Manual A - For Building Operators

Par Hill Research
Reducing air pollution from your building - a series of manuals for operators, designers & developers
Manual A - For Building Operators
Joanne Arbon & Iarla Kilbane-Dawe

Par Hill Research Ltd
Some important conventions used in this document

Reducing air pollution from your building
Manual A – for building operators Key information
is highlighted in an orange box like this text.
This series of guides to reduce air pollution from your building

Key reference documents or websites look like this
comprises
• Manual A - for building operators
• Manual B - minimising air pollution from new developments Keywords and definitions are shown in blue bold typeface.
• 5 key questions about air pollution and buildings - 1 page guide
Examples and Case Studies

These are shown inside a light blue box.
2 - Reducing air pollution from your building

Contents A4 Fuel choice & pollution
A4.1 Air pollution and heating system choice

25
25
A4.2 When is it cost-effective to replace a boiler? 25
A4.3 Select the correct heat supply 26
Introduction & reading guide 4
A5 Best practice for heating control 27
A1 Laws and regulations 6
A5.1 Introduction 27
A1.2 Building Regulations requiring conservation of energy 6 A5.2 Boiler controls 28
A1.3 EPCs and DECs 8 A5.3 Time controls 29
A1.4 The law and air pollution from buildings 9 A5.4 Temperature controls 29
A1.6 BREEAM & LEED 10 A5.5 Building Management Systems 30
A1.7 Health & Safety 11 A5.6 Getting the best out of your controls 31
A2 Maximise energy efficiency before addressing demand 12 A6 Best practice for maintenance 32
A2.2 Audit the heating & cooling demand in your building 13
A7 How to develop a business case for better equipment 34
A2.3 Implement a heating & ventilation strategy 14
A2.4 Review and improve your building fabric 16 A7.1 Introduction 34
A2.5 Distribution of the heat and cooling 17 A7.2 Justifying the investment 34
A2.6 motors, pumps, drives & fan 18 A7.3 Good Practice In Determining Costs & Benefits 35
A2.7 Building Information Modelling 18 A7.4 Simple methods of comparing costs and benefits 36
A2.8 Metering, monitoring, targeting & building management 19 A7.5 Comparing costs & Benefits 37
A2.9 Organisational & Behavioural change 20 A7.6 Whole Life Cost Assessment 38
A7.7 Ease And Effect 38
A3 Know your heating & cooling requirements 21
A7.8 IPMVP 38
A3.2 Calculating Heat Load/Demand 21
A3.3 Rules of Thumb 21
A3.4 Simple sizing Calculation 22
A3.5 Multiple & Modulating Boilers 24

Introduction
The central principles of reducing air pollution from buildings
1. Design the building to maximise energy efficiency.
2. Use low polluting systems to meet the remaining energy demand.
Almost all buildings emit air pollution due to combustion in their heating, least to the latest Part L standards and ideally better than these. This has the
cooling or electricity generation systems. While there’s a lot of attention paid to effect of reducing the demand for heat and electricity generation services that
carbon (CO2) emissions from buildings that accelarate global warming, up to emit air pollution. Second, as far as possible use low polluting services to
now the toxic air pollution from buildings has received less attention. In fact generate heat and - if required - power. These need not be exotic or expensive
buildings account for as much as half of some air pollutants emitted in London. - conventional high efficiency or condensing gas boilers are the ideal solution in
Buildings tend to cause the background air pollution in cities – when this many cases, in particular the ultra low NOx variants. But renewable options
combines with the vehicle exhaust along roads it can create hotspots where exist too, like heat pumps, solar hot water and solar PV/electric panels. All are
air pollution concentrations both pose a threat to health and breach legal limits. supported by government incentives. This dual approach will also help your
building approach or achieve standards like the zero carbon building or
This is a significant problem for public health. In London the Department of
BREEAM. This document covers seven of the main areas to help you operate
Health has attributed about 4,000 premature deaths a year to Particulate
your building to minise it’s air pollution emissions, including:
Matter (PM) pollution. PM is a type of soot whose very fine particles get deep
into people’s lungs and pass into the blood, causing and exacerbating all sorts • Legislation & regulations, which explains how the Building Regulations and
of health problems, including cancer. Buildings also emit Nitrogen Dioxide local air pollution regulations interact
(NO2), usually in much larger amounts than PM. This is associated with • How to maximise your building’s energy efficiency
increased hospital admissions and deaths from heart failure. Reducing air • Some simple methods for estimation of heating and cooling demand
pollution from buildings not only improves people’s health, but it also tends to • Heat and energy services, how much they pollute and which to use
save money as a central task in minimising air pollution is energy efficiency. • The main types of boiler and heating controls you should use to ensure the
heat and energy services are used optimally and efficiently.
HOW TO MINIMISE AIR POLLUTION FROM BUILDINGS
• Best practice in maintenance
The main regulations applying to air pollution from buildings can usually be
complied with if two key actions are taken. First, the demand for onsite heat • Building a business case to improve your energy efficiency and plant
and electricity consumption in the building should be minimised. In other This information will help you ensure your building respects the local
words, the building should be operated to be as energy efficient as possible, at environment and public health and your fuel cost are minimised.

