Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
series
virus
resistant
papaya in
hawaii
VIB
VIB is a non-profit research institute in life sciences. About 1,300 scientists conduct
strategic basic research on the molecular mechanisms that are responsible for
the functioning of the human body, plants, and microorganisms. Through a close
partnership with four Flemish universities − UGent, KU Leuven, University of
Antwerp, and Vrije Universiteit Brussel − and a solid funding program, VIB unites
the forces of 83 research groups in a single institute. The goal of the research
is to extend the boundaries of our knowledge of life. Through its technology
transfer activities, VIB translates research results into products for the benefit of
consumers and patients and contributes to new economic activity. VIB develops
and disseminates a wide range of scientifically substantiated information about
all aspects of biotechnology. More information: www.vib.be.
facts
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Papaya 2
facts
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Contents
2. Genetic engineering as
protector of the harvest 13
Building up to a success story 13
Using the weapon as the defense 13
A new trait and a new variety 14
The power of biotechnology 18
4. Economic aspects of
the Hawaiianpapaya 21
Canadaand Japanshare the papayas 21
The GMO papaya in Japan 23
6. Conclusion 26
facts
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3 Papaya
1
Summary
PRSV was identified for the first time in 1945 in the American state of Hawaii.
Since then there have been outbreaks of ringspot disease in other areas of the
world where papaya is cultivated. Hawaii is responsible for just 0.1% of global
papaya production. Even so, it will always be associated with the fruit thanks to
pioneering work in the development of a PRSV resistant strain of papaya.
In an attempt to escape the PRSV, papaya cultivation was moved from the island
Oahu to the Puna region. However, in the early 1990’s PRSV was also reported
there. Between 1992 and 1997 papaya production dropped more than 30% and
local papaya cultivation was considered doomed. Researchers from Cornell
University (USA) and the University of Hawaii developed a genetically altered
variety of papaya that is resistant to PRSV. A remarkably efficient development
and approval procedure allowed the GMO papayas to be introduced as soon as
1998. In less than four years’ time papaya production was back to pre-PRSV
levels. Hawaiian papaya cultivation had been saved. In the meantime, Hawaii has
started exporting its biotech papayas to Canada and Japan.
Due to the specificity of the virus and the virus resistance mechanism Hawaiian
GMO papayas are resistant to the Hawaiian PRSV in particular. However, the
developments on Hawaii have inspired and stimulated other papaya cultivating
countries to use the same methods to develop virus resistant papayas for their
local markets. Resistant papaya varieties have now been developed in Brazil,
Taiwan, Jamaica, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Venezuela, Australia and the
Philippines.
Since 2007 China has also been growing its own domestically developed PRSV
resistant GMO papayas. The cultivated area devoted to GMO papayas was 3550 ha
in 2007 and had risen to 6275 ha by 2012; more than 60% of the total cultivated
land area used for papayas in China.
facts
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Papaya 4
facts and figures
• In 2011 nearly 12 million tonnes of papaya were grown on just over 420,000 ha globally, with a total market value of 200 million
US dollars. At the global level papaya is the third most important traded fruit.
• Papaya is grown in approximately 60 countries, especially developing countries, with India as the leading producer, followed
by Brazil, Indonesia, Nigeria and Mexico.
• Despite the fact that Hawaii makes up for just 0.1% of global papaya production and that papaya is only its fifth largest crop,
Hawaii is still the world leader in research and development relating to papayas.
• The papaya ringspot virus is the cause of the most widespread and most destructive disease affecting papaya cultivation.
The ringspot disease can cause serious decreases in quality and yield and can even result in the loss of the entire harvest.
• PRSV was discovered in 1992 in commercial orchards on Puna, the most important area for papaya production in Hawaii.
The virus spread extremely fast and by 1998 papaya production on Puna had nearly halved.
• The public sector anticipated the destructive effect of PRSV. Researchers from the University of Hawaii and Cornell University
developed genetically altered papayas with resistance against PRSV.
• The virus resistant GMO papaya was approved for cultivation in the United States in 1998. In four years the biotech papaya had
stopped the decline of Hawaii’s papaya industry and brought production back up to the level it was prior to the emergence
of the PRSV.
• In 2009 the virus resistant ‘Rainbow’ papaya was cultivated on approximately 676 hectares in Hawaii, 77% of the total
papaya acreage.
• In 2003 Canada gave the green light to the import of Hawaiian GMO papayas, followed by Japan in 2011.
• China developed its own virus resistant GMO papaya. In 2007 this papaya was cultivated for the first time on 3550 ha.
