to-point or
point-to-multipoint transmission medium, either wired, optical fiber, or wireless.
Transmission of a digital message, or of a digitized analog signal, is known as data

transmission or digital communication.
One transmission is the sending of a signal with limited duration. For example, consider
a block or packet of data, or a phone call.

Page 7
Let’s focus on optical fiber transmission.
Optical fiber transmission uses the same basic elements as copper-based transmission
systems:
• A transmitter,
• A receiver, and
• A medium by which the signal is passed from one to the other - in this case, optical
fiber.

Page 8
The transmitter uses an electrical interface to encode the user information through:
• Amplitude Modulation (AM),
• Frequency Modulation (FM, or
• Digital Modulation.
A Laser Diode (LD) or a Light Emitting Diode (LED) performs the encoding that allows an
optical output in most cases of 850, 1310, or 1550 nanometers.

Page 9
Digital transmission sometimes requires converting the analog inputs into digital Pulse
Code Modulation (PCM) data signals.
Once the analog information has been put into a digital form, the digital channels are
multiplexed using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). TDM is used by digital systems to
combine multiple video signals on to one fiber, or to create sub-channels for digitized
audio and/or data signals.
To understand the diagram, here are some definitions:

• A In means Analog signal Input,
• A/D means signal conversion from Analog to Digital,
• TDM means Time Division Multiplexing,
• TDDM means Time Division DeMultiplexing,
• D/A means signal conversion from Digital to Analog, and
• A Out means Analog signal Output

Page 10
After the multiplexing phase, the digital signal is converted into light pulses using an
external modulator.
The laser is always ON. The external modulator is driven by the digital signal and
generates the light pulses.
• The contact is ―CLOSED‖ to transmit a ―1‖ (there is light on the fiber).
• The contact is ―OPEN‖ to transmit a ―0‖ (no light on the fiber).

Page 11
The most significant parameters for the light emitter are:
• The wavelength range,
• The maximum launch power, and
• The minimum launch power.
The range of wavelengths used in optical fiber transmissions is in the infrared. For
single-wavelength and short distance applications, the second window is normally used.
For multi-wavelength and/or long distance applications, the third window is preferred.
The wavelengths are usually measured in nanometers.
The unit of optical power is expressed in dBm or in milliwatts. There is a relationship

between these 2 units.

Page 12
Let’s now consider the receiver.
The receiver uses either a PIN photodiode or an Avalanche PhotoDiode to receive the
optical signal and convert it back into an electrical signal. A data demodulator converts
the data back into its original electrical form.

Page 13
Detectors perform the opposite function of light emitters. They convert optical signals
back into electrical impulses that are used by the receiving end of the fiber optic data,
video or audio link. The most common detector is the semiconductor photodiode (PIN
photodiode), which produces current in response to incident light.
The most important parameters are:

• The maximum received power, or saturation, and
• The minimum received power, or sensitivity.
As mentioned previously, the unit of optical power is expressed in dBm or in milliwatts.

Page 14
What is an optical interface?
An optical interface or an optical module is bidirectional and is made up of one light
emitter and one light receiver.
The ITU-T recommends three main application categories:
• Intra-station (I): distances of less than 2 kilometers,
• Short-haul (S): distances of approximately 15 kilometers, and
• Long-haul (L):
 Distances of approximately 40 kilometers at 1310 nanometers and
 Distances of approximately 80 kilometers at 1550 nanometers.
If these categories are inadequate, special optical interfaces must be developed.
The digital signal bit rate corresponds to the Synchronous Transport Module (STM) level:
• 1: STM-1, and
• 4: STM-4, among others.
The last number defines the wavelength range:

• 1: 1310 nanometers and
• 2: 1550 nanometers

Page 15
We’ve studied the characteristics of the transmitter and the receiver. Now let’s focus on
the medium, or optical fiber.
The optical fiber connects the transmitter and the receiver. The fiber consists of three
main regions:
• The core, the center of the fiber, that carries the light;
• The cladding that surrounds the core in a glass with a different refractive index than
the core, allowing the light to be confined in the fiber core, and
• A coating or buffer, typically plastic, that provides strength and protection to the
optical fiber. This protective coating is applied directly to the fiber.
The jacket, or cable sheath, is the outer, protective covering of the optical fiber cable.

Page 16
To optimize the light guiding in a fiber, the laser beam must be in a cone of incidence.
The critical angle is the maximum angle of incidence of light at which the light stops
being refracted and is totally reflected. This angle depends on the refractive index of
the core (n2) and the refractive index of the cladding (n1). It is calculated using the
formula shown on the slide.
To recap, the refractive index is the ratio between the speed of light in vacuum (c) and
the speed of light in the medium (v).

Page 17
The fiber type used in the system is dependent on its application. There are two basic types of fiber:
multimode fiber and single-mode fiber.
For Multimode fiber (MMF), numerous modes or light rays are carried simultaneously through the
waveguide. MMF has a much larger core diameter that allows for a larger number of modes. Multimode
fiber is easier to couple than single-mode optical fiber. It may be categorized as step-index or graded-
index fiber.
Multimode fiber is best designed for short transmission distances and is suitable for use in LAN systems
and video surveillance.
Single-mode fiber (SMF) retains the fidelity of each light pulse over longer distances, allowing for a
higher transmission capacity. It exhibits no dispersion caused by multiple modes. Single-mode fiber also
provides lower fiber attenuation than multimode fiber, enabling more information to be transmitted per
unit of time. Modern single-mode fibers have evolved into complex designs: matched clad, depressed
clad, and other exotic structures.
Single-mode fiber is best designed for longer transmission distances. It’s suitable for long-distance
telephony and multi-channel television broadcast systems.

Page 18
In this module, we will cover:
… the main optical impairments, and
… how they can be compensated

Page 19
The first impairment occurring within an optical fiber is the attenuation.
Attenuation in optical fiber is caused by:

• Intrinsic factors, primarily scattering and absorption, and
• Extrinsic factors, including stress from the manufacturing process, the environment
and physical bending.
The most common form of scattering, Rayleigh scattering, is caused by small variations
in the density of glass as it cools. These variations are smaller than the wavelengths
used and therefore act as scattering objects. Scattering affects short wavelengths more
than long wavelengths, and limits the use of wavelengths below 800 nanometers.
Attenuation due to absorption is caused by the intrinsic properties of the material itself,
the impurities in the glass, and any atomic defects in the glass. These impurities absorb
the optical energy, causing the light to become dimmer. While Rayleigh scattering is
important at shorter wavelengths, intrinsic absorption is an issue at longer wavelengths
and increases dramatically above 1700 nanometers. That said, absorption due to water
peaks introduced in the fiber manufacturing process are being eliminated in some new
fiber types.

Page 20
The primary factors affecting attenuation in optical fibers are the length of the fiber
and the wavelength of the light. The figure shows the loss in decibels per kilometer by
wavelength from Rayleigh scattering, intrinsic absorption and total attenuation from all
causes. Attenuation in fiber is compensated primarily through the use of optical
amplifiers, as described in the Transmission Improvement module.
In optical transmission three windows are defined:

• The ―first window‖ around 950 nanometers,
• The ―second window‖ around 1300 nanometers, and
• The ―third window‖ around 1550 nanometers.

Page 21
Chromatic dispersion occurs because different wavelengths propagate at different
speeds. The effect of chromatic dispersion increases as the square of the bit rate. In
single-mode fiber, chromatic dispersion has two components: material dispersion and
waveguide dispersion.
Material dispersion occurs when wavelengths travel at different speeds through the
material. A light source, no matter how narrow, emits several wavelengths within a
range. When this range of wavelengths travels through a medium, each individual
wavelength arrives at a different time.
The second component of chromatic dispersion, waveguide dispersion, occurs because

of the different refractive indices of the core and the cladding of fiber. The effective
refractive index varies with wavelength.
• At short wavelengths, the light is well confined within the core. The effective
refractive index is close to the refractive index of the core material.
• At medium wavelengths, the light spreads slightly into the cladding. This decreases
the effective refractive index.
• At long wavelengths, much of the light spreads into the cladding. This brings the
effective refractive index very close to that of the cladding.
This result of the phenomenon of waveguide dispersion is a propagation delay in one or
more of the wavelengths relative to others.

Page 25
Standard fiber, single-mode and multimode, has zero dispersion at a wavelength of 1310
nanometers.
At the window of greatest interest, near 1550 nanometers, the dispersion is about 17
picoseconds per nanometer per kilometer. If a laser has a spectral width of 1
nanometer, then the dispersion will be 17 picoseconds per kilometer.

Page 26
For a standard fiber of 50 kilometers with a spectral width of the signal of 0.2
nanometers, using the formula on the slide, we find that:
• At 1550 nanometers, the pulse widening is equal to 170 picoseconds.
• At 1310 nanometers, the pulse widening is non-existent.