Reading guide for this document

Yes No
BEGIN HERE: Is your boiler
more than 15 years old?
Read A3 – understand
demand
Yes Read A1 – Consider all other

Is the boiler / heating system energy efficiency options
correctly sized? before replacing the heating
system
No
Yes Yes
Is heating plant in good Is the plant regularly & pro-
condition & running efficiently? actively maintained?
No No
Yes
Is the heating system
uncontrolled?
No
Read A5 – consider fitting Read A6 – Review Best
Read A4 & A7 – consider
boiler or building control Practice in Maintenance
upgrading to a new boiler
systems

A1
Examples of guidance in the Building Regulations Part L
Non-Domestic Buildings Compliance Guide
Recommended minimum seasonal efficiency for existing boiler systems

Fuel type Effective boiler seasonal Boiler season
Laws and regulations

efficiency* efficiency*
Natural Gas 84% 82%
LPG 85% 81%
Oil 86% 84%
A1.1 Introduction * Gross calorific value
It’s always essential to know the rules and regulations that govern the
management of buildings, boilers, or HVAC systems. The main regulations that Recommended minimum controls package for replacement boilers in
affect a building’s air quality performance are those that govern energy existing buildings
efficiency and those relating to air quality nuisance. In general, buildings that Minimum Controls Suitable Controls
Package
are more energy efficient will emit less air pollution if certain fuels and systems
a. Zone control and Zone control is required only for buildings where
are avoided (more in Chapter A5). Therefore much of this Factsheet discusses the floor area is greater than 150m2. As a
the energy efficiency regulations for buildings and when they create minimum, on/off control (e.g. through an isolation
opportunities for more energy efficiency and less air pollution. We’ll cover: valve for unoccupied zones) should be provided.
This is achieved by default for a building with a
• When Part L of the Buildings Regulations affects building management;
floor area of 150m2 or less.
• EPC & DEC Certificates, and EcoDesign of new building devices; b. Demand control, Room thermostat which controls through a
• Air Quality regulations & nuisance enforcement; and diverter valve with constant boiler flow water
• The BREEAM and LEED voluntary standards; temperature. This method of control is not
suitable for condensing boilers
• Health & Safety Regulations.
c. Time control Time clock controls
A1.2 Building Regulations requiring conservation of energy

Part L of Building Regulations is essential (if unexciting) reading for building 80% more efficient than the average UK building stock. Combined with ultra-
managers. Part L, as it’s commonly known, requires conservation of fuel and low NOx boilers or other low emission energy systems, this can lead to great
power, prerequisites for minimising air pollution from buildings. Since 2000, reductions in air pollution from new buildings compared to the current building
Part L has greatly increased the energy efficiency requirements of new stock. Though Part L only states general requirements, it is supported by
buildings or replaced or refurbished systems. Those required today are about Approved Documents. These set practical guidance on how to meet Part L,

