Cairo University

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Design Engineering
Spring 2020

Mechanics
of Solids
LOGO
MDPN
262
 Course Instructors

❑ Dr. Chahinaz Abdel-Rahman Saleh

Mechanical Design and Production Department.
Office: Building 14 – 1st floor

❑ Dr. Sahour Sayed

Mechanical Design and Production Department.
Office: Building 14 – 2nd floor
Email: sahour_sayed@yahoo.com

❑ Eng. Mark Nassef

Mechanical Design and Production Department.
Office: Building 14 – 1st floor

2
 Code of Conduct

3
 Lectures and Tutorials

❑ There will be two hours lectures and three hours

tutorial per week.

❑ Attendance of both is mandatory.

4
 Grading System

❑ Total: 100 marks.

❑ Final exam: 40 marks.

❑ Term work: 60 marks.

- Midterm exam (20).

- Two quizzes (10).
- Assignments and reports (10).
- Dr. Chahinaz (quizzes and assignments) (20).

5
 References

❑ A.R. Ragab and S.A. Bayoumi, “Engineering Solid

Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications”, CRC
Press, 1998.

❑ E.P. Popov, “Engineering Mechanics of Solids”,

Prentice Hall, 1990.

❑ R.C. Hibbeler, “Mechanics of Materials”, Tenth Edition

in SI Units, Pearson, 2018.

6
 Main Objectives of the Course

❑ To emphasize the basics of mechanics of elastic and

plastic deformation of solids.

❑ To analyze some design problems such as thick-

walled pressure vessels and curved bars, etc.

7
 Course ILO’s

❑ Understand the basic concepts of stress and strain in

elastic solids.

❑ Identify the relations between stress and strain.

❑ Evaluate the stresses in thick-walled pressure vessels.

❑ Apply the energy concept to estimate deflection of

mechanical structures.

❑ Analyze the stresses in curved bars.

8
 Course ILO’s Cont’d

❑ Investigate the shear stresses in members of non-circular

cross sections.

❑ Apply the theory of plasticity to analyze beams under

bending beyond yielding.

9
 ❖The Concept of Stress

10
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
I.1 INTRODUCTION

▪ The subject of mechanics of deformable bodies is concerned with the

effect of applied loads on the deformable body i.e. evaluation of
stresses and deformations developed in the body due to loading. This
allows analyzing design problems as well as causes of failure.

▪ First we are going to recognize the concept of stress and the method of
describing the state of stress at a point. The law of stress
transformation between different of sets of axes is going to be derived and
some important quantities will be computed such as: stress invariants,
principal stresses, stress deviations and maximum shear stress.

11
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
I-2 THE STRESS VECTOR

Loads on the body may be classified into; applied loads (surface loads) and
body forces. The body forces are related to the bulk of the material i.e. to the
mass such as the gravitational force (weight), centrifugal force and the
magnetic field force.

Now consider a body having a body force under static equilibrium and is
subjected to different types of surface loads as shown in Figure (1-a). As a
result of loading, internal reaction forces will be developed at body sections.
For a small area S around point O on section (i) (where i is the normal to the
section) shown in Figure (1-b), let F be the share of S in the internal forces
acting on the section. The stress vector at point O (Si ) is defined as follows:

F
Si = lim S→0 ……………………………………………..(1)
S

12
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I

 (l,m,n)
Si
P1 P2
F θ
i (l,m,n)
Pn
O
S
•
O P3

P5 P4

(a) (b)

Figure (1) Stress vector at a point in a loaded body

13
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
The subscript (i) in Si represent the normal to the plane on which Si acts at O.
The direction of Si say , where   i. Having the stress vector Si, let us now
decompose it.
First we resolve Si in three directions x, y , z, has components X, Y, Z

 X
 
S =  Y  = (X Y Z )
T
−
Z
 
Si = X2 + Y 2 + Z2
2

X
l =
Si
Y
m =
Si
Z
n =
Si
14
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
Second, we resolve Si into one component normal i and another tangential
to the plane i.

 i 
 
S =   i  = ( i  i  i )
T
−
 
 i 

S i = i + i
2 2 2

 i =  i +  i
2 2 2

15
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
This traction vector is not in (i) direction and it can be in any direction. If the
normal to the section is x-axis, then decomposing the traction vector in
directions of x, y and z as shown in Figure (2), yields a normal stress
component x and two tangent stress components xy and xz such that:

S 2x =  2x +  2xy +  2xz ……………………………………..(2)

Sx
 xy x
θ

θ x
y
O
z
xz

Figure (2) Components of stress vector

16
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
The normal stress has a symbol  and the suffix points to the normal
direction, while the tangent stress has a symbol  and it has two suffices; the
first one points to the normal to the plane and the second points to the
direction of the shear stress.