Five years later this area had grown to 6275 ha. In Guang Dong province, the most important papaya growing region in China,
the level of adoption is 95%.
facts
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5 Papaya
1
1 Evans EA, Ballen FH (2012). An overview of global papaya production, trade and consumption. EDIS document FE913.
Available via http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FE/FE91300.pdf
2 FAOSTAT. Available via http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/default.aspx#ancor
facts 3 Gonsalves D (1998). Control of papaya ringspot virus in papaya: a case study. Annual Review of Phytopathology 36, 415-437.
series 4 Photosynthesis is the biochemical process used by plants to convert energy from sunlight into sugars.
Papaya 6 5 Lius S et al. (1997). Pathogen-derived resistance provides papaya with effective protection against papaya ringspot virus. Molecular Breeding 3, 161-168.
PRSV is a virus that is spread primarily the healthy plants. To prevent the virus
by aphids.6,7 The aphids take in virus from spreading, papayaplantations are
particles while extracting sap from treated with aphicides (insecticides that
infected plants. When these aphids target aphids) and affected plants are
move on to healthy plants and extract destroyed immediately.8,9
sap the virus particles are transferred to
Papaya (Carica papayaL.) grows best in warm, humid, tropical regions and originated in the
tropical regions stretching from South Mexicoto the Andes in South America.10 According to
their botanical characteristics papayasare perennial herbaceous plants, not trees.11 They grow
to a height of six to nine meters and have a single stem (see photo). Papayaplants can remain
productive for up to ten years but in most commercial plantations the plants are replaced every
three years.11 Depending on the papayavariety and its surrounding conditions fruit formation
can start between 6 and 12 months after planting. The fruits then need 5 to 9 months to fully
develop.11 It is therefore possible to harvest papayaswithin a year and to replant them every
year. In order to save on labor and new plant material this annual cultivation cycle is only used
when disease and pests make multiannual cultivation impossible.
PLANT VIRUSES
Viruses are made up of genetic material (DNA or RNA12) encased in a protective protein coat. They are only capable of multiplying
using infected cells, and need the infected cell’s molecular machinery in order to replicate their genetic material and the viral
coat proteins that make up the protein coat.
There is a great variety of different kinds of virus. Some infect animals, others infect plants or bacteria. Plant viruses are either
rod-shaped (like the papayaringspot virus) or spherical. They show great variation in size but the largest plant viruses are still
extremely small (one thousandth of a millimeter).
During a typical infection process of an animal or bacterial cell the virus attaches itself to the cell in order to inject its genetic
material or to fuse with the host cell. Plant cells on the other hand have sturdy cells walls that plant viruses cannot penetrate
without help. For this reason plant viruses are generally transferred when damage has been caused by other organisms, such
as aphids. The first step in infection is the uncoating of the virus.13 A few dozen coat proteins are removed from one side, partly
exposing the genetic material. The plant’s ribosomes recognize this genetic material. Ribosomes are specialized deciphering
machines that can translate the message that is hidden in the virus’ genetic material into the production of proteins. While the
ribosomes are translating the virus’ genetic material, the virus continues uncoating.13 In this way new coat proteins and other
proteins necessary for the virus’ multiplication are made. The virus effectively puts the infected cells to work making new
virus particles. Once the virus’ genetic material has multiplied sufficiently and enough coat protein has been synthesized, the
genetic material is recoated by the coat proteins. The newly formed virus particles then infect new cells and if the infection is
not stopped this can lead to the eventual death of the host organism.
6 Kalleshwaraswamy CM, Krishna Kumar NK (2008). Transmission efficiency of papayaringspot virus by three aphid species. Phytopathology 5, 541-546.
7 Tripathi S et al. (2008). Papaya ringspot virus-P: characteristics, pathogenicity, sequence variability and control. Molecular Plant Pathology 9, 269-280.
8 Tecson Mendoza EM (2008). Recent advances in the development of transgenic papaya technology. Biotechnology Annual Review 14, 423-462.
9 Hou L et al. (2012). Farmer’s knowledge on GM technology and pesticide use: evidence from papaya production in China. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 11, 2107-2115.
10 http://www.fruit-crops.com/papaya-carica-papaya/
11 Morton JF (1987). Papaya. p. 336–346. In: Fruits of warm climates. Published by Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
Available via http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/papaya_ars.html
12 RNA or ribonucleic acid is made up of a long chain of nucleotides, just like DNA. In higher organisms its main function is to transfer the information stored in DNA to the
production of proteins. In the absence of DNA, such as in plant viruses, RNA can also serve as a carrier of genetic information. It can appear in both single and double facts
stranded forms. series
13 Fitchen JH, Beady RN (1993). Genetically engineered protection against viruses in transgenic plants. Annual Review of Microbiology 47, 739-763.