Page 27
PMD is due to the asymmetry of the fiber strand. This can be caused by intrinsic
geometric imperfections or by the wrapping material putting stress around the core.
Both causes are linked to the manufacturing process, particularly for older fibers.
Cable laying conditions are also sources of mechanical stress, with fibers bending or
twisting.
PMD is the mean value of the distribution of Differential Group Delay (DGD)
measurements. PMD is a statistical computation of DGD measurement campaigns, as
DGD varies over time. Therefore PMD can not be measured directly in the field.

Page 28
PMD occurs when the signal that travels primarily on the main state of polarization is
travelling faster than the signal that travels using the secondary mode. The delay
between the two modes of polarization is referred to as the Differential Group Delay
(DGD).
This effect can spread the pulse enough to make it overlap with other pulses, or may
change its shape enough to make it undetectable at the receiver.
PMD can be a problem at 10 or 40 Gigabits per second transmission rates.
Contrary to the chromatic dispersion, it is not a linear effect. It is due to a statistical

phenomenon. That’s why it is more complex to cope with PMD than with chromatic
dispersion.

Page 29
To assess the PMD, a coefficient is used which measures picoseconds (10-12 seconds) per
square root of km. You can evaluate the PMD by multiplying the square root of the link
length by this coefficient. This way, you get a typical value. For 10 Gigabits per second
we tolerate up to 10 picoseconds. For 40 Gigabits per second, it’s more complex, and
depends on the transmission technology used.
One solution is to use a PMD Compensation unit (PMDC); however, this is very
expensive. PMD can also be mitigated with a higher Optical Signal to Noise Ratio (OSNR)
margin, or the link length can be reduced. It may also be possible to deploy new fibers
with a better PMD coefficient.

Page 30
In addition to PMD, there are other nonlinear effects. Because nonlinear effects tend to
manifest themselves when optical power is very high, they become important in
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM).
Linear effects such as attenuation and chromatic dispersion can be compensated, but
nonlinear effects accumulate. They limit the amount of data that can be transmitted in
optical fiber. The most important types of nonlinear effects are:
• Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS),
• Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS),
• Self-Phase Modulation (SPM),
• Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM), and
• Four-Wave Mixing (FWM).
In WDM, Four-Wave Mixing is the most critical.

Page 31
To improve the transmission quality, first select the appropriate fiber.
The major types of single-mode fibers and their application are shown here.
• Non-Dispersion-Shifted Fiber (standard Single-Mode fiber) accounts for greater than 95 percent of deployed plant.
It’s suitable for single-channel use in the 1310 nanometer region or WDM use in the 1550 nanometer region with
dispersion compensators. This type of fiber can also support 10 Gigabit Ethernet standard at distances over 300
meters.
• Dispersion-Shifted Fiber is suitable for single-channel use in the 1550 nanometer region, but unsuitable for WDM
use in this region.
• Non-Zero Dispersion-Shifted Fiber is good for both single-channel and WDM use in the 1550 nanometer region.
• Newer generation fiber includes types that allow the energy to travel further into the cladding, creating a small
amount of dispersion to counter Four-Wave Mixing. Dispersion-flattened fiber permits the use of wavelengths farther
from the optimum wavelength without pulse spreading.

Page 32
As discussed earlier, there are three windows within the infrared spectrum that have been exploited for
fiber transmission. The first window, near 850 nanometers, was used almost exclusively for short-range,
multimode applications. Non-Dispersion-Shifted Fibers were designed for use in the second window, near
1310 nanometers.
A third window, near 1550 nanometers, was exploited for single-mode transmission – manufacturers came
up with the Dispersion-Shifted Fiber (DSF) design, which moved the zero-dispersion point to the 1550
nanometer region. The lowest optical attenuation and the zero-dispersion points coincided in the 1550
nanometer window; however they could not compensate for destructive nonlinearities in optical fiber
near the zero-dispersion point. For this reason, these fibers are not suitable for WDM applications.
Non-Zero Dispersion-Shifted Fiber (NZDSF), is designed specifically to meet the needs of WDM
applications. The aim of this design is to make the dispersion low in the 1550 nanometer region, but not
zero. This strategy effectively introduces a controlled amount of dispersion, which counters nonlinear
effects such as four-wave mixing that can hinder the performance of WDM systems.

Page 33
Here is a concise overview of the performance limiting effects linked to the fiber type
for repeatered links under 700 km (this may be not valid for other links). Do not use this
table over 700 km.
SSMF is good for both C and L band applications, but is a mean fiber for TDM
applications. DSF, which is extremely bad for the C band, is good for L band and is an
excellent fiber for TDM operation with high rate. NZ-DSF is excellent for C band because
it brings more or less the same attenuation as SSMF, and a Dispersion Compensation Unit
(DCU) is not usually mandatory.

Page 34
In the second step, transmission quality is improved by selecting the appropriate modulation format.
• Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) is a method of transmission where the signal does not return to zero between bits:
 A ―1‖ represents light signal present for a complete bit period.
 A ―0‖ is no light for a complete bit period.
NRZ is more tolerant to dispersion effects.
• Return-to-Zero (RZ) is a method of transmission where the signal does return to zero between bits:
 A ―1‖ results from the presence of light for one-half a bit period.
 A ―0‖ is no light for a complete bit period.
RZ is less tolerant to dispersion; however, the effects of fiber loss are reduced.
• Optical Duobinary is a pseudo binary-coded signal. This is a method of transmission where:
 The bit period is the same for all bits.
 A ―0‖ is represented by a one-half power level optical signal.
 A ―1‖ is represented by:
 A full power optical signal, if the quantity of ―0‖ bits since the last ―1‖ bit is even.
 A zero power level optical signal if the quantity of ―0‖ bits since the last ―1‖ bit is odd.
Duobinary signals require less bandwidth than NRZ.
• Carrier-Suppressed Return-to-Zero (CSRZ) modulation has recently become commercially-available. To increase the
spectral efficiency maintaining good transmission performance, modified RZ formats with less spectral width and
larger tolerance of optical power, such as CSRZ, have been proposed for standardization to the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Incorporated (IEEE).

Page 35
To improve the transmission quality, the third step is to use amplifiers and regenerators.
These devices are defined as type 1R, 2R, or 3R.
A 1R device only amplifies the signal received.
A 2R device provides amplification and reshaping of the waveform to provide some data
recovery.
A 3R device provides amplification, reshaping and requires a time source so that it can
provide retiming.

Page 36
Let’s focus on optical amplifiers. The most popular is the Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier
(EDFA).
EDFA provides the gain mechanism for optical amplification. Optical systems use erbium
amplifiers because they work well and are very efficient as amplifiers in the 1500
nanometer range. Only a few parts per billion of erbium are needed.
Erbium is a rare-earth element that emits light around 1550 nanometers (the low-loss
wavelength for optical fibers) when excited. A weak signal enters the erbium-doped
fiber into which light at 980 nanometers or 1480 nanometers is injected using a pump
laser. This injected light stimulates the erbium atoms to release their stored energy as
additional 1550 nanometer light. As this process continues down the fiber, the signal
grows stronger. The spontaneous emissions in the EDFA also add noise to the signal. This
determines the noise figure of an EDFA.

Page 37
The key performance parameters of optical amplifiers are:
• gain,
• gain flatness,
• noise level, and
• output power.
EDFA are typically capable of gains of 30 dB or more and output power of +17 dBm or
more. The target parameters when selecting an EDFA are low noise and flat gain. Gain
should be flat because all signals must be amplified uniformly. While the signal gain
provided with EDFA technology is inherently wavelength-dependent, it can be corrected
with gain flattening filters. Such filters are often built into modern EDFA .
Low noise is a requirement because noise, along with signal, is amplified. Because this
effect is cumulative and cannot be filtered out, the signal-to-noise ratio is an ultimate
limiting factor in the number of amplifiers that can be concatenated and, therefore, the
length of a single fiber link. In practice, signals can travel for up to 120 kilometers
between amplifiers. The signal must be regenerated at longer distances of 600 to 1000
kilometers. That is because the optical amplifier merely amplifies the signals and does
not perform the 3R functions (Reamplify, Reshape and Retime).

Page 38
The fourth step improves the transmission quality by compensating the chromatic
dispersion.
The ―Standard fiber,‖ whose dispersion slope is positive, is followed by a Dispersion

Compensation Fiber (DCF), whose dispersion slope is negative. This pushes the
wavelength components back together in time, restoring the shape of the pulse. This
process is extremely effective when nonlinear effects are negligible.