such as when a boiler is replaced. The full list of these conditions is given
When existing buildings systems must be upgraded to
above. For existing buildings energy conservation upgrades are only required
the current Part L
for the elements that are to be substantially replaced or renovated, they do not
Buildings of 1000m2 or more must be fully upgraded to the current Part L apply to normal maintenance or repairs. The Part L Non-Domestic
standard when certain changes are being made – this is known as Buildings Compliance Guide sets recommended minimum energy efficiency
Consequential Improvements. This must be done when: standards for compliance with building regulations for each building service.
• The building is undergoing material change of use. This includes the minimum controls packages required, efficiency testing
• There is new provision of fixed building services or an increase to methods and installation requirements, as well as suggestions to improve plant
the overall capacity of the current fixed building services; efficiency.
• When thermal elements are replaced or renovated, they must be
Summary of Part L Legal Requirements
upgraded in its entirety to comply with Part L.
Part L requires conservation of fuel and power in buildings through all three of
This includes the following requirements: insulation, energy systems and buildings management and information. The
• When new or upgraded services are being installed, any changes to legal requirements are that reasonable provision shall be made for:
controlled fittings or services must include specification of efficient (a) limiting heat gains and losses through thermal elements and other parts of
boilers, pipe-work & controls. This includes space heating and hot
the building fabric; and from pipes, ducts and vessels used for space heating,
water systems, mechanical ventilation and cooling systems.
space cooling and hot water services;
• Duct leakage and fan performance testing must be conducted.
• Provision for energy metering, including differential monitoring (b) providing fixed building services which are energy efficient, have effective
between systems. controls, and are commissioned by testing and adjusting to ensure they use no
• An instruction manual for building users must be provided for more fuel and power than is reasonable in the circumstances;
heating, cooling and ventilation systems to enable them to realise (c) providing sufficient information to the owner about the building, the fixed
the optimum levels of energy efficiency to which their buildings & building services and their maintenance requirements so that the building can
any new systems are designed. be operated in such a manner as to use no more fuel and power than is
reasonable in the circumstances.
This also applies to any extensions to properties with floor area greater
than 1000m2, if the planned extension is greater than 100m2 in area and
greater than 25% of the existing useful floor area.
The Approved Document (Part L) for energy efficiency in existing
buildings that are not dwellings is (L2B).
as in the examples above. Existing buildings, and parts thereof, are only
required to be upgraded to Part L standards when certain changes occur,
Part L nondomestic compliance guide on

7 - Reducing air pollution from your building www.planningportal.gov.uk
A1.3 EPCs and DECs show your buildings energy performance

Main regulations on Building Energy Efficiency
The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (as transposed into UK
law) requires regular inspections of heating and air conditioning plant to ensure If selling or letting a property you must ensure that the EPC is up-to-date.
that they are operating correctly – full details are given in the box on the right. Every year, ensure that the DEC has been independently certified. A key
It also requires that buildings must have a current EPC certificate when part of the audits required as part of the EPC & DEC production is provision
constructed, sold or rented out. Public buildings larger than 500m2 must be of advice on boilers and air-conditioning systems. The advice given is in the
certified annually on the basis of actual energy performance and the resulting form of checklists and recommendations developed in conjunction with the
DEC must be displayed. The rating achieved in these certificates will be heating and hot water manufacturing and installation industries. The
strongly influenced by heating system choice and performance, so keeping a checklists have been designed to be simple and quick to complete, and the
regular maintenance schedule for energy systems is important. intention is that they are left on site. The advice can also be included in
existing service and maintenance visits and now forms part of industry
The Eco-Design Directive sets the minimum energy performance standards recommended good practice guidelines.
of a wide range of products to be sold/used in Europe and in coming years it
will require that many energy consuming devices used in buildings are more
efficient, including boilers, computers, televisions, transformers, industrial fans,
industrial furnaces. Other energy related products (ERPs) which do not use Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPCs & DECs)
www.gov.uk/energy-performance-certificate-commercial-property
energy but have an impact on energy and can therefore contribute to saving
energy, such as windows, insulation material, shower heads, taps etc., will also
be improved by the regulations.
Eco-Design at DG Ent
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/sustainable-
EPC – Energy Performance Certificates show the designed and
business/ecodesign/index_en.htm
calculated energy efficiency of property on a scale from A (most efficient &
lowest carbon emissions) to G (most efficient & lowest carbon emissions).
DECs – Display Energy Certificates are similar to an EPC but are based
on actual performance and must be updated annually.