7 Papaya
1
PRSV belongs to the Potyviridae family, the largest and most economically important plant
virus family.14,15 Approximately 30% of all plant viruses belong to this family. There are two
types of PRSV. The P type (papayainfecting) causes ringspot disease in papaya, while the
W type (watermelon infecting) is especially responsible for causing damage within the
cucumber family.16 The papayaringspot virus that was first described in 1949 after it caused
so much damage in Hawaiiwas given the name PRSV-HA and is a typical type P virus.16
Potyviruses are RNA viruses (see text box ‘Plant viruses’, page 7). The genomic RNA
Electron microscope consistsof one strand of 10,326 nucleotides that codes for one large polypeptide made
image of potyviruses. up of 3340 amino acids.17,18 The polypeptide is then cleaved into 11 functional proteins.15
The RNA is enclosed in a protein coat that is made up of approximately 2000 identical copies of a coat protein.18,19 PRS viruses
are extremely small rod-shaped structures with a diameter of approximately 12 nm 20 and a length of 760-800 nm.17 The molecular
characterization of PRSV has progressed so much in the last few decades that it no longer holds many secrets for plant
virologists. The RNA sequences and thus the genetic information of the PRS viruses that appear in Hawaiiand Taiwan have
been fully sequenced.17,18
coat protein
genomic rna
14 Provvidenti R, Hampton RO (1992). Sources of resistance to viruses in the Potyviridae. Arch Virol Suppl 5, 189-211.
15 Chung BY-W et al. (2008). An overlapping essential gene in the Potyviridae. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105, 5897-5902.
16 Bateson MF et al. (2002). On the evolution and molecular epidemiology of the potyvirus Papayaringspot virus. Journal of General Virology 83, 2575-2585.
17 Yeh SD et al. (1992). Complete nucleotide sequence and genetic organization of papayaringspot virus RNA. Journal of General Virology 73, 2531-2541.
18 Wang CH, Yeh SD (1997). Divergence and conservation of the genomic RNAs of Taiwan and Hawaiistrains of papayaringspot potyvirus. Arch Virol 142, 271-285.
19 Riechmann JL et al. (1992). Highlights and prospects of potyvirus molecular biology. Journal of General Virology 73, 1-16.
20 1 nanometer (nm) is one millionth of a millimeter.
facts 21 USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service. HawaiiFarm Facts, July 2012.
series Available via http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Hawaii/Publications/Fruits_and_Nuts/annpapFF.pdf
Papaya 8 22 USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service. Data available via http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_Subject/index.php?sector=CROPS
oahu
kauai hawaii
molokai
honolulu
lanai maui
puna
hawaii
To everyone’s surprise Puna remained program of eradication requiring plants from In 1998 the American government decided
safe from PRSV for 30 years. Geographical infected plantations to be destroyed.3 to allow the cultivation of the genetically
shifting of cultivation in an attempt to Nevertheless the virus continued to altered papayavarieties ‘Rainbow’ and
escape virus infections is effective in spread and in 1994 the Hawaiianstate ‘Sunup’ on Hawaii(for more information
the short term. However, viruses move government admitted that the situation about the development of the GMO papaya
with the crop. Just one PRSV infected was out of control. In less than three years see chapter 2, page 13). This gave Hawaii’s
aphid or papayais all it takes, and sooner one third of all the plantations in Puna 250 papayagrowers a way to protect
or later the new cultivated area will had become infected.3 The first drastic their crops against PRSV. The PRSV
become infected. It only becomes more decline in production was witnessed resistant GMO papayasshowed results
and more difficult to continue shifting in 1995 with a drop of 25% compared to immediately. In four years ‘Rainbow’ and
cultivation to other places. In 1992 PRSV 1994. Production dropped a further 10% ‘Sunup’ not only stopped the dramatic
was discovered in the papayaplantations in the following year (Figure 2). Over the decline in papayaproduction but levels of
in Puna. At that time 95% of Hawaiian course of four years (1994-1998) yield production returned to where they were
papayas were being grown in Puna.23 dropped from 25.5 tonnes per ha to 16.8 prior to the PRSV outbreak (Figure 2).21
The government immediately initiated a tonnes per ha, a decrease of nearly 35%.21
figure 2
Infection of hawaiianpapaya plantations with PRSV in 1992 led to a significant decline in production. the GMO papaya
returnedproduction to normal levels. since 2002 production has been declining due to a persistent decrease in land area
used for papaya cultivation, distribution problems and unfavorable climate conditions.
source: National Agricultures Statistics Service (NASS).21
PRSV
discovered
30000 in puna 2000
1800
25000 introduction
of the 1600
GMO papaya
20000 1400
1200
15000 1000
800
10000
600
fresh papaya production
400 in tonnes: left axis
5000
200 area cultivated
0 0 in hectares: right axis
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
facts
23 Gonsalves D et al. (2012). Assaying for pollen drift from transgenic ‘Rainbow’ to nontransgenic ‘Kapoho’ papayaunder commercial and experimental field conditions in series
Hawaii. Tropical Plant Biology 5, 135-160.