I-3 THE STATE OF STRESS AT A POINT

Now bounding a point in a loaded body with planes normal to each other as
shown in Figure (3), (let the normal to the planes be parallel to the directions
of x, y and z). This results three traction victors, each has three perpendicular
components, such that:

S 2x =  2x +  2xy +  2xz
S 2y =  2y +  2yx +  2yz ……………………………………….(3)

S 2z =  2z +  2zy +  2zx

17
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
Sz z

Sy
zy
zx
z yz
xz
y
y
yx
x
O xy
Sx
x

Figure (3) State of stress at a point

Then the state of stress at a point is specified by the nine components:

 x ,  y ,  z ,  xy ,  xz ,  yx ,  yz ,  zx and  zy which are usually displayed in a
square matrix (stress tensor) as following:

18
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
x  yx  zx 
 
xyz =  xy y  zy  ……………………………………………(4)
 xz  yz  z 
 xyz

Actually the equilibrium principle at a point leads to equating xy with yx , xz
with zx and yz with zy i.e. in three-dimensional case there are three pairs of
complementary shear stresses. Then we can say that the state of stress at a
point is defined by six independent quantities, and the matrix [] is symmetric.

I-3-1 SIGN CONVENTION OF STRESSES

Normal stress  is positive when it produces tension i.e. when it has an
outward direction from the surface. Regards the sign of the shear stress , it
is positive when the normal to the plane is in positive direction and it points to
the positive directions of the other two perpendicular axes, as shown in Figure
(4). Also the shear stress is positive when it points to the negative direction on
a plane its normal has negative direction.

19
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I

y y z
yx
y zy
xy
yz

x x y y

xy yz
yx
x zy

z z
y

Figure (4) Positive directions of normal and shear stresses

20
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
I-4 STRESS TRANSFORMATION LAW
Let us represent the point in a loaded structure as a cube whose faces are
perpendicular to x, y and z axes and subjected to the state of stress shown in
Figure (5). Then separation of the cube by a real plane whose normal (i) has l,
m and n as the direction cosines with respect to the axes x, y and z
respectively, results the tetrahedron OABC. Considering the volume of the
developed tetrahedron gives:
Ax = Ai l , Ay = Ai m, Az= Ai n
z z x
xy
b
i yx
i
xz
c y

y y
yz

zx

x
a zy
x
z

21
Figure (5) State of stress with respect to xyz and i
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
where Ax, Ay, Az and Ai are the surface areas of the tetrahedron’s faces
perpendicular to x, y, z and I, respectively. If the stress vector Si on the inclined
plane (i) has the components X, Y and Z in x, y and z directions, respectively,
then applying the equilibrium equations gives:

X =  x l +  yx m +  zx n  X   x  yx  zx   l 
 Y  =  y

 zy  m ……….(5)
Y =  xy l +  ym +  zy n .i.e
   xy
Z =  xz l +  yz m +  zn  Z   zx  yz  z   n 

Also resolving Si in i,  and  directions to give i, i and i , where they
can be related to X, Y and Z as:

i = Xl + Ym + Zn
i = Xl + Ym + Zn
i = Xl + Ym + Zn

22
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I

 i   l m n   X
    Y 
 =   
 i   l m n    ………………………………………..(6)
 i  l m n  Z 
 
where l , m and n and l , m and n are the direction cosines of  and 
respectively with respect to the axes x, y and z. Note that: i,  and  are
new set of coordinates.
Equations (5) and (6) gives

 i   l m n    x  yx  zx   l 
  
 = l  m  n   y

 zy  m ……………………………(7)
 i     xy
 i  l m n  xz  yz  z   n 
  

23
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
Sectioning the cube by another two planes whose normal are in  and 
directions which are at right angles with each other and with the direction i, then
the traction vectors on these planes will have the following components; (,
i and ) and (, i and ). The values of these components can be
determined by applying equilibrium equations as done above for plane I, such
that:

 i  i  i   l m n   x  yx  zx   l l  l  
    
 i      =  l  m n   
 xy  y  zy   m m  m 
 (8)
 i      l  m n   xz  yz  z   n n  n  

Equation (8) represents the transformation law, which gives the state of stress
due to rotation of coordinates if the state of stress at this point is known to
another set of coordinates.