A1.4 The law and air pollution from buildings Transport emissions and Low Emission Strategies
There are strong interactions between government policies on sustainable As with direct building emissions, transport emissions must also be minimised.
buildings, building energy efficiency and air quality. Most new social housing is This is an extensive topic in its own right, but there are many tools and
required to meet Level 4 of the Code for Sustainable Homes (BREEAM for resources than can help, in particular the Low Emission Strategies (LES)
homes), which specifies high levels of insulation and the installation of an ultra- website and toolkits. LES aims to help you plan transport so that demand for
low NOx boiler (these are available at little or no extra cost). The government’s polluting transport is minimised and so you can help offset any emissions from
tightening of Part L aims to reduce dramatically the carbon emissions through your building through better transport options.
using less fuel, with consequent improvements in NOx and PM emissions. But
they can also have a negative impact on air pollution if developers use biomass
boilers or poorly planned Combined Heat and Power instead of fabric energy
efficiency to achieve the Target Emissions Rate of CO2. Use of biomass fuels is
forbidden by many urban Supplementary Planning Documents (SPDs). More
detailed information on planning and air quality is provided in the IES Air Quality
and Planning Law briefing (reference to be found at right).
Pollution abatement
In Air Quality Management Areas heating system options can be increased by
using abatement technologies that reduce the NOx and PM emissions of what
would otherwise be more polluting systems. For each fuel and burner there are
IES Air Quality & Planning Law (2013) is an excellent
several approaches to pollutant reduction both inside the boiler and by treating Introduction to the the topic by two legal experts.
the boiler exhaust gases. In addition, flue and stack heights can be increased www.ies-uk.org.uk/analysis/air_quality_and_planning_law
to reduce or prevent flue gases reaching the ground or surrounding buildings.
This all requires careful planning as the concentration of air pollution at
receptors where people might be exposed depend strongly on the shape of
the building, the surrounding buildings and the terrain itself. The Low Emission Strategies website contains advice, guidance
and tools to help reduce transport emissions.
www.lowemissionstrategies.org

A1.5 London’s Supplementary Planning Guidance A1.6 BREEAM & LEED

BREEAM and LEED are the two main certification schemes used to improve
The London Plan places several air quality requirements on new deveopments
sustainability within commercial building design and operation. While currently
and these are elaborated in London’s Sustainable Design and Construction
voluntary, the public sector demands their use and there is growing demand
SPG. Overall this is intended to encourage walking and cycling, high energy
within commercial sectors to both improve Corporate Social Responsibility
efficiency buildings and use of ultra-low NOx boilers or zero emission heating. (CSR), attract funding and provide genuine evidence of sustainability within an
The SPG covers the following main areas. organisation. Different building types have tailored assessment schemes, such
as healthcare, industrial, offices, retail and higher education; and both now
Air quality assessments needed for many developments
have ‘in-use’ assessment schemes for certification of existing buildings.
Detailed air quality assessments must be conducted for any building in an
The assessment schemes are credit based assessment systems covering the
AQMA, that is likely to cause or worsen an exceedence of the Limit Values, or
all aspects of a building’s operation. Choice of HVAC system and distribution
expose sensitive individuals to higher pollution or that involves biofuels or CHP.
services, together with levels of control and management can significantly
Air Quality Neutral Requirement influence the score and ratings achieved. The ‘In-Use’ schemes are self-
assessment based, followed by certification from an independent auditor.
To prevent further deterioration of London’s air quality, benchmark maximum
emissions per square meter of floor area have been set for different land use BREEAM Building Research Establishment’s Environmental Assessment
Methodology. UK Based sustainable building design standard.
classes, both for the buildings emissions and related transport. If exceeded the
developer must offset the emissions through another local activity. LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design. US Based
sustainable building design standard.
Combustion, especially Combined Heat & Power and biofuels Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is a form of corporate self-
The SPG sets standards for NOx and PM emissions from combustion, CHP regulation whereby a business monitors and ensures its active compliance
and biomass in new buildings. These require use of ultra-low NOx boilers with the spirit of the law, ethical standards, and international norms.
where feasible and appropriate abatement for the technology in use, and set
maximum emissions levels for different combustion technologies, depending
on whether they are in an AQMA or place where Limit Values are exceeded.
BREEAM In-Use
www.breeam.org/page.jsp?id=373
LEED O&M
London’s Supplementary Planning Guidance
www.usgbc.org/ShowFile.aspx?DocumentID=3617
http://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/planning