Page 39
In this module, we’ll cover…
… the main WDM concepts and
… components

Page 40
To increase capacity while constraining costs, carriers can either install new fibers or increase the
effective bandwidth of existing fibers. Deploying new fibers is costly and may make sense only when
expanding the embedded base.
Increasing the effective capacity of existing fibers can be accomplished in two ways.
•The first option is to increase the bit rate of existing systems using Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
The electronic circuitry that makes this possible, however, is complex and costly, both to purchase and
to maintain. There are also significant technical issues that may restrict the applicability of this
approach.
•The second option is to increase the number of wavelengths on a fiber.
In this approach, many wavelengths are combined onto a single fiber using Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (WDM) technology.

Page 41
Time Division Multiplexing was invented as a way of maximizing the amount of voice
traffic that could be carried over a medium. Before multiplexing was invented, each
telephone call required its own physical link. This proved to be an expensive and
unscalable solution. Using multiplexing, more than one telephone call could be put on a
single link.
TDM can be compared to highway traffic. To transport all the traffic from four
tributaries to another city, you can send all the traffic on one lane, providing the
feeding tributaries are fairly serviced and the traffic is synchronized. If each of the four
feeds puts a car onto the trunk highway every four seconds, then the trunk highway
would get a car at the rate of one each second. As long as the speed of all the cars is
synchronized, there would be no collision. At the destination, the cars can be taken off
the highway and fed to the local tributaries by the same synchronous mechanism, in
reverse.
This is the principle used in synchronous TDM when sending bits over a link. TDM
increases the capacity of the transmission link by slicing time into smaller intervals so
that the bits from multiple input sources can be carried on the link, effectively
increasing the number of bits transmitted per second.

Page 42
The telecommunications industry adopted the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) or
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) standard for optical transport of TDM data. SONET,
used in North America, and SDH, used elsewhere, are two closely related standards that
specify interface parameters, rates, framing formats, multiplexing methods and
management for synchronous TDM over fiber.
SONET/SDH takes ―n‖ bit streams, multiplexes them and optically modulates the signal,
sending it out using a light emitting device over fiber with a bit rate equal to (incoming
bit rate) multiplied by ―n.‖ Traffic arriving at the SONET/SDH multiplexer from four
places at 2.5 Gigabits per second will go out as a single stream at 4 times 2.5 Gigabits
per second, or 10 Gigabits per second. The figure shows an increase in the bit rate by a
factor of four in time slot ―T.‖

Page 43
Unlike with TDM, Wavelength Division Multiplexing assigns incoming optical signals to
specific frequencies of light (wavelengths or lambdas) within a certain frequency band.
This multiplexing closely resembles the way radio stations broadcast on different
wavelengths without interfering with each other. Because each channel is transmitted at
a different frequency, we can select from them using a tuner. Another way to think
about WDM is that each channel is a different color of light. Several channels make up a
"rainbow."
In a WDM system, each of the wavelengths is launched into the fiber and the signals are
demultiplexed at the receiving end. Like TDM, the resulting capacity is an aggregate of
the input signals; however, WDM carries each input signal independently of the others.
This means that each channel has its own dedicated bandwidth. All signals arrive at the
same time, rather than being broken up and carried in time slots.

Page 44
A fundamental difference between SDH TDM and WDM is that WDM can carry multiple
protocols without a common signal format (neither modulation format nor bit rate),
while SDH cannot. In other words we say that WDM is transparent with respect to
incoming signals.

Page 45
SDH TDM takes synchronous and asynchronous signals and multiplexes them to a single higher bit rate for
transmission at a single wavelength over fiber. Source signals may have to be converted from electrical
to optical, or from optical to electrical and back to optical before being multiplexed. WDM takes
multiple optical signals, maps them to individual wavelengths and multiplexes the wavelengths over a
single fiber.
The ability to provide potentially unlimited transmission capacity is the most obvious advantage of WDM
technology. As demands change, more capacity can be added, by equipment upgrades or by increasing
the number of lambdas (wavelengths) on the fiber, without expensive upgrades.

Page 46
Trends in the transmission capacity of the core network are shown in the figure. From
1980 to the beginning of the 90s, Time Division Multiplexing based upon on-off keying
was the major technology in optical transmission systems. The total transmission
capacity reached 10Gigabits per second. In the 90s, Wavelength Division Multiplexing led
to rapid progress in transmission capacity owing to the appearance of optical filters
providing optical multiplexing and/or demultiplexing functions.
The latest 40Gbit/s times 40 wavelengths WDM system has been deployed in the core
network, and the total transmission capacity has reached 1.6Terabit per second. To keep
up with the demand for rapid growth of communication traffic, new technologies
supporting 10Tbit/s optical transmission systems based on 100Gbit/s per channel are
expected. One attractive candidate technology for 100Gbit/s-based WDM systems is
digital coherent transmission, which combines coherent detection and digital signal
processing.

Page 47
Based on optical power loss of fibers, spectrum ranges have been characterized for
compatibility purposes with light sources, receivers and optical components, including
the optical fiber.
According to the broad absorption minimum, the third window is best suited for DWDM
technology.
For DWDM transmission systems, three optical bands are defined:

• The Short Band (S-Band): 1460 to 1530 nanometers,
• The Conventional Band (C-Band): 1530 to 1565 nanometers, and
• The Long Band (L-Band): 1565 to 1625 nanometers.

Page 48
The ITU approved C-Band extends from 1528.77 nanometers to 1563.86 nanometers and
divides into the red band and the blue band. The red band encompasses the longer
wavelengths of 1546.12 nanometers and higher. The blue band wavelengths fall below
1546.12 nanometers. This division has a practical value because useful gain region of
the lowest cast Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers (EDFA) corresponds to the red band
wavelengths. Thus, if a system only requires a limited number of DWDM wavelengths
using the red band, wavelength yields the lowest overall system cost.

Page 49
Originally, SDH used 1310 nanometers wavelength; later on it used 1550 nanometers
wavelength. These two signals can be multiplexed into a single fiber by using a passive
multiplexing, as for bidirectional transmission.
Dense WDM was defined by the ITU standard as a grid of wavelengths with either 200,
100, 50 or 25 Gigahertz space in the C and L bands.
Metro applications required cheaper solutions to accommodate several services. The

dense WDM was simplified to become the coarse wavelength division multiplexing: the
wavelength division multiplexing principle was kept but instead of a very narrow space
between channels, coarse WDM relays on a wider spacing. It is so wide that nanometers
are used to measure it. The ITU standardized a grid for use with CWDM (ITU-T G.694.2),
using the wavelengths from 1270 nanometers through 1610 nanometers with a channel
spacing of 20 nanometers. Many CWDM wavelengths below 1470 nanometers are
considered as "unusable" on some old fibers, due to the increased attenuation in the
1270-1470 nanometer bands. Therefore, most of Coarse WDM systems only use the 8
channels colored in purple on the slide.
An important characteristic of CWDM is that the signals are not spaced appropriately for
amplification by EDFA.

Page 50
Let’s recap the main differences between the Coarse WDM and Dense WDM systems. In
Coarse WDM, the channel count usually limited to 8 wavelengths and there is no optical
amplification. Reach is limited to 80km or 20dB. This means that Coarse WDM
application is limited to metro networks. Coarse WDM systems are low-cost equipment;
the highest bit rates are not usually supported.
Dense WDM systems are more expensive. They are more versatile in terms of
applications (metro and backbone networks), and topologies (not only Point-To-Point,
but also ring and mesh).
Dense WDM common spacing may be 200, 100, 50 or 25 Gigahertz with channel count
reaching up to 128 or more channels at distances of several thousand kilometers with
amplification and regeneration along such a route. Highest bit rates (including state-of-
the-art 100Giga) are typically only transported by Dense WDM.
It is sometimes possible to mix Coarse and Dense WDM in the same system.

Page 51
Let’s now focus on DWDM network architecture.
An optical network using DWDM techniques consists of five main components.

•A transmitter (or transmit transponder) receives the input optical signal from a client-
layer, converts that signal into the electrical domain, and retransmits the signal using a
1550 nanometer band laser.
•A multiplexer and a demultiplexer combine/separate discrete wavelengths on each
transmit and receive side.
•Amplifiers include:
 A pre-amplifier that boosts signal pulses at the receive side,
 A post-amplifier, also called booster, that boosts signal pulses at the transmit side,
and
 In-Line Amplifiers (ILA) that are placed at different distances from the source to
provide recovery of the signal before it is degraded by loss.
•An optical fiber is the transmission media to carry optical pulses.
•A receiver (or receive transponder) receives the 1550 nanometer band laser signal,
converts that signal into the electrical domain, and retransmits the signal using a
wideband laser towards the client-layer.