9 Papaya
1
figure 3
The proportion of GMo papaya ‘rainbow’ expressed in hectares increases in terms of both total area (above) as harvested
area (below). the proportion of the GMO papaya ‘sunup’ is included with non-GMO varieties in ‘other’.
‘kapoho’ and ‘sunrise’ are non-GMO papayas.
Source: for 2000-2008 Ref. 25 (/xpap01.pdf /xpap08.pdf); for 2009 Ref. 26.
800
figure 3A
Total area 700
cultivated
600
500
400
kapoho
300 rainbow
sunrise
200
other
100
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
500
figure 3B
Area harvested 450
400
350
300
250
200 kapoho
150 rainbow
100 sunrise
other
50
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
24 Ferreira SA et al. (2002). Virus coat protein transgenic papayaprovides practical control of Papayaringspot virus in Hawaii. Plant Disease 86, 101-105.
25 National Agricultures Statistics Service (2001). PapayaAcreage Survey Results.
facts http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Hawaii/Publications/Archive/xpap01.pdf
series 26 National Agricultures Statistics Service (2009). Hawaii papayas.
Available via http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Hawaii/Publications/Fruits_and_Nuts/papaya.pdf
Papaya 10
Despite the GMO papaya’ssuccess in pro- In January 2003 Canadaapproved the sales in the US and Canadahave been
tecting papayaplantations from PRSV, import of GMO papaya . The effect on suffering from competition from Brazil.27
production has declined since 2002. the harvested area of GMO and non- In addition the distribution potential of
According to Stephen Ferreira at the GMO papayais clearly visible (Figure 3B: GMO papayaand the global reluctance to
Department of Plant and Environmental page 10). Since 2004 more GMO ‘Rainbow’ eat food derived from genetically modi-
Protection Sciences in Honolulu (Hawaii) has been harvested than non-GMO fied plants remains a serious problem. It
there are several reasons for this.27 During ‘Kapoho’. The total area cultivated for was necessary to wait until 2011 for Japan
the PRSV crisis in Hawaiiother countries ‘Kapoho’ has also steadily declined since to approve the import of the ‘Rainbow’
took over Hawaii’sexports. Once produc- 2004 (Figure 3A, page 10). GMO papayaafter carrying out a food
tion had recovered Hawaiihad problems safety analysis. Any initial optimism was
approaching its previous markets. In The second drop in production from 2004 quickly eroded. The traditional wholesal-
order to continue exporting to Canada to 2006 (Figure 2, page 9) was primarily ers and distributors were still hesitant
and Japan, Hawaiihad to continue pro- caused by unfavorable weather conditions; to risk their reputation by selling GMO
ducing the non-GMO papaya‘Kapoho’. too little rain in 2004 and 2005 and too papaya.27 An alternative distribution chain
Cultivation of the virus resistant papayas much rain in 2006.29 Both GMO and non- was established, but after three ship-
lowered the risk of disease,28 but it still GMO papayaproductivity was significantly ments this export was also stopped.27
became increasingly more challenging to lower in 2004 (Figure 3B, page 10). The Hawaiianpapayaindustry is currently
cultivate non-GMO papayas . The large making a considerable effort to ensure
decrease in production in 2002 can Despite the absence of sharp production the smooth running of exports to Japan
therefore also be attributed to the large drops since 2007, Hawaiianpapayapro- but it is highly probable that it will take
harvestedland area of the PRSV sensitive duction is still in decline (Figure 2, page 9). several years before GMO papayais fully
‘Kapoho’ (Figure3B, page 10). Over the past few years Hawaiianpapaya accepted.
Papayais known for being available in a large number of varieties. These varieties differ in size, taste and color of pulp, and
are also adapted to local climate and soil conditions. Each country grows its own selection of papayas. Hawaiianpapayasare
usually pear-shaped, with yellow or red pulp and weigh approximately 450 g each. This contrasts with the Mexican papayas
that are much larger (up to 40 cm) and can easily weigh more than 5 kg each.
• Sunrise/Sunup: the Sunrise variety is known locally as ‘strawberry papaya’. When ripe the fruits have yellow skin and
intensely red-orange pulp. The Sunup variety is resistant to PRSV and is the genetically altered version of Sunrise.
• Rainbow: a hybrid made by crossing the yellow pulped Kapoho Solo with the red pulped Sunup. Rainbow is genetically
altered to be resistant to PRSV. It is the most popular variety amongst consumers and is also the most widely cultivated
on the main island Hawaiiand on the islands Oahu and Kauai. The fruits strongly resemble the Kapoho papayaswith
golden yellow pulp.