A1.7 Health & Safety Air quality & Ventilation

There is a plethora of health & safety related guidance that has implications • Part L of the Building Regulations requires designers to include standards
mainly on the operation, settings and control constraints of building services. of air tightness to minimise air infiltration and minimum energy efficiency
In addition the level and expertise required in system maintenance, and H&S standards for air conditioning and mechanical ventilation equipment. The
requirements surrounding this, may also influence system choice as significant minimum fresh air ventilation is currently 10 L/s per person.
H&S requirements would push up overall system maintenance costs. Because
• HSE Guidance note PM5 requires that hot water boilers should have an
these vary greatly by sector, it’s important to conduct research into the H&S
automatic control device to cut off fuel to the burners of gas-fired plant
requirements for your sector before taking choosing HVAC systems. The
when the boiler flow outlet temperature rises to a predetermined
conditions common to most sectors that you need to be aware of are:
temperature that might be unsafe. To comply with this recommendation,
Thermal conditions the minimum system pressure should be determined from the maximum
o Requirements for internal temperature bands, dependent upon working
design flow temperature.
environment, with recommended maxima and minima typically, 18 °C and
http://www.hse.gov.uk/temperature/law.htm
24 °C respectively for the normal population. For the very old and very
young is the minimum recommended temperature 20 °C. The minimum http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/books/hsg132.htm
allowable working temperature is 16°C, with 13°C allowed in areas where
there is extreme physical activity if personal protective clothing is provided.
There are no upper limits for those at very hot conditions but medical
supervision may be needed for those working up to 50°C.
o For energy considerations regulations forbid heating equipment at rooms
above 19°C.
o Hot water must be stored at 60°C or higher to avoid legionella;
o Requirements for humidity levels. CIBSE recommends 40–70% RH for
normal conditions in buildings. The target value for design is 60% RH. CIBSE TM40 Health Issues in Buildings
o Requirements for max temperatures of heat emitters; www.cibseknowledgeportal.co.uk
More specific guidelines are provided for institutions such as prisons, hospitals,
schools, and care homes.
HSE Guidance on Sick Buildings, Thermal Conditions & Risk
www.hse.gov.uk/guidance/index.htm

A2 The eight categories of energy efficiency measures
There are eight major activites where energy efficiency can be improved:
1. Auditing the heating & cooling demand in your building
Maximise energy
2. Have a heating and ventilation strategy
3. Review the building fabric
4. Review how the heat (or cold) is distributed
efficiency before
5. Review motors, pumps, drives & fans
6. Consider modelling your building
7. Metering, Monitoring & Targeting and Building Management
addressing demand
8. Implement behaviour change measires
because inefficient designs and systems are often difficult to model. For
example, reductions in heat loss from plant rooms may eliminate the need for
localised chilling. On the following pages, we summarise eight different
A2.1 Introduction approaches to improving energy efficiency, under the categories measures:
As described earlier, the first step in minimising air pollution from a building is
• Understand the heating & cooling demand in your building
to maximise energy efficiency, which has the obvious benefit that it also saves
• Have a heating and ventilation strategy
money for your organisation. It’s also clear from many studies that
implementing energy efficiency is usually a cheaper option than replacing a • Review the building fabric
heating system, so implementing these measures can allow you to defer • Review how the heat (or cold) is distributed
expensive plant upgrade to future years. The evidence also shows that when • Review motors, pumps, drives & fans
those replacements become inevitable, and the needs of the latest Part L have
• Consider modelling your building
to be met in the refurbishment, the lowest cost strategies for this involve first
maximising energy efficiency measures before replacing HVAC plant. • Metering, Monitoring & Targeting and Building Management
Another good reason to maximise energy efficiency before replacing plant is • Implement behaviour change measures
that is helps increase the accuracy of the business case for the new plant, Chapters A5 and A6 on controls and maintenance will also be helpful.
which can be critical for business case development and financing. This is