24
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
I-5 PRINCIPAL STRESSES

Loads on a member create stresses parallel to the axes of a given coordinate

system but their values cannot be used directly to evaluate the onset of
yielding or fracture. The critical stresses often occur in other directions, along
the principal axes, and are termed “principal stresses”. The principal stresses
are the maximum and minimum normal stresses that can be found at a point.
In the following we are going to derive the values of these stresses and their
directions.

Consider a point in continuum of known state of stress w.r.t. xyz axes. For an
oblique plane whose normal has direction cosines l, m and n; the normal
stress acting on that plane according to Eqn. (7) is:

 i =  x l 2 +  y m 2 +  z n 2 + 2( xy lm +  yzmn +  zx nl ) (9)

25
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
Eq. (9) shows that the value of the normal stress depends on the direction of
the inclined plane. Then the maximum value of the normal stress can be
deduced by differentiating the expression of normal stress with respect to the
direction (i.e. with respect to l and m) and equating it to zero. The substitution
in Eqn. (7) by the direction cosines obtained shows that, the plane of
maximum normal contains no shear component.

Now It is required to evaluate the principal stresses and their corresponding

principal planes at a point of known state of stress. Cutting the cube
representing the point of interest by a principal plane whose direction cosines
of its normal are l, m and n and these are also the direction cosines of the
principal stresses . The equilibrium of the resulting tetrahedron similar to
that shown in Figure(5) yields:

26
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
  A il  =  x A x +  xy A y +  xz A z
i.e.
  l  =  x l  +  xy m  +  xz n 
also
  m  =  yx l  +  y m  +  yz n 
  n  =  zx l  +  zy m  +  z n 

where Ai, Ax, Ay and Az are the areas of the inclined, normal to x
direction, normal to y direction and normal to z direction planes
respectively.

The above equations can be written in equivalent matrix form as:

27
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I

 x −    xy  xz   l   0
 
  yx y −   yz  m   = 0 (10)
  zx  zy  z −     n   0


Equations (10) are three linear homogeneous equations and for a non-trivial
solution, the determinant of the matrix in (10) must vanish, i.e.

 x −   xy  xz
 yx  y −   yz =0
 zx  zy z − 

which leads after expansion to the following characteristics equation:

28
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I

 − I1 + I2   − I3 = 0
3

2

(11)

where

I1 =  x +  y +  x
x  yx y  zy x  zx
I2 = + + =  x  y +  y  z +  z  x −  2xy −  2yz −  2xz
 xy y  yz z  xz z
x  yx  zx
I3 =  xy y  zy
………………(12)
 xz  yz z

29
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I

The roots of the Characteristic equation (11) are real values. They are the
three perpendicular principal stresses at a point, and they are denoted by 1,
2 and 3. The algebraically largest principal stress is represented by 1 and
the smallest by 3. Thus:
1   2   3
To get the direction of a principal axis ( i.e. the direction of a principal stress
which coincide with the direction of principal plane), the value of the principal
stress is substituted in Eq. (10). These equations with the relation
l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1 are all used to define the directions of the principal axes.
Repeating that for the other two principal stresses, one may notice that the
three principal axes are perpendicular.

30
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
I-6 STRESS INVARIANTS

As the principal stresses at a point are independent on the orientation of the

original coordinate system, so the coefficients of the characteristics equation (11)
(i.e. I1, I2 and I3) are also independent on the original orientation of the axes
used. Hence I1, I2 and I3 which are expressed by eqn. (12) are called stress
invariants.

▪ Example:

Stress tensor at a point is given as:

30 10 10 
xyz = 10 0 20 MPa
10 20 0 
Get stress invariants and principal stresses and their directions.
31
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
Solution:
I1 = 30 + 0 + 0 = 30 MPa

30 10 0 20 30 10
I2 = + + = −100 − 400 − 100 = −600 (MPa ) 2
10 0 20 0 10 0
30 10 10
I 3 = 10 0 20 = 30 (0 − 400) − 10 (0 − 200) + 10 (200 − 0) = −8000 (MPa ) 3
10 20 0

characteristic equation is :

  − 30  − 600  + 8000 = 0

3 2

Using calculator, the three roots of the characteristic equation are 10, 40
and -20 MPa