Page 52
The client signal is usually an optical signal (at 1310 nanometers or 1550 nanometers). This means that we need a
transponder. A transponder is made up of two transceivers placed after each other: the first transceiver converts the
client optical signal to/from an electrical signal, and the second transceiver converts the electrical signal to/from an
optical signal at the required DWDM wavelength.
A transponder is made up of:

•A Black & White Client Interface that:
 Receives the optical signal incoming into the DWDM Network Element,
 Performs optical to electrical conversion and data recovery, and
 Provide an outgoing optical signal from the DWDM Network Element, suitable for the client equipment;
•A DWDM Interface that:
 Receives the optical signal incoming on the DWDM line,
 Performs optical to electrical conversion, and
 Provides an outgoing optical signal from the DWDM Network Element, suitable with the ITU-T DWDM grid; and
An Electrical Interface that:
 Regenerates the electrical signal coming from the client NE or from the DWDM line, and
 Performs the FEC (optional)

Page 53
Because DWDM systems send signals from several sources over a single fiber, they must
be able to combine the incoming signals. This is done with a multiplexer, which takes
optical wavelengths from multiple fibers and converges them into one beam. At the
receiving end, the system must be able to separate out the components of the light so
that they can be discreetly detected. Demultiplexers perform this function by
separating the received beam into its wavelength components and coupling them to
individual fibers. Demultiplexing must be done before the light is detected, because
photo-detectors are inherently broadband devices that cannot selectively detect a
single wavelength.
Multiplexers and demultiplexers can be either passive or active in design. Passive

designs are based on prisms, diffraction gratings or filters, while active designs combine
passive devices with tunable filters. The primary challenges in these devices is to
minimize cross-talk and maximize channel separation. Cross-talk is a measure of how
well the channels are separated, while channel separation refers to the ability to
distinguish each wavelength.

Page 54
An optical amplifier amplifies an optical signal directly, without the need to first convert it to
an electrical signal. There are three types of amplifiers on a DWDM line:
• Post-amplifiers (or power amplifiers, power boosters, boosters, or booster amplifiers) are
placed directly after the optical transmitter. This application requires the EDFA to take a
large signal input and provide the maximum output level. The noise added by the amplifier at
this point is also not as critical because the incoming signal has a large Signal-to-Noise Ratio
(SNR).
• In-line amplifiers, also called repeaters, modify a small input signal and boost it for
retransmission down the fiber. Controlling the small signal performance and noise added by
the EDFA reduces the risk of limiting a system’s length due to the noise produced by the
amplifying components.
• The demands currently require sensitivity of -40 dBm or -45 dBm. This performance can be
achieved by placing an Optical Amplifier (OA) prior to the receiver. Boosting the signal at this
point presents a much larger signal into the receiver, easing the demands of the receiver
design. This application requires careful attention to the noise added by the EDFA. The noise
added by the amplifier must be minimal to maximize the received Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR).

Page 55
Doped Fiber Amplifiers (DFA) are optical amplifiers that use a doped optical fiber as a
gain medium to amplify an optical signal. The signal to be amplified and a pump laser
are multiplexed into the doped fiber, and the signal is amplified through interaction
with the doping ions.
Optical amplifiers include rare-earth elements to make rare-earth-doped fibers such as:
• Erbium,
• Tellurite, and
• Thulium.
Most amplifiers are still experimental and include:

• EDFA: Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (from 1530 to 1565 nanometers),
• GS-EDFA: Gain-Shifted EDFA (from 1570 to 1610 nanometers),
• EDTFA: Erbium-Doped Tellurite-based Fiber Amplifier (from 1530 to 1610 nanometers),
• TDFA: Thulium-Doped Fiber Amplifier (from 1450 to 1490 nanometers), and
• GS-TDFA: Gain-Shifted TDFA (from 1490 to 1530 nanometers).
The Raman amplification principle is different from previous amplifiers and is mainly
used in DWDM unrepeatered links. The amplifier used is called Raman Fiber Amplifier
(RFA) (from 1420 to 1620 nanometers or more).

Page 56
Optical fiber systems use erbium amplifiers (EDFA) because they work well and are very
efficient as amplifiers in the 1550 nanometer range. Only a few parts per billion of
erbium are needed.
A relatively high-powered beam of light, at 980 nanometers or 1480 nanometers and

called the pump, is mixed with the input signal using a wavelength selective coupler.
The mixed light is guided into a section of fiber with erbium ions included in the core.
This high-powered light beam excites the erbium ions to their higher-energy state.
When the photons belonging to the signal at a different wavelength from the pump light
meet the excited erbium atoms, the erbium atoms give up some of their energy to the
signal and return to their lower-energy state. A significant point is that the erbium gives
up its energy in the form of additional photons which are exactly in the same phase and
direction as the signal being amplified (stimulated emission). So the signal is amplified
along its direction of travel only.
As well as decaying via stimulated emission, electrons in the upper energy level can also
decay by spontaneous emission, which occurs at random, depending upon the glass
structure and inversion level. Photons are emitted spontaneously in all directions, but a
proportion of those will be emitted in a direction that falls within the numerical
aperture of the fiber and are thus captured and guided by the fiber. Those photons
captured may then interact with other excited ions, and are thus amplified by
stimulated emission. The initial spontaneous emission is therefore amplified in the same
manner as the signal, hence the term Amplified Spontaneous Emission (ASE). ASE is
emitted by the amplifier in both the forward and reverse directions, but only the
forward ASE is a direct concern to system performance since that noise will co-
propagate with the signal to the receiver where it degrades system performance.

Page 57
EDFA amplification enables increasing of the optical power simultaneously for several
channels. It has two major drawbacks:
• The flat comb of wavelengths at the input of the EDFA is not homogeneously
amplified by the EDFA: some channels are more amplified than others, and
• The addition of noise (almost 30 dB) is an important issue in WDM systems.

Page 58
A Raman amplifier uses intrinsic properties of silica fibers to obtain signal amplification.
This means that transmission fibers can be used as a medium for amplification, and
hence that the intrinsic attenuation of data signals transmitted over the fiber can be
combated within the fiber. An amplifier working on the basis of this principle is
commonly known as a Distributed Raman Amplifier (DRA).
The physical property behind DRA is called Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS). This
occurs when a sufficiently large pump wave is launched at a lower wavelength than the
signal to be amplified. The Raman gain depends strongly on the pump power and the
frequency offset between pump and signal. Amplification occurs when the pump photon
gives up its energy to create a new photon at the signal wavelength, plus some residual
energy, which is absorbed as phonons (vibration energy).
As there is a wide range of vibration states above the ground state, a broad range of
possible transitions are providing gain. Generally, Raman gain increases almost linearly
with wavelength offset between signal and pump peaking at about 100 nanometers and
then dropping rapidly with increased offset.
The position of the gain bandwidth within the wavelength domain can be adjusted
simply by tuning the pump wavelength.

Page 59
Between multiplexing and demultiplexing points in a DWDM system, there is an area in
which multiple wavelengths exist. It is often desirable to be able to remove or insert
one or more wavelengths at some point along this span. An Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer
(OADM) performs this function. Rather than combining or separating all wavelengths,
the OADM can remove some while passing others on. OADMs are a key part of moving
toward the goal of all-optical networks.
OADMs are similar in many respects to SDH Add-Drop Multiplexers (ADM); however, only
optical wavelengths are added and dropped, and no conversion of the signal from
optical to electrical takes place. The figure is a schematic representation of the add-
drop process. This example includes both pre- and post-amplifiers. These components
that may or may not be present in an OADM, depending upon its design.
There are two general types of OADMs. The first generation is a fixed device that is
physically configured to drop specific predetermined wavelengths while adding others.
The second generation is reconfigurable and capable of dynamically selecting which
wavelengths are added and dropped.

Page 60
The first generation is the Point-to-Point WDM. It is installed for capacity exhaust and is
used only with point-to-point applications. Regeneration is required for pass-through
wavelengths.
The Second Generation is the Fixed OADM (which is also referred to as FOADM). Here an
Optical add/drop is performed with fixed filters. With FOADM, WDM is still difficult due
to wavelength stranding in banded add/drop approaches; engineering is carried out per
wavelength, and there is Manual jumper cabling.
Finally, the Third Generation is the Reconfigurable OADM (also called ROADM). ROADM
is a dynamic, reconfigurable OADM with single wavelength granularity. This third
generation is jumperless provisioning, and is SDH-like as regards to simplicity for
wavelength management.

Page 61
How is the node degree defined?
The count of degrees is the number of directions.
In the past, with point-to-point links and OADM, we only had a 2-degree node.
With Tunable OADM (T-OADM) and Reconfigurable OADM (R-OADM), we have higher
degree nodes: in this kind of node, you can travel into the node without dropping the
wavelengths. You have channel continuity within the node. The node can drop some
channels but can also drive the channel into the appropriate direction without detecting
the channel. So you don’t pay for the electronic and switching capability for all the
traffic that is going through the node. In this way, you optimize the cost of switching by
using it only for the channels that must be dropped locally.