• Kamiya/Laie Gold: Kamiya is rounder and larger compared to the aforementioned varieties. It is cultivated exclusively on
Oahu for local consumption and, just like Sunrise, has orange colored pulp. The Laie gold variety is resistant to PRSV and is
the genetically altered version of Kamiya.
Source: http://www.Hawaiipapaya.com/info.htm#why
facts
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Papaya 12
2. Genetic engineering as
protector of the harvest
Up until 1992 it was possible to protect the papayaproducing region Puna from the
destructive papayaringspot virus. Scientists at the University of Hawaiiand Cornell
University (USA) saw and anticipated the danger to Puna. In 1984 they started the
development of a genetically altered papaya. This GMO papayawas made resistant to
PRSV through the activation of the plant’s immune system.
30 Powell Abel P et al. (1986). Delay of disease development in transgenic plants that express the tobacco mosaic virus coat protein gene. Science 232,738-743. facts
31 Tennant P et al. (2001). Papaya ringspot virus resistance of transgenic Rainbow and SunUp is affected by gene dosage, plant development, and coat protein series
homology. European Journal of Plant Pathology 107, 645-653.
13 Papaya
2
In 1992, the year when the first PRSV In 1997, when the entire Puna region was
infections were noticed in Puna, the GMO infected with PRSV, the authorities were
papayaswere tested in the field for the presented with an important dilemma.
first time. For this purpose the heavily Either all papayaplantations in Puna
infested island Oahu was chosen. The would have to be cleared and a new
Sunup GMO papayasretained full resist- area on Hawaiiwould have to be found
ance to PRSV during a two year long field and used to rebuild papayaproduction
test, while the non-GMO papayasSunrise from scratch, or the genetically modified
and Kapoho began showing symptoms papayawould have to be given a chance.
after just 77 days.3
facts
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Papaya 14
RNA AND GENE-SILENCING
figure 4 The genetic information of all organisms is contained in nucleotide sequences (see
Information in double stranded text box ‘Plant viruses’, page 7). With the exception of viruses, DNA can be seen as
dna is first transcribed to
single stranded rna before being the universal carrier of genetic information. In higher organisms (plants, animals) DNA
translated into a protein.
consists of two strands (see Figure 4). Every cell in a given organism contains the
same DNA. However, not every cell needs the same information. For example, a liver
cell needs to make different proteins than an eye cell. In order for specific information
to be used in the production of a protein, two steps are necessary (Figure 4). First a
dna piece of code (gene) that is necessary for protein production is transcribed into RNA.
This single strand moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of the cell, where the
code is translated. For this reason this RNA is often referred to as ‘messenger RNA’.
The translation of the messenger RNA coincides with the production of the protein for
which the original piece of DNA encodes.
rna
RNA plays a crucial role in this process. If the RNA is broken down before it can be
translated then the message contained in the DNA will never lead to the production
of a protein. This phenomenon is called ‘gene silencing’, literally shutting down a
gene’s function by deactivating the corresponding RNA. The process is naturally used
by plants to defend against viruses. The immune system of a plant is based on the
presenceof double stranded RNA. As previously mentioned a plant’s messenger RNA
protein
protein consists of a single strand. When viral RNA multiplies in the plant cell, double stranded
RNA molecules are formed. These are recognized as foreign structures by the plant
cell and to defend itself it breaks down the double stranded RNA. This process activates a mechanism that destroys all similar
RNA molecules, even if they are single stranded.32 This RNA silencing process can be considered a kind of immune system that
works at the genetic level.32 Not all plants are equally efficient with regards to carrying out this system and viruses also make
attempts to defend themselves against such attacks. That is why papayais naturally susceptible to PRSV.
facts
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32 Voinnet O (2001). RNA silencing as a plant immune system against viruses. Trends in Genetics 17, 449-459.
15 Papaya
2
Both cross protection of papaya(see page 13) and coat-protein-mediated resistance are reliant on this RNA-dependent silencing
mechanism.33 In cross protection the initial infection with the mild virus activates the silencing mechanism. When a subsequent
infection occurs the plant is then able to break down viral RNA that is similar to the first virus and in doing so stops the infection.