A2.2 Audit the heating & cooling demand in your building

Auditing can eliminate any need for capital expenditure
Performing a heating/cooling energy audit before you begin other actions
means you’ll understand where energy is being consumed, and allow you to Understanding how and when heating and cooling load is actually required,
more effectively identify opportunities for reducing demand primarily before and gauging the potential to reduce overall demand can often result in
needing to consider heating upgrade/replacement options. there no longer being any need to replace or upgrade heating and cooling
provision. For example, identifying that a high load arises from a bay
Some easy wins can be identified through this process, such as identifying
loading area because loading doors are left open 24/7 which could be
areas that are overheated as a result of incorrect thermostat or BMS settings;
closed the majority of the time.
identifying areas where heating and cooling are in direct competition because
deadbands have not been set, or that the heating and cooling services are not This type of audit will also allow you to establish your baseline, which you
fully understood by the occupants. One very common misperception that can then use as an evidence base for any actions that you subsequently
heating/cooling capacity is inadequate is often undermined at this point too. undertake to reduce demand.
An energy audit is an inspection of the energy dynamics within a building

i.e. Where, when and how energy is used and identifying opportunities to
reduce this consumption. The audit may also assess the efficiency, physical
condition, and programming of mechanical systems such as the heating,
ventilation, air conditioning equipment, and thermostat. Audits can range
for a simplistic, helicopter view walk around a site, down to in-depth,
complex measurements of services.
Do your own energy audit using Carbon Trust

Guide CTG055 www.carbontrust.com

A2.3 Implement a heating & ventilation strategy

Rethinking the overall provision of and need for heating and cooling within your Natural Ventilation is simple and very cost effective
building should be the priority. Passive Design and Heat Recover are two key Making the most of natural ventilation is a simple and cost-effective way of
measures to consider to reducing overall heat demand identified in an audit: achieving big savings, and can significantly reduce heating and cooling
Passive design loads:
There are often opportunities within existing buildings to incorporate elements • Passive solar heating should be considered for use in circulation
of passive design, by switching off unnecessary heating and developing a spaces such as lobbies and atria, hallways, break rooms, and other
ventilation strategy to distribute and even out temperature variations within the types of spaces with low internal heat gain that afford occupants the
building. More generally, passive design uses the sun along with ventilation so flexibility to move out of the sun.
that nature provides the majority of fresh air and temperature requirements. As
• There are likely to be opportunities for cross-ventilation whereby
simple as it sounds, natural ventilation relies on air flow through openings of a
windows or vents can be closed in hot spot areas, and opened in
room or building, preferably from opposite sides. It also applies to rising hot air
cooler/higher level areas to enhance air movement.
being replaced with cooler air sucked in through windows or vents from a
lower level. Obviously, passive design and ventilation are best considered at • Finally, reduce internal heat gains, for example by sourcing it provision
building design stage, but don’t rule out using them instead of HVAC. into a separate, sealed area, and introducing thin client technology for
computer systems.
Some examples of passive design heating systems
• Window designed to allow more heat from the sun and the collection of
solar energy through south-facing windows Heating & cooling recovery
Heat recovery is the collection and re-use of heat (or cooling) arising from any
• Storing this heat in "thermal mass," comprised of building materials with
process that would otherwise be lost. The addition of heat recovery means
high heat capacity such as concrete slabs, brick walls, or tile floors.
that some of the heat contained within the extract air can be recovered. The
• The natural distribution of the stored solar energy back when required, heat energy is passed into the incoming fresh air effectively pre-heating it and
through the mechanisms of natural convection and radiation meaning the boiler needs to add less heat. The two air streams need not mix
• The use of trombe walls, a sun-facing wall separated from the outdoors directly to allow the transfer of heat. This is often well suited to ventilation
by glass and an air space, which absorbs heat from the sun and systems bringing cool fresh air into a building using fans in air handling units
releases it selectively towards the interior at night; and solar (AHUs), or for pre-heating in boiler or hot water heating circuits. It is often low
corridors/conservatories. grade heat recovered, so cannot be used as a primary heat provision
mechanisms (also visit section A1.6 for rules on hot water and legionella).
.