Page 62
Different technologies are used for OADM. There are the Wavelength Blocker (or WB),
Planar Lightwave Circuit or (PLC), and the Wavelength Selective Switch (or WSS).

Page 63
A Wavelength Blocker is a 1:1 device (there is 1 WDM input and 1 WDM output).
A WB has 2 key functionalities. First, every wavelength coming from the WDM input can
be passed or blocked. Second, every wavelength can be selectively attenuated.
There are also key applications enabled; for example, remotely reconfigurable degree-
2 node. Remotely reconfigurable degree-3 nodes are also achievable. However , they
are complex and expensive to build.
WB does NOT enable Colorless or full-tunable and reconfigurable OADM.

Page 64
A Planar Lightwave Circuit is a N:1 device (there is 1 WDM input, N-1 single-wavelength
inputs and 1 output).
Among the key PLC functionalities, every wavelength coming from the WDM input can
be passed or blocked. If it is blocked, the corresponding channel can be inserted from
the single-wavelength port. Moreover, every wavelength can be selectively attenuated.
There are key applications enabled - remotely reconfigurable degree-2 node, and non-
remotely reconfigurable degree-N nodes.
PLC does NOT enable colorless or full tunable and reconfigurable OADM.

Page 65
A Wavelength Selective Switch is a N:1 or 1:N device (where there are respectively N
inputs and 1 output, and 1 input and N outputs).
A WSS has several Key functionalities. If it is used as a N:1 device, any wavelength from
any input to the output can be switched individually (moreover, more than 1
wavelength can be present at each input). Every wavelength can be selectively
switched, blocked or attenuated.
In regards to the key applications enabled, we find the remotely reconfigurable degree-
N node (with N superior to 2) and the tunable and reconfigurable OADM.

Page 66
The Tunable OADM (or T-OADM) has 2 directions and can drop any channel. It is fully
remotely-reconfigurable, with tunable filters in reception and a tunable laser in
transmission.

Page 67
In this module we’ll cover:
… the main WDM impairments, and
… how they can be compensated

Page 68
The first parameter which enables monitoring of the transmission quality is the Bit Error
Rate (BER).
The Bit Error Rate is a ratio of error bits to total transmitted bits. Typical values are 10-
12 BER for Synchronous Digital Hierarchy, and 10-15 for next generation long-haul
transport equipment. The value 10-15 is one error bit in 1015 bits, which equals one error
in 11.6 days for a 10 Gigabits per second signal.

Page 69
The second parameter is the eye pattern.
The eye pattern is a visual depiction of the waveform being transmitted to look for
impairments. It consists of the waveform for each wavelength overlaid on one screen.
The eye pattern display allows quick verification of signals that meet performance
specifications. In the display, the 1 signals are above the center point and the 0 signals
are below the center point. An eye pattern is an oscilloscope display in which a
pseudorandom optical data signal from an optical receiver is repetitively sampled and
applied to the vertical input, while the optical signaling rate is used to trigger the
horizontal sweep. System performance information can be derived by analyzing the
display. An open eye pattern corresponds to minimal signal distortion. Distortion of the
signal waveform due to inter-symbol interference and noise appears as closure of the
eye pattern.

Page 70
The third parameter is the Quality factor (or Q factor).
The Quality factor is a measure of how noisy a pulse is for diagnostic purposes. The eye
pattern oscilloscope will typically generate a report that shows what the Q factor
number is. The Q factor is defined as shown in the figure: the difference of the mean
values of the two signal levels (level for a ―1‖ bit and level for a ―0‖ bit) divided by the
sum of the noise standard deviations at the two signal levels. A larger number in the
result means that the pulse is relatively free from noise.

Page 71
The fourth parameter is the Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio (OSNR).
The Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio shows the ratio of power in the signal to the noise that
is with the signal. Better OSNR is indicated by high numbers. In most cases, an OSNR of
10 dB or better is needed for error-free operation.

Page 72
Each repeater (or in-line amplifier) in an optically amplified line gives some noise to the
system. This noise is amplified in turn by subsequent repeaters.
As each repeater compensates (almost exactly) for the loss of the preceding section,
the total accumulated noise is approximately equal to the noise of one repeater
multiplied by the number of repeaters. As a consequence, there is a gradual noise
increase along the system, which leads to decaying Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio as a
function of distance.

Page 73
If all the wavelengths are transmitted with the same power and the same OSNR, at the
receive side OSNR degradation appears on the outer wavelengths. Some of the
wavelengths can even disappear.

Page 74
Linear effects such as attenuation and chromatic dispersion can be compensated, but
nonlinear effects accumulate. These are the fundamental limiting mechanisms to the
amount of data that can be transmitted in optical fiber.
The most important types of nonlinear effects are:

• Self-Phase Modulation (SPM),
• Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM),
• Four-Wave Mixing (FWM),
• Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS), and
• Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS).
In DWDM systems, Four-Wave Mixing is the most critical of these types.

Page 75
Forward Error Correction is used to support higher capacity and longer transmission
distances by improving the Bit Error Rate. FEC makes the system more robust in respect
of errors. The FEC code bytes are used at the end of a transmitted frame by the
receiving system to find and correct errors.
The two main kinds of FEC used in optical transmission are ―in-band‖ and ―out-of-
band.‖ ―In-band‖ is sometimes called ―simple‖ FEC.
In-Band FEC is the most common method used in SDH Network Elements. FEC bytes are
carried as part of the SDH overhead.
Out-Of-Band FEC (OOB FEC) is used for DWDM systems. FEC bytes are added on top of
the signal to be carried. For example, adding OOB FEC changes the signal from 9.958
Gigabits per second to 10.7 Gigabits per second for a STM-64 SDH frame, resulting in 7
percent overhead added outside the normal signal envelope. Approximately 6 to 9dB
optical system gain, depending on OSNR and other impairments on the DWDM route, can
be achieved. This gain is not an actual "power gain;‖ it’s an improvement in the OSNR.

Page 76
The Optical Transport Network (OTN) architecture is defined in the ITU-T G.872
recommendation.
An OTN is made up of:

•Optical Transmission Sections (OTS) between two in-line amplifiers,
•Optical Multiplex Sections (OMS) between two WDM terminals, and
•Optical Channels (Och) that start and stop where FEC frames are generated and
terminated.

Page 77
The Optical Transport Hierarchy (OTH) architecture is defined in the ITU-T G.709 recommendation.
In the Optical Transport Hierarchy, the Optical Channel (OCh) layer is further structured in layers:
• Optical Payload Unit (OPUk),
• Optical Data Unit (ODUk), and
• Optical Transport Unit (OTUk).
The index ―k‖ specifies the signal rate supported, according to the following conventions:
• k=1 represents a rate of 2.5 Gigabits per second,
• k=2 represents a rate of 10 Gigabits per second, and
• k=3 represents a rate of 40 Gigabits per second.
The OPUk, ODUk and OTUk layers are introduced in OTH to support the network management and
supervision functionality through the contents of the additional signal overhead of the units.
The Optical Channels (OCh), mapped to the Optical Channel Carrier (OCC) structure, are transported into
an information structure called the Optical Transport Module (OTM-n).
The OTM-n transports an additional overhead: the OTM Overhead Signal (OOS), containing overhead
information related to the OCh, OMS and OTS sections.
The OSS information is mapped into a separate channel named Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC).
The index ―n‖ in OTM-n specifies the number of OCCs transported by the structure (not including the
OSC). OTM-n plays a role similar to STM-n in SDH architecture, the OCCs acting as tributary slots within
the OTM-n architecture.

Page 78
The gain characteristic of an optical amplifier is not linear. It presents:
• A maximum value for the center of the bandwidth, and
• A minimum value at each end of the bandwidth.
This nonlinearity a cumulating effect of inducing an important unbalancing of the

Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio between the successive wavelengths.
To minimize this nonlinearity, a flattened device (a Bragg filter) is associated with each
optical amplifier included in a repeater. This filter has a general shape which is opposite
to the gain characteristic in the concerned bandwidth. The combination of both
characteristics gives a response that is approximately flat.

Page 79
The compensation provided by the Bragg filter is not perfect. Why?
•The filter characteristic is not exactly the opposite of the amplifier characteristic.
•A deviation of the gain peak of amplifiers or a deviation of filters can introduce a
penalty on the repeater response.
•And, the template must account for Raman effects which induce a tilt.
Along the line, this penalty can be:

•Auto-compensated by the successive repeaters, and
•Cumulated by the successive repeaters.
For this last occurrence, it is imperative to minimize the power distortion by inserting
on the line equalizing devices called Power Equalizing Units (PEU).