In GMO papayasthe silencing process is given some help. The mRNA for the viral coat protein is made by the plant in large
quantities. When a certain RNA molecule is present in large quantities plants react in the same way as when they encounter
double stranded RNA, recognizing it as foreign material and breaking it down. This reaction was observed for the first time during
research into Petunia flower color. In order to make a purple color more intense American and Dutch researchers activated the
expression of extra pigment genes.34,35 To their surprise the resulting plants had less intensely colored flowers and in some
cases even had white petals. The plants with white flowers had so much pigment mRNA that the RNA was broken down before
pigment could be produced. The GMO papaya’svirus resistance is based on the same principle. The plant makes the mRNA that
codes for the viral coat protein in large quantities causing the silencing mechanism in the plant to be activated which results
in the RNA for the viral coat protein being broken down.
figure 5
Diagram showing how the funtion of the messenger rna can be shut down so that no protein is produced.
original rna
overproduced rna
molecules are broken down
translation
functional protein
no protein
33 Ratcliff FG et al. (1999). Gene silencing without DNA: RNA-mediated cross-protection between viruses. The Plant Cell 11, 1207-1215.
34 Van der Krol AR et al. (1990). Flavonoid genes in Petunia: addition of a limited number of gene copies may lead to a suppression of gene expression.
The Plant Cell 2, 291-299.
apoli C et al. (1990). Introduction of a chimeric chalcone synthase gene into Petunia results in reversible co-suppression of homologous genes in trans.
35 N
facts The Plant Cell 2, 279-289.
series
Papaya 16
RNA AND GENE SILENCING: CONTINUED
During lab experiments the researchers who developed the GMO papayanoticed that the more mRNA for the coat protein was
produced, the more resistance the plants showed to the virus.31 Carica papayais a diploid plant, meaning that each gene is present
in two forms (alleles). If the two forms are identical then one is dealing with a homozygous characteristic. This can best be
compared to a person’s blood group. Humans are also diploid organisms. Humans with the O blood group are homozygous for
that characteristic: both forms of the blood group gene are O (OO). By contrast the blood group AB is determined by the A allele
and the B allele. The ‘Sunup’ papayais homozygous for the virus resistance characteristic. In other words, it has two identical
alleles. But the ‘Rainbow’ papayais a cross between the GMO papaya‘Sunup’ and the non-GMO papaya‘Kapoho’. As a result
‘Rainbow’ has only received virus resistance from one parent (‘Sunup’). As a result ‘Rainbow’ produces less mRNA for the coat
protein than ‘Sunup’ and exhibits a lower resistance against PRSV.31
As mentioned earlier the silencing process is based on double stranded RNA. Therefore two RNA molecules must bind to
each other before the process is activated (Figure 5, page 16). Greater similarity between the molecules allows for easier and
stronger binding and a more efficient RNA degradation process. In Hawaiithe coat protein from PRSV HA 5-1 was used. The GMO
papayasare protected against other PRS viruses as long as the coat protein’s genetic code does not differ too much from that
of PRSV HA 5-1. For example, the GMO papaya‘Sunup’ was also resistant to PRS viruses from Jamaica and Brazil. However,
protection against the Thai PRSV was much less effective because the Thai PRSV’s DNA coding has less in common with PRSV
HA 5-1 compared to the Jamaican and Brazilianviruses.31
figure 6
Diagram of agrobacterium
tumefaciens’ gene insertion
mechanism. in addition to
its chromosomal dna the chromosomal
bacteria also has a dna
ti-plasmid (represented by
t-dna t-dna
the red circle). the genetic
information contained in chromosome
the t-dna (blue segment) is
transferred to a plant cell ti plasmid
by agrobacterium where it
is then inserted into the
plant’s dna. an adult plant
is then formed from this
modified plant cell. this
plant has an extra piece of
genetic information but is
Agrobacterium
otherwise identical to the
tumefaciens
original plant.
facts
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17 Papaya
2
In addition to this biological method there are also mechanical methods for inserting
DNA into plants. The most important is the ‘particle acceleration’ method, also known
as ‘particle bombardment’ or the ‘gene gun’. For this method tiny gold particles are
coated with the DNA that is to be inserted into the plant. The gold particles are then
‘fired’ into the plant tissue at high pressure. In some cases the DNA penetrates into the
nucleus where it may be spontaneously incorporated into the plant’s DNA. This method
leaves more to chance, is less efficient and in many cases only part of the desired DNA
is inserted into the plant DNA. However, this still remains the most effective way to
modify plants that cannot be infected by Agrobacterium. In the late 1980’s Hawaiian
papayaswere genetically modified using this method.36 Since then methods have been
developed to genetically modify papayausing Agrobacterium.37 For example, the GMO
papayascultivated in China(see page 25) were modified using Agrobacterium.38
How do you get from a genetically modified cell to a whole plant? Unlike humans and
other animals, plants have the unique ability to make a new plant from just one plant
The gene gun with which DNA
coatedgold particles can be cell. So when one plant cell has been genetically modified (with Agrobacterium or the
fired into plant cells.