Waste heat from the following common sources often presents opportunities
for cost-effective heat recovery:
Essentials of heat recovery
• Ventilation system extracts Heat recovery is far more efficient when the heat source and heat sink are
are physically close together and occur at the same time. Heat recovery
• Boiler flue gases & blow down
can help to stop conflicts between heating and cooling requirements which
• Air compressors are often observed in commercial buildings. In order to assess the potential
• Refrigeration plant for heat recovery, a simple investigation into the air temperatures and the
• High temperature exhaust gas streams from furnaces, kilns, ovens flow rate in the extract will allow an estimation of the payback of any heat
and dryers recovery system that could be installed.
• Hot liquid effluents

• Power generation plant
• Process plant cooling systems
Common uses (or 'sinks') for the recovered low grade heat include: Payback in simplest terms this is the amount of time that is taken for the
• Pre-heating combustion air for boilers, ovens, furnaces, and so on; savings resulting from this investment to pay back the up front cost. Most
commercial organisations tend to only consider investment in items with a
• Pre-heating fresh air used to ventilate the building;
payback of less than 3 – 5 years.
• Hot water generation, including pre-heating boiler feed water;
• Space heating;
Air handling units (AHUs) are devices used to condition and circulate air
• Drying;
as part of a HVAC system. An air handler is usually a large metal box
• Other industrial process heating/pre-heating; containing a blower, heating or cooling elements, and filters. Ahus usually
connect to a ductwork system as the heating and cooling distribution
network.
The Carbon Trust Heat Recover Guide provides lots more

information: www.carbontrust.com

A2.4 Review and improve your building fabric

A thorough review should be undertaken of all building fabric elements which Use Life Cycle Analysis to determine the whole environmental
separate the indoor environment from the outdoors. This includes floors, walls, impact of the building – see Chapter 6
roof, windows and doors. Identify opportunities for upgrading the levels of With all remedial insulation strategies, life cycle analysis should be used to
insulation and air tightness within each of these elements, to minimise heat lost determine the materials and methods which have the lowest environmental
within the building. impact, taking into account the expected life of the building.
Apply building maintenance good practice
Once your review is complete, good practice building maintenance should be
Install double or triple glazing
put in place to ensure that any gaps and issues within building openings
Replace glazing components if they are of poor quality, particularly if they are
(doors/windows) are readily identified and fixed.
single glazed, sash or metal framed. Part l2b advises that windows with a u-
Install or improve roof & cavity wall insulation value worse than 3.3w/m2k should be replaced, and upgraded to a minimum
Upgrading or installing roof and cavity wall insulation is often considered one of
u-value of 1.8w/m2k. It is also worth considering the use of triple-glazing, and
the most cost and energy effective measures for reducing heat loss. Up to low-emissivity glazing.
35% of heat is lost through un-insulated roofs and walls. Solid wall and curtain
Install solar film or solar blinds
walling insulation can be more costly, however there may still be a good
If the building suffers from a large amount of solar gain, it is worth exploring
business case for installation particularly if it results in lower sizing of
opportunities for introducing solar film or integral blinds to reduce the cooling
replacement heating plant.
load in the winter – again this can impact significantly upon heating/cooling
As a guide, cavity wall insulation would bring the u-value of an un-insulated plant sizing.
cavity masonry wall down to 0.45w/m2k. While cavity wall insulation does not
of itself trigger Part L(2B), it will have to be upgraded to 0.28w/m2k if any
finished surfaces are to be renewed. And roof insulation should aim to achieve The u-value is the rate of heat transfer or heat loss, in watts, through one
0.18w/m2k. square metre of the buildings fabric, divided by the difference in
temperature across that element of the structure’s fabric. It is expressed in
Eliminate draghts
watts per square metre per degree kelvin, (w/m2k). The higher the u-value
Reduce air infiltration further by installing draught proofing or sealant. Once
the higher the thermal transmittance, and therefore the lower the insulating
installed this should also be checked regularly to ensure that it has not
properties of the material.
deteriorated. This is also a low cost measure, although the level of savings can
be less effective – particularly as they are often taken in higher comfort levels
for the occupier, who may previously have sat in a draught.