Page 80
Long links (repeatered submarine systems) require insertion of Tilt Power Equalizing
Units, or Tilt EQualizers (TEQ).
These TEQs are filters which:
• Provide a slope equalization. This slope can be negative, positive or flat according to
the mismatch between the amplifier gain profiles and the expected transmission
profiles.
•The can be:
 Passive: the slope is fixed in terms of direction and inclination, or
 Active: the direction and the inclination can be adjusted from the stations by
means of the supervision function.
Very long links can require insertion of Shape Power Equalizing Units, or Shape
EQualizers (SEQ).
These passive filters let you choose, during cable manufacturing, a particular
transmission shape which applies a selective filtering for the wavelengths to be
corrected.

Page 81
To obtain the same Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio per wavelength, the distribution of
optical power of the transmitted channels must be optimized. It is done by adding
attenuators at the transponder outputs for the center of the bandwidth. The name of
this process is pre-emphasis.
The best OSNR per wavelength is obtained when the transmit distribution shape is the
reverse of the receive distribution shape as shown on the figure.

Page 82
The DWDM system must compensate for dispersion to support 10 Gigabits per second
transmission using methods like the one shown in the figure.
It is important to keep in mind that:

•2.5 Gigabits per second transmission is 16 times less sensitive than 10 Gigabits per
second.
•2.5 Gigabits per second signals tolerate up to 12200 picoseconds per nanometer
without problems.
•40 Gigabits per second transmission is 16 times more sensitive than 10 Gigabits per
second. It tolerates only 50 picoseconds per nanometer and requires special attention to
dispersion compensation.
A compensator is a device that has the opposite chromatic dispersion effect as the
transmission fiber. Various technologies are available and can compensate for all
wavelengths in a band or for each wavelength. Compensating for all wavelengths greatly
reduces the cost of compensation. Per-band compensation is used in some DWDM
products. The various methods include:
•Dispersion Compensation Module (DCM) with a type of single-mode fiber.
•Fiber Bragg gratings.

Page 83
This is a simulation of a dispersion map, where the difference of slope between SMF
and NZDSF is obvious. Typically, per span, there is a shift of about 1000 picoseconds per
nm for SMF; for NZDSF the shift is about 100, possibly 200 picoseconds per nm.

Page 84
There are several ways to increase the total capacity of the system. Each has
drawbacks:
• If the bit rate is increased, then PMD and SPM problems arise;
• If channel spacing is reduced, then channel filtering and non-linearity (like cross-
wave mixing), become problematic;
• Finally, if the total number of channels is increased by extending the bandwidth, then
the amplification scheme becomes very expensive and large Raman effects arise due to
the very large spectrum.

Page 85
The design of a transmission system is limited by the accumulation noise of optical
amplifiers and the non linear effect. The maximum transmission capacity mainly
depends on the bit rate and the number of channels.

Page 86
A Long Haul WDM design is the result of a trade-off between increasing the power to
overcome noise generated by amplification of the signal and the outcome of the non-
linear effect.
The power percentage should by high enough to get the best possible OSNR, and weak
enough to limit the non-linear effects. When designing a system, work within the green
area.

Page 87
In this module we’ll cover the:
… the architecture of WDM networks

Page 88
Let’s summarize a global network architecture.
Long-haul networks are at the core of the global network. Dominated by a small group
of large transnational and global carriers, long-haul networks connect the Metropolitan
Area Networks (MANs). Their application is transport, so their primary concern is
capacity. In many cases these networks, which have traditionally been based on
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) or Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
technology, are experiencing fiber exhaust as a result of high bandwidth demand.
At the other end of the spectrum are the access networks. These networks are the
closest to the end users, at the edge of the MANs.
The MANS lie between these two large and different networking domains. These
networks channel traffic within the metropolitan domain (among businesses, offices and
metropolitan areas) and between large long-haul Points Of Presence (POPs).

Page 89
As networks face increasing bandwidth demand and diminishing fiber availability,
network providers are moving towards a crucial milestone in network evolution: the
optical network. Optical networks, based on the emergence of the optical layer in
transport networks, provide higher capacity and reduced costs for new applications such
as the Internet, video and multimedia interaction, and advanced digital services.
These definitions will help you to understand the diagram:

• ADM means Add and Drop Multiplexer,
• DXC means TDM Cross-Connect,
• OADM means Optical Add and Drop Multiplexer, and
• OXC means Optical Cross-Connect

Page 90
As shown in the figure, the WDM Network Elements address various applications, ranging
from Metropolitan Core networks (terrestrial networks of a few hundreds of kilometers)
to Ultra Long Haul networks (submarine networks of several thousands kilometers).

Page 91
Metro and long-haul applications are quite different.
Metro/Regional system are typically used within a large city, but can be extended to national
applications, depending on the country geography. The typical number of channels for metro/regional
systems is around 80 channels; it isn’t uncommon to find metro systems with less capacity. There is
usually limited span loss, as well as a need to limit the maximum span loss to 30 dB. Single-stage
amplification is possible, limiting the cost of the system.
Most metro systems support alien wavelengths (wavelengths that are emitted by external equipment
that can be directly directed to the wavelength division multiplexing equipment). You can also choose
the DWDM optics type, depending on the line rate. Non-linear effects are generally not a problem for
metro systems.
For long-haul WDM, the typical capacity is above 80 channels, and we can have very high span loss, more
than 40 dB, even in multi-span applications. We have typically only double stage EDFA or OFA (Optical
Fiber Amplifier). There is no trade-off over performance; the best possible noise figure is targeted.
Raman applications are always supported with long-haul systems, either internally or with the help of an
external unit. There is no or very restricted support for alien wavelengths.
In most long-haul WDM systems the optics are integrated in the transponder. There is no choice of
optics type, but only of the modulation format. In contrast to a metro system, where a transponder is
selected on the basis of its aggregation capability, for a long-haul system, it is based on overall
performance of the system and on the traffic matrix. In long-haul systems, non-linear effects are
managed by tuning, as limits of transmission degradation may be reached. For this reason the
commissioning procedure is more complex and automated.

Page 92
Point-to-point topologies can be implemented with or without OADM. These networks
are characterized by ultra-high channel speeds (10 to 40 Gigabits per second), high
signal integrity and reliability, and fast path restoration. In long-haul networks, the
distance between transmitter and receiver can be several hundred kilometers and thus
requires several amplifiers. In metro networks, amplifiers are often not needed.

Page 93
Rings are the most common architecture found in metropolitan areas and span a few
tens of kilometers. Ring configurations can have a hub station and one or more OADM
nodes, or satellites. At the hub node, traffic originates, is terminated and managed, and
connectivity with other networks is established. At the OADM nodes, one or more
wavelengths is dropped off and added, while the others pass through transparently
(express channels). In this way, ring architectures allow nodes on the ring to provide
access to network elements such as routers, switches, or servers by adding or dropping
wavelength channels in the optical domain. With the increase in number of OADMs,
however, the signal is subject to loss and amplification may be required.

Page 94
Mesh architectures are the future of optical networks. As networks evolve, rings and point-to-point
architectures will still have a place, but mesh will be the most robust topology. This development will be
enabled by the introduction of configurable optical cross-connects and switches that replace or
supplement fixed DWDM devices.
A graceful evolutionary path is available from point-to-point to mesh topologies. By beginning with point-
to-point links, equipped with OADM nodes at the outset for flexibility, and subsequently interconnecting
them, the network can evolve into a mesh without a complete redesign. Additionally, mesh and ring
topologies can be joined by point-to-point links.
DWDM mesh networks, consisting of interconnected all-optical nodes, will require the next generation of
protection. Where previous protection schemes relied upon redundancy at the system, card, or fiber
level, redundancy will now migrate to the wavelength level. This means, among other things, that a data
channel might change wavelengths as it makes its way through the network, due either to routing or to a
switch in wavelength because of a fault.
Mesh networks will require a high degree of intelligence to perform the functions of protection and
bandwidth management, including fiber and wavelength switching. The benefits in flexibility and
efficiency, however, are potentially great. Fiber usage, which can be low in ring solutions because of the
requirement for protection fibers on each ring, can be improved in a mesh design. Protection and
restoration can be based on shared paths, thereby requiring fewer fiber pairs for the same amount of
traffic and not wasting unused wavelengths.

Page 95
To protect a WDM Point-to-Point topology, the Optical Multiplexing Section Protection
(OMSP) can be used.
A Working line is protected using another line, called a Protecting line. If an error
occurs, for instance a loss of signal, the protection mechanism should switch over to the
protection line. In a dedicated protection called ―1+1‖ protection, the traffic is
transmitted simultaneously along the two lines, both the traffic line and the protection
line. At the far end, the line that delivers the signal in the best condition is the one that
is chosen.