‘gene gun’) it is then possible to grow a full, genetically modified plant from it. Some-
times this happens spontaneously, but in most cases the process must be directed by adding plant hormones that stimulate
the development of shoots and roots.39
36 Fitch MMM et al. (1990). Stable transformation of papayavia microprojectile bombardment. Plant Cell Reports 9, 189-194.
37 Fitch MMM et al. (1993). Transgenic papayaplants from Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of somatic embryos. Plant Cell Reports 12, 245-249.
38 Chen G et al. (2001). Cloning of the papayaringspot virus (PRSV) replicase gene and generation of PRSV-resistant papayasthrough the introduction of the PRSV
replicase gene. Plant Cell Reports 20, 272-277.
39 Fitch MMM, Manshardt R (1990). Somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration from immature zygotic embryos of papaya(Carica papayaL.).
Plant Cell Reports 9, 320-324.
facts 40 Siar SV et al. (2011). Papayaringspot virus resistance in Carica papayavia introgression from Vasconcellea quercifolia. Euphytica 181, 159-168.
series
41 Genus is a taxonomic classification in biology. For example, the horse and the donkey are different species but they belong to the same genus. The Carica and
Papaya 18 Vasconcellea papayasare, taxonomically speaking, one step further apart from each other.
3. A public sector
development
The development of a virus resistant GMO papayawas an important step in the fight
against PRSV. However, getting the transgenic papayato the grower was at least as
important. This final step involved obtaining permits and the approval for both cultivation
and consumption. Showing unprecedented efficiency and foresight the Hawaiian
papayaorganization managed to get the GMO papayasto growers just three years
after the first field tests.
42 The PAC is an organization that was assembled by the USDA to help the Hawaiianpapayaindustry to market the papaya.
43 Goldman M (2007). The IP management of the PRSV-resistant papayasdeveloped by Cornell University and the University of Hawaii and commercialized in Hawaii.
In Intellectual Property Management in Health and Agricultural Innovation: A Handbook of Best Practices (eds. A Krattiger, RT Mahoney, L Nelsen, et al.).
MIHR: Oxford, UK, and PIPRA: Davis, VS. Available online via www.ipHandbook.org facts
* Patent law in the United Statesis generally more strict then in Europa, as such there might be some restrictions for the use of patented technology even for series
research purposes. 19 Papaya
3
was signed the research center had GMO papayas. For this reason the culti-
already produced enough seed to plant vation of the HawaiianGMO papayawas
400 ha of transgenic papayaplantations.3 only permitted in Hawaii. The harvested
In May 1998 the seeds were distributed papayaswere approved for sale outside
amongst Hawaiianpapayagrowers free of Hawaii, which was essential for export
of charge. activities.3 Growers were also required
However, a number of limitations were by PAC to follow a training course about
imposed onto the free distribution of the cultivatingthe GMO papaya.
facts
series
Papaya 20
4. Economic aspects
of the Hawaiianpapaya
The Hawaiianpapayaindustry is responsible for just 0.1% of global papayaproduction.
Even so, in 2012 papayaexports generated 23 million US dollars. Canadaand Japanhave
been the biggest customers for decades.
figure 7
The hawaiianpapaya’s export figures in millions of us dollars. import by japandecreases drastically after the
introductionof the gmo papaya. in 2003 canadaopened its markets to gmo papayas resulting in extra import.45
25 introduction
of gmo papaya
in hawaii canada
opens
20 its borders
15
10
total
5 all countries
canada
0 japan
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
44 Evans EA et al. (2012). An overview of US papaya production, trade, and consumption. EDIS document FE914. facts
Available via http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/FE/FE91400.pdf series
45 Government of Canada. Trade Data Online. Available via https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/tdo-dcd.nsf/eng/Home
21 Papaya
4
facts
series
Papaya 22
The GMO papayain Japan
According to official Japaneseimport In 1999 the Hawaiianpapayaindustry
figuresthe annual import value of papaya got started on the procedures necessary
between 2005 and 2008 was approxi- to enable the export of biotech papayas
mately 11 million US dollars (from all to Japan. Following evaluation of all the
parts of the world). Despite a decrease in food safety and environmental factors,
papayaimport over the past few years, the import of the Rainbow papayawas
the yearly import since 2009 has still been approved in Japanon 1 December 2011.47,48
worth more than 6.5 million US dollars.46 The biotech papaya’sintroduction was
Approximately 1 million US dollars’ worth linked with an education program and at
originated in Hawaii(Figure7, page 21). the instigation of the Hawaiianpapaya
industry all individual papayaswere
Prior to the introduction of the GMO labeled with the Japanesetext ‘idenshi
papayaHawaiisupplied 97% of Japan’s kumikae’ or ‘genetically modified’.47
imports. Exports were worth 12.8 million
US dollars. The Philippines, that up until Despite the fact that
this point had barely supplied any of the export of the
Japan’s imports, could supply papayas American papaya to
that were guaranteed non-GMO and Japanis at a historical
gradually took over from Hawaiias main low, the HawaiianGMO papayagrowers
supplier(see Figure 8).46 now have a chance to regain a share of
the Japanesemarket. However, achieving
this plan will rely on the readiness of the
Japanesepublic to consume genetically
modified papaya(see page 11).