32
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I

  1 = 40 MPa ,  2 = 10 MPa ,  3 = −20 MPa

Then the state of stress with respect to principal axes is defined as:

40 0 0 
123 =  0 10 0  MPa
 0 0 − 20

33
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS I
To find the directions of the principal stresses substitute in equation (10), we can
get :

30 − 40 10 10   l1  0
 10 0 − 40 20   m  = 0 
  1  
 10 20 0 − 40  n1  0

m1 = n1

m1 = l1 / 2

 l12 + l12 / 4 + l12 / 4 = 1

2 1 2
 l1 =  , m1 = n1 = 
3 2 3
Similar we can get l2 , m2, n2 and l3, m3 , n3

34
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II
II-1 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESSES

It has been shown that the minimum numerical values of the shear stresses are
zeros and they are acting on the principal planes. Now it is required to determine
the value of maximum shearing stresses and to define the direction of planes on
which they act.

Following the same procedure in deriving the maximum principal stresses and
considering that the known state of stress at the point of interest are the principal
as shown in Figure(6), then the shear stress on an inclined plane can be derived
from equilibrium. Differentiating the resulting relation with respect to the
directions and equating the result to zero gives the directions of the maximum
shear stresses.

35
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II

Si 1
3 i (l,m,n)
i i

2

1 3

Figure (6) Determination of maximum shear stresses

36
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II
= i + i
2 2 2
i = S i − i
2 2 2
S S
2
= X2 + Y2 + Z2
−i −i

 X   1 0 0   l 
Y  =  0  0  m
   2  
 Z   0 0  3   n 

= (1 l ) 2 + ( 2 m ) 2 + ( 3 n ) 2
2
S
− i

i = (1l + 2 m + 3n 2 2
)
2 2 2

i = (1l) + (2 m) + (3n) − (1l + 2 m + 3n )

2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2

n2 = 1 − l 2 − m2
 i  i
=0 & =0
l m
37
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II
− 2 i
i
l
 
= 0 = 2l (1 − 3 ) − 2 (1 − 3 ) l 2 + (2 − 3 )n 2 + 3 (2l(1 − 3 ))
2 2

− 2 i
i
m
 
= 0 = 2m (2 − 3 ) − 2 (1 − 3 ) l 2 + (2 − 3 )n 2 + 3 (2m(2 − 3 ))
2 2

Solving these two simultaneous equations; the maximum shear stresses

will be found to occur on three planes which are perpendicular to one of
the principal axis and making 45o with the other two axes. These planes
and the maximum shear stresses on them are:

Plane (1) of
1 1 −  3
l2 = n2 = , m2 = 0 this gives max = …………..(13)
2 2
Plane (2) of

1 2 − 3
m =n = ,
2 2
l =0
2
this gives max = …………(14)
2 2

38
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II
Plane (3) of

1 1 −  2 …….(15)
l2 = m2 = , n2 = 0 this gives max =
2 2

Where l, m and n are the direction cosines of the plane with respect to the
principal stresses’ axes.

Unlike the principal planes, there are normal stresses on the planes of
maximum shear stresses, and they are equal to: 1 +  3 on plane (1),
2
2 + 3 1 +  2
on plane (2) and on plane (3).
2 2

The absolute maximum shear stress is the maximum value of maximum

shear stresses expressed by eqns. (13), (14) and (15). Which is (according
to notation of principal stresses),
1 −  3
 max =
2
39
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II
II-2 MEAN STRESS AND STRESS DEVIATION

In plasticity, It is useful to express the stresses not in their absolute values,

but above and below the mean stress (the hydrostatic stress) m. The
mean stress at a point is an invariant and it is defined as:

m =
1
( 1 +  2 +  3 ) = 1 ( x +  y +  z ) = I1 ……………..(16)
3 3 3

So the stress in any direction consists of two parts, these are the mean
stress and the deviatoric part ( / ) which is called the stress deviator.
 = m + /
and in matrix form: [  ]xyz = [ m ]xyz + [ / ]xyz
 x  yx  zx   m 0 0   / x  yx  zx 
    

 xy  y  zy  =  0 m 0  +   xy /y  zy  ……..(17)
 xz  yz  z   0
  0  m    xz  yz  / z 

40
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II
This is represented by Figure (7).

z m 'z

zy 'zy
zx yz 'zx 'yz
y m
xz 'xz
‘y
xy yx 'xy 'yx

x m 'x

Figure (7) Mean and deviatoric stresses

For isotropic material, the hydrostatic stress is responsible for changing in

volume only without changing the shape, while the deviatoric stress is
responsible for the change in shape.