Page 96
To protect a WDM Ring topology, the Optical Channel Protection can be used. The
principle is the following:
On the transmitting side, an optical splitter duplicates the client signal to the working
and protection lines before the connection to transponders.
On the receiving side, both transponders are connected to a switch. The line that
delivers the signal in the best condition is the one that is chosen.

Page 97
To protect one wavelength, a network element can be equipped with a tributary
protection system based on a ―1+N‖ protection scheme.
This uses one additional wavelength per N channels on the line to provide the protection
path. The figure shows a simplified view of a ―1+N‖ protected system (only one
direction of traffic shown). The incoming optical signal is taken to a splitter. The
protected path is taken to the ―normal‖ path transponder, whilst the protection output
is taken to an input port of an ―N:1‖ bridge switch. The bridge switch output is then
amplified before being fed to the input of the protection transponder. At the far end,
the ―normal‖ transponder outputs are each taken to one input of a tributary ―2:1‖
selector switch. The output of the protection transponder is amplified, and then fed
into the input port of a ―1:N‖ selector switch. The outputs of this switch are then fed
to the remaining input port of the tributary ―2:1‖ selector switches.

Page 98
The Optical Supervisory Channel (OSC) is an optical wavelength used to carry
management information through the DWDM link. It provides:
• Management of remote end terminal,
• Management of remote repeater, and
• Transport of dedicated client signal.
The Optical Supervisory Channel wavelength is typically 1510 nm and allows
communication between the network elements, even during optical amplifier failure.
A network element can be managed by:

• A local or a remote craft terminal using the F interface, or
• A centralized management system using the Q interface
The main management functions provided are:

• Alarm and status monitoring,
• Configuration (unit and alarms assignment, power level definition),
• Remote inventory,
• Software downloading,
• Analogue applications (such as optical power and laser current), and
• Signal quality monitoring

Page 99
A network element can be managed by a centralized management system, or Network Management
System (NMS).
To understand the NMS, we must first define a Telecommunication Management Network (TMN).
A TMN is a structured network featuring management functions for a Telecommunication Network (TN).
The TMN is structured in layers:

• NE: the layer of the Network Element,
• EML: Element Management Layer, that manages the network element configuration, alarms and
performance, and
• NML: Network Management Layer, that manages network connectivity, routing and protections in
various topologies and across different regions
There is usually one software application per layer. An NMS is equivalent to the sum of EML and NML
software applications. The operation center in charge of the management of the whole network is called
the Network Operation Center (NOC).
A Data Communication Network (DCN) is needed to communicate between TMN layers. The DCN is also
part of the TMN.

Page 100
… the new modulation formats and detection techniques, in the context of a 40G and
100G WDM transmission

Page 101
Today’s WDM optical networks provide the transport capacity infrastructure for telecom
services, and typically operate with wavelength line rates at 2.5 Gigabits per second
and 10 Gigabits per second using traditional signal modulation format in the amplitude
domain.
That said, as line rates increase beyond 10 Gigabits per second, fiber impairments
(such as chromatic dispersion (CD), polarization mode dispersion (PMD), optical noise,
and non-linear effects) become very significant, severely impacting overall transmission
performance and drastically affecting signal quality.
For example, the impact of CD on a 40 Gigabits per second wavelength signal increases
by a factor of 16 compared to a 10 Gigabits per second signal. In addition, the spectral
bandwidth occupation of a 40 Gigabits per second signal is four times that of a 10
Gigabits per second signal, meaning fourfold the amount of noise that is detected at
the receiver. This translates into a 6dB penalty in optical performance for a given
transmission power, or approximately four times less the distance that the wavelength
can traverse in the network without electrical regeneration.
In addition, using the same modulation format traditionally used at 10 Gigabits per
second for a 40 Gigabits per second signal results in reduced spectral efficiency - fewer
wavelengths can be transmitted down a fiber pair. These phenomena severely affect
the performance of typical amplitude-shift keying (ASK) modulation formats with direct
detection schemes that are conventionally utilized for 10 Gigabits per second
wavelength transmission.

Page 102
Modulation formats in the phase domain, or phase-shift keying (PSK) technique can be used to overcome
these transmission impairments. Phase modulation schemes can provide better resilience against non-
linear effects - signal amplitude remains almost constant in time. In addition, phase modulation
schemes lower the overall effective transmission symbol rate (or baud rate), where multiple bits (that
is, more information) are encoded per symbol; this means that the signal travels at a lower overall
speed relative to its nominal 40 Gigabits per second or 100 Gigabits per second rate and, as such, don’t
not suffer the effects of increased PMD, CD or optical noise.
Phase modulation schemes do increase the complexity of the signal: multiple signal states now need to
be recovered by the receiver. In addition, when phase modulated signals are transmitted in a 50-
GigaHertz spectrum slot adjacent to exiting 10 Gigabits per second signals, a non-linear phenomenon
known as cross-phase modulation (XPM) occurs; this can severely impact overall transmission
performance. As a result, phase modulated signals may incur incremental link penalties (that is, dB
losses) to compensate for this. Alternatively, the signals may need to be separated in spectrum from the
existing 10 Gigabits per second signals, which wastes valuable optical spectrum.
Examples of phase-domain modulation formats for optical wavelength transmission are:
• Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK): a two-phase-state coding scheme, and
• Quaternary phase-shift keying (QPSK): a four-phase state coding scheme
Two orthogonal polarizations of the optical light path can be used to encode more information. This
technique, polarization division multiplexing (PDM) or dual polarization (DP), enables doubling of the
number of transported bits while keeping the same symbol rate compared to a standard single
polarization signal.
By combining the information into a phase-domain and polarization-domain modulation format,
effective and reliable high-speed transmission can be achieved with a high degree of quality and
performance.
This solution requires a different type of receiver: a compact, cost-effective and adaptable electro-
optical design that uses coherent detection techniques coupled with advanced, ultra-fast digital signal
processing.

Page 103
On the receiver side, three main methods can be used to detect the information
carried by an optical signal.
• Direct detection uses a photodiode to generate an electrical current proportional to
the intensity of the detected optical signal. This is used to detect an
amplitudemodulated ASK signal, but is restricted by performance to lower-rate signals,
up to 10 Gigabits per second.
• Differential (balanced) detection uses an optical interferometer to convert phase
changes into intensity changes that can be detected by a photodiode: a mandatory step
in detecting phasemodulated formats, while keeping the design of the receiver
relatively simple. The interferometer compares each symbol with the previous one,
providing at its two outputs an electrical current depending on the phase change from
one symbol duration to the next. Two photodiodes are connected to the outputs of the
interferometer, allowing for balanced detection that provides a 3dB improvement in
noise sensitivity compared to direct detection.
• With Coherent detection, the receiver mixes the optical signal with a local oscillator
— a continuous wave (CW) laser — running at approximately the same optical
frequency. A rich set of information contained in the phase, amplitude and polarization
of the optical signal is recovered from the interferences resulting from the mixing
process onto a series of photodiodes. Coherent detection provides an extra 2dB noise
sensitivity improvement compared to differential detection.

Page 104
Differential balanced detection can be efficiently combined with advanced phase-
modulation formats. However, this solution remains highly sensitive to linear-
transmission fiber impairments and is unable to perform well in all existing networks.
In addition, such conventional detection technology does not provide the most efficient
solution for 100 Gigabits per second wavelength transport, with performance that is
certainly not in line with the 10 Gigabits per second -like reach performance generally
expected from network service providers.
Coherent detection is the same method as applied in microwave transmission receivers.

When applied to wavelength transmission, a spectrum of phase modulated signals in a
wavelength is received on an optical mixer. A local oscillator (DC constant power laser)
tuned at a ITU-T 50GHz grid is also sent on the mixer and, through beating, only the
optical signal at the same frequency is amplified (constructive beating); the other
frequencies are attenuated because they are not coherent with the local oscillator.
Successfully applying this technique requires heavy digital signal processing
capabilities, which can only be accomplished in ultra-high-speed silicon.
An effective coherent solution is provided by the combination of coherent detection,
ultra-high speed DSP in the coherent receiver, and a phase-modulated format such as
BPSK or QPSK. Although the coherent receiver architecture is more complex than in
conventional solutions, the coherent solution offers two key advantages:
• Retrieval of the full information transported by the optical field, giving access to all
signal information, such as polarization, amplitude and phase. This introduces
tremendous opportunities for DSP to compensate for linear distortions such as CD and
PMD, which are induced by transmission within the optical fiber.
• And, use of both orthogonal polarizations of the optical signal for encoding multiple
information. Polarization division multiplexing (PDM) doubles the transported capacity
and increases the spectral efficiency while maintaining compatibility with 50 GigaHertz
channel spacing in optical filters, as supported in the Reconfigurable Optical Add-Drop
Multiplexer (ROADM) installed base.
Page 105
This table compares the results of different combinations of modulation formats and
detection techniques at 40Giga.