figure 8
Japanesepapaya imports in tonnes. after the introduction of the gmo papaya the japaneseimport of the hawaiianpapaya
decreases, replaced by the filipino papaya.46
8000
7000
introduction
of GMO papaya
6000 in hawaii
import in tonnes
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
us philippines other
46 Trade Statistics of Japan. Ministry of Finance. Available via http://www.customs.go.jp/toukei/srch/indexe.htm. The ‘commodity code’ of fresh papayais 08072.
47 USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (2011). GAIN Report number JA1048.
Available via http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Japan%20approved%20GM%20papaya_Tokyo_Japan_12-19-2011.pdf facts
48 USDA News Release No. 0005.12 series
Available via http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdamediafb?contentid=2012/01/0005.xml&printable=true&contentidonly=true
23 Papaya
5
49 Srinivasulu M, Sai Gopal DVR (2011). Coat protein sequence comparison of south Indian isolates of Papayaringspot virus with other Indian subcontinent isolates.
Phtyopathol Mediterr 50, 359-367.
50 Jain RK et al. (2004). Variability in the coat protein gene of Papayaringspot virus isolates from multiple locations in India. Archives of Virology 149, 2435-2442.
51 Kiritani K, Su H-J (1999). Papayaring spot, banana bunchy top, and citrus greening in the Asia and Pacific region : occurrence and control strategy. JARQ 33, 23-30.
facts 52 Bau H-J et al. (2003). Broad-spectrum resistance to different geographic strains of Papayaringspot virus in coat protein gene transgenic papaya.
series Phytopathology 93, 112-120.
53 Lines RE et al. (2002). Genetically engineered immunity to Papayaringspot virus in Australian papayacultivars. Molecular Breeding 10, 119-129.
Papaya 24
papayain Jamaica declined by more than coat proteins from the Jamaican variant in contact with Cornell University as
50% due to the PRSV infections, from of PRSV.55 The GMO papayawas ready early as 1992. The collaboration yielded
400 ha in mid-1990 to 180 ha in 2008.54 for field testing in 1998 but because a GMO papayaresistant to Venezuelan
The annual production levels fell from an the necessarylegal framework for PRS viruses56 but Venezuelan growers
average of 15,300 tonnes between 1993 commercialization was absent no further still have to manage without a virus
and 1998 to 5,800 tonnes in 2011.2 steps have been made to this day.55 resistant papaya.
Cornell University sprang into action and In Venezuela the situation is similar. The
a GMO papayawas developed based on University of Los Andes (Venezuela) got
figure 9
After the introduction of the virus resistant GMO papaya in 2007 imports decline dramatically.57
3000
introduction
of the gmo
2500 papaya
in china
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1192
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
54 USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (2008). GAIN Report number JM8007. Available via http://www.fas.usda.gov/gainfiles/200807/146295191.pdf
55 Fermin G, Tennant P (2011). Opportunities and constraints to biotechnological applications in the Caribbean: transgenic papayasin Jamaica and Venezuela.
Plant Cell Reports 30, 681-687.
56 Fermin G et al. (2004). Engineered resistance against Papaya ringspot virus in Venezuelan transgenic papayas. Plant Disease 88, 516-522.
57 Lin-ke H et al. (2012). Farmer’s knowledge on GM technology and pesticide use: evidence from papaya production in China. Journal of Integrative Agriculture 11, facts
2107-2115. series
58 James C (2012). Global status of commercialized biotech/GM crops:2012. ISAAA Brief 44.
25 Papaya
6
Conclusion
Genetically modified crops are often The GMO papayahas been cultivated countries to look for a similar solution to
associated with multinationals and large since 1998 to deal with the papaya deal with local papayaviruses. Until now
scale cultivation. The story of the GMO ringspotvirus, a pathogen that does virus resistant GMO papayasare only
papayademonstrates that this does not not just cause serious losses in yield being cultivated in Hawaiiand Chinabut
necessarily always have to be the case. but can also make commercial papaya more countries are ready to make use of
The HawaiianGMO papayawas developed cultivationimpossible. Thanks to the biotechpapayasin the fight against the
by the public sector and the intellectual use of GMO papayascultivation has been papayaringspot virus.
property rights were transferred to the able to continue on Hawaii. This success
local papayaindustry. story inspired many papayaproducing
facts
series
Papaya 26
facts
series
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27 Papaya
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