41
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II ( Revision )
II-4 PLANE STRESS (Revision)

Many structural systems, either by design, construction, or both, consist of

members stressed in only a single plane. The two-dimensional space is defined
by major loads or member geometries. For a state of plane stress parallel to x -y
plane; the stresses z, zx and zy vanish and the general state of in-plane stress
at a point are the two normal stresses (x, y) and the shear stresses
(xy). Figure (8) shows a general state of stress on a 2D rectangular element.

Figure (8) General state of stress in plane

42
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II ( Revision )
Now let us assume that (x, y, xy) are known and It is required to determine the
stresses in another coordinate system, say X',Y' ; such that X' is inclined with an
angle  to X direction. The direction cosines of X' (l, m and n ) on x, y and z are
(cos ) , (sin ) and (0) respectively and the direction cosines of Y' (l', m' and n' )
on x, y and z are (-sin ) , (cos ) and (0) respectively. While those for Z' are (0, 0,
1). The substitution in stress transformation law (Eq. 8) yields the following
transformation equations for plane stress:
X + Y X − Y
X = + cos 2 +  XY sin 2
'

2 2
 X − Y ……………….(19)
XY = − sin 2 + XY cos 2
2
Now if it is required to determine the stresses acting on a face
oriented in the y' direction, we simply substitute an angle  =  +  / 2
into Eq. (19) and obtain

 X + Y  X − Y
Y = − cos 2 − XY sin 2
'

2 2
43
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II ( Revision )

Also for plane stress the principal stresses and the maximum in-plane shear
stress in plane x-y are found to be:

 X − Y 
2

 max =   +  XY
2
………………………..(20)
 2 

44
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II ( Revision )
II-5 MOHR'S CIRCLE (Revision)
Mohr's circle is a plane stress transformation tool. The power of Mohr's Circle
lies in its simplicity to find the stress state at any angle (x', y', x'y') as well as
the principal stresses. It is realized that when the stress transformation
equations (Eq. 19) were manipulated in a certain way they matched the
equation of a circle in normal vice shear stress (-) plane as shown Figure (9-
a)

(a)
Figure (9) Mohr’s circle
45
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II ( Revision )
Mohr's Circle is defined by its center and radius. The center, which always lies
on the -axis, is simply the sum average of the orthogonal normal stresses, i.e.:

 x + y
 avg =
2

The radius is the hypotenuse of a right triangle formed by the shear stress (xy)
and the half difference in normal stresses (Figure 9-a), is.

  X −Y 
2

R =   +  XY
2

 2 

In order to construct Mohr's Circle, simply find the center and draw a series of
loci at radius R. Plot the state of stress in the current configuration (x, y, xy),
on Mohr's Circle.

46
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II ( Revision )
Since we are now referring to our rectangular element, the chord connecting the
two stress states will always pass through the center. The physical angle
between the x-axis and y-axis is /2, in the Mohr plane, this angle is , and thus
forms a diameter.
II-5-1 CONSTRUCTION OF MOHR'S CIRCLE (Revision)

1- Draw an "x-y" axis on graph paper with the horizontal axis labeled  and the
vertical axis labeled  or CW (CW for clockwise).
2- Plot points X(x, xy) and Y(y, xy), using the correct convention for
positive/negative stresses. Plot Shear Stress above the -axis if it causes a
clockwise rotation.
3- Draw line connecting X(x, xy) and Y(y, xy). This is the diameter of the
Mohr's Circle and has a magnitude of twice the maximum shear stress. The
diameter intersects the -axis in the center of the circle, at the average normal
stress.
4- Draw the circle.
5- Rotate the X-Y diameter in Mohr's Circle by 2θ. The new endpoints X' Y'
correspond to the new stress state X'(x', x'y') - Y'(y', x'y').

47
THE CONCEPT OF STRESS II ( Revision )

Notes:

The points where the circle intersects the -axis define the Principal Stresses,
I and 2.

The radius equals the maximum in-plane shear stress, or half the difference
of the Principal Stresses:

R = max = (I - 2)/2

If you have plotted the graph to scale, you can use geometric relationships to
solve for the values of the principal stresses (avg.± R) and maximum in-plane
shear stress (R).

48