Page 106 106
This table compares the results of different combinations at 100Giga.

Page 107 107
Among the various phase-domain and polarization-domain modulation formats that can
be combined and associated with coherent detection, Alcatel-Lucent has selected and
invested in two options. These solve the challenges of economically-viable, high-speed
electro-optical transmission by achieving best-in-class performance and efficiency.
PDM-BPSK with coherent detection for best-in-class 40 Gb/s transmission: The signal is
a combination of PDM and one single carrier BPSK-modulated carrying one bit per
symbol and travelling at 20 Gigabaud symbol rate (excluding the relevant bandwidth
amount for overhead forward error coding). It offers best performance in ultra-long
distances due to its excellent resilience to non-linear effects and transmission
compatibility with existing 10 Gigabits per second non-return-to-zero (NRZ) ASK signals.

Page 108
PDM-QPSK with coherent detection for best in class 100 Gigabits per second
transmission. The signal is a combination of PDM and one single carrier QPSK-
modulated carrying two bits per symbol and travelling at 25 Gigabaud symbol rate
(excluding the relevant bandwidth amount for overhead and FEC). It is optimized to
transport larger capacity thanks to its best reach, best resilience to fiber impairments,
and excellent compatibility with existing 10 Gigabits per second and 40 Gigabits per
second channels base.

Page 109
… the laser risks, and
… how to protect an operator

Page 110
When most people think of safety in fiber optic installations, they typically consider eye
damage from laser light in the fiber. This isn’t really relevant to most types of fiber
optic communications; however, fiber optics installation is not without risks.
Optical sources used in fiber optics, especially LEDs used in premises networks, are of
much lower power levels than used for laser surgery or cutting materials. The light that
exits an optical fiber spreads out in a cone, so the farther away from the end of the
fiber your eye is, the lower the amount of power your eye receives. If you are using a
microscope, which can efficiently focus all the light into your eye, it should have
infrared filters that reduce the danger of invisible infrared light.
The infrared light in fiber optic links is at a wavelength that cannot penetrate your eye
easily because it's absorbed by the water in your eyeball. Light in the 1300-1550
nanometer range is unlikely to damage your retina, but might harm the cornea or lens.
A typical laser pointer, which has a beam that is collimated (not expanding) and is at
visible wavelength (650 nanometer) where the eye is transparent, is more dangerous to
the retina than a fiber optic link. That said, it's not a good idea to look into a fiber
unless you know no source is being transmitted down it. Since the light is infrared, you
can't see it, which means you cannot tell if there is light present by looking at it. Always
check the fiber with a power meter before examining it.

Page 111
The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has published guidelines based on laser classes.
Laser equipment is classified according to the hazard it poses to eyesight and people. The classification depends
upon power levels, emission angles and wavelengths.
•Class 1 laser products are defined as safe in normal operations under reasonably foreseeable conditions, including
direct viewing of the laser beam with optics that could concentrate the laser output into the eye. In addition to
some intrinsically low power lasers and laser products, Class 1 laser products also include embedded products that
totally enclose a higher Class of laser (for example, CD players, laser printers and most industrial laser processing
machines).
•Class 1M laser products are defined as safe in normal operations under reasonably foreseeable conditions, including
direct viewing of the laser beam, but only provided the user does not employ optics that could concentrate the laser
output into the eye. Unsafe conditions include use of a telescope or binoculars with a 1M laser emitting a well-
collimated laser beam or use of an eye loupe or magnifier with a high divergence 1M source. 1M is a new class. It can
be applied only where the laser wavelength is in the range 0.3025 to 4 micrometer.
•Class 2 laser products are defined as those emitting visible light for which the natural aversion response to bright
light (including the blink reflex) prevents retinal injury, including direct viewing of the laser beam with optics that
could concentrate the laser output into the eye. These lasers do, however, present a dazzle hazard.
•Class 2M laser products are defined as those emitting visible light for which the natural aversion response to bright
light (including the blink reflex) prevents retinal injury for direct viewing of the laser beam but, as with Class 1M
laser products, only provided the user does not employ optics that could concentrate the laser output into the eye.
2M is a new class. It can be applied only where the laser wavelength is in the range 0.4 to 0.7 micrometer.
•Class 3A laser products are defined as those for which the output is up to a factor of five over the maximum
allowed for Class 1 or Class 2. Safety factors are built into the limits for these classes, so the risk of injury for direct
viewing of a Class 3A laser beam remains low; however, greater efforts should be taken in the use of these lasers to
prevent direct eye exposure, especially for invisible Class 3A lasers.
•Class 3B laser products are defined as those for which direct exposure of the eye is hazardous, even taking aversion
responses into account, but scattered laser light is usually safe. The higher power Class 3B lasers are also a skin
hazard, but the natural aversion response to localized heating generally prevents a skin burn.
•Class 4 laser products are defined as those for which direct exposure of the eye and skin is hazardous and scattered
laser light may be hazardous to the eyes. Such lasers are also a fire hazard.

Page 112
Let’s now focus on lasers used in optical fiber transmission systems.
The main lasers are in the second (around 1300 nanometers) and third windows (around
1550 nanometers).
Optical interfaces encountered in SDH or WDM networks include:
• An STM aggregate uses a Class 1 laser,
• A WDM transponder uses a Class 1 laser, and
• An optical amplifier whose output power is lower than 17 dBm at 1550 nanometers is
in Class 3A (for an output power higher than 17 dBm the class is 3B).
In WDM networks Raman amplifiers are sometimes used to amplify a traffic signal in the
last 50 kilometers of an optical link. The output power of these amplifier types is
extremely high; they are classified as Class 4.

Page 113
This figure summarizes the risks associated with each type of laser:
• Class 1: No hazard if used in normal conditions,
• Class 2: Dazzle hazard because we are in the visible light spectrum,
• Class 3A: No hazard if used in normal conditions, except if you use optical appliances,
• Class 3B: Hazard if you look directly at the laser beam, and
• Class 4: Hazard for eye and skin, also a fire hazard.

Page 114
To limit the risks associated with the use of lasers, some precautions have to be taken,
particularly for classes 3A, 3B and 4.
The optical interfaces are identified with a warning symbol for classes 3A, 3B and 4, as
shown on the slide.
Follow these basic principles when handling optical fibers:

• Don’t observe a connector or a fiber in its longitudinal axis.
• Don’t observe a connector or a fiber unless you are at a distance of 10 cm or more.
• Systematically place the protective caps on a free connector.

Page 115
Automatic Laser Shutdown (ALS) is a technique used to automatically shut down the
output power of the transmitter in case of fiber break. This safety feature prevents
dangerous levers of laser light from leaking out of a broken fiber, provided ALS is
provisioned on both ends of the fiber pair.
If a fiber is cut, the receiver will detect a Loss Of Signal (LOS). The ALS agent will turn
off the transmitter. The receiver at the far end will then detect an LOS and its ALS agent
will turn off the transmitter. In this way the entire fiber will go dark.

Page 116
Once the fiber is repaired, the transmitters can be restarted. One of the transmitter
lasers is turned on (pulsed) for a provisionable amount of time. If the LOS clears at the
far-end receiver, the far-end transmitter will be restarted. The near-end will clear its
LOS; at this point, both transmitters will be on and both LOS alarms will be cleared.
If a break remains in the fiber, one or both LOS alarms will remain and the transmitters
will be disabled. The near-end transmitter will turn off at the end of its pulse.
There are two types of restart: manual and automatic. With manual restart, you can
request a single restart pulse from the ALS agent. With automatic restart, the ALS agent
sends a periodic restart pulse; the period is configurable.

Page 117
You have completed this training module.

Page 119

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By the end of the course, you will be able to:

Explain the main optical transmission concepts

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Transmission of a digital message, or of a digitized analog signal, is known as data

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To understand the diagram, here are some definitions:

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The unit of optical power is expressed in dBm or in milliwatts. There is a relationship

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The most important parameters are:

As mentioned previously, the unit of optical power is expressed in dBm or in milliwatts.

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The last number defines the wavelength range:

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Attenuation in optical fiber is caused by:

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In optical transmission three windows are defined:

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The second component of chromatic dispersion, waveguide dispersion, occurs because

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PMD can be a problem at 10 or 40 Gigabits per second transmission rates.

Contrary to the chromatic dispersion, it is not a linear effect. It is due to a statistical

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In WDM, Four-Wave Mixing is the most critical.

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A 1R device only amplifies the signal received.

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The ―Standard fiber,‖ whose dispersion slope is positive, is followed by a Dispersion

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For DWDM transmission systems, three optical bands are defined:

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Metro applications required cheaper solutions to accommodate several services. The

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