A2.5 Distribution of the heat and cooling this instance to the change of fuel and impact that has upon costs and
A review of opportunities for improving the existing heating and cooling carbon emissions.
distribution and storage network should include the following areas: • Ensure condensing and evaporating devices are clean and well
• Ensure that all pipes, ducts and vessels are adequately insulated. This maintained. Check condensers are not obstructed, for example by
includes valves and couplings, which are often overlooked, and insulation equipment or vegetation.
on refrigerant pipework as poor condition will affect the temperature of the • Any constant volume AHUs should be identified and considered for retrofit
refrigerant flowing through the system and thus consume more energy in to a variable air volume (VAV) system.
maintaining the required temperature.
• Check the configuration of each hot water valve on each heating coil
• Ensure that all ahu filters are maintained and cleaned regularly. It may also (includes air handling units, fan coils, etc.). If three-way valves and
be worth considering the use of low energy air filters, and fitting pressure constant volume pumps are installed, convert the valves to two-way and
gauges to indicate when replacement of filters is required. install variable frequency drives on hot water pumps.
• Identify opportunities for either decentralising heating/cooling and hot • Perform combustion efficiency analysis and install automated o2 trim
water provision, or combining distribution options. Large legacy calorifiers systems to adjust the air-to-fuel ratio linkages feeding the boiler burner, so
could be replaced with point of use hot water systems if hot water that they are burning most efficiently.
demand is restricted to taps. Consideration, however, needs to be given in
• In commercial or industrial buildings with warm air heaters and high
Check that your buildings systems are appropriate for your needs ceilings, de-stratification fans can reduce energy use by 20% by blowing
Many existing buildings and their heating systems were not designed for warm air down to ground level where it's needed.
the current building function, and so often you will find that there are a • Consider purchasing a new energy-efficient burner if your existing burner is
number of opportunities for reducing consumption. Many buildings have cycling on and off rapidly
large boilers providing central heating that are oversized and not best Decentralisation means changing from a centrally provided heating &/or
suited for the distribution now required (in some respects this leads on to cooling system to a local provision i.e. Smaller boilers or heaters for
heating system replacement choice, but there may be options for simply individual areas.
reducing/removing elements).
Condensers are usually located on the outside of buildings and reject heat
It is often more efficient to operate smaller boilers when the heating load is that has been removed from inside the building by the cooling system.
25% to 50% of the design capacity than it is to use one large boiler to meet
Variable air volume (VAV) systems maintain the air flow at a constant
a partial load. Alternatively ensure that boiler sequencing controls are fitted
temperature, but supplies varying quantities of conditioned air in different
to ensure that the load is balanced effectively between boilers, ensuring
parts of the building according to the heating and cooling needs.
that only the minimum number of boilers is allowed to fire at any time.

A2.6 motors, pumps, drives & fan VSDs, soft starts and high efficiency pumps reduce energy use
Motors are used extensively throughout many HVAC systems. Specifying high
Retrofitting vsds, soft starts and replacing with high-efficiency pumps can
efficiency motors when replacing can result in good savings in terms of electric
save up to 60% of energy consumed by fans, pumps, motors and drives
power with little additional capital cost, but can also significantly improve heat
where there are variable conditions of operation. The upfront capital costs
distribution. Consideration should also be given to soft starts on motors if not
also tend to be fairly low, and paybacks can be very quick.
already fitted, this generally reduces the wear and tear on the motors and
reduces the need to replace.
A2.7 Building Information Modelling
In addition, fitting Variable Speed Drives (VSDs) or purchasing motors with A Building Information Model is a computer model of the physical elements of
integral VSDs, can also reduce speeds and deliver accurate flow rates of a building and how they function, and aim to help share and manage
hot/chilled water as and when required. High efficiency motors and vsds knowledge on a building through it’s lifecycle, from conception to demolition.
generally have one of the best paybacks within energy management, as the Building Information Modelling (BIM) responds to the current demands for
power to energy ratio is cubed. For example by matching air volume in ahus to improving building performance rapidly and cost-effectively, by going beyond
actual heating/cooling loads, the use of vsds with variable air volume (vav) fans the planning and design phase of a project. It extends throughout the building
cuts energy consumption by up to 60% versus constant air volume systems. life cycle to include such processes as cost management, construction
Many HVAC systems also have a variety of pumps and fans – consider direct management, project management and facility operation. BIM presents a vast
drive pumps and fans which are more efficient than those that are belt driven. range of opportunities by providing better and more integrated tools, with more
opportunity for collaborations, working through an integrated project delivery
team model.
Soft start: a device that can temporarily reduce the load and torque in the
motor during start-up. This reduces the mechanical stress on the motor and BIM can quickly estimate design energy performance, enabling an
shaft, extending the lifespan of the system. understanding of how to achieve cost effective, low energy and zero carbon
buildings, whilst assessing return on investments for those buildings.
Variable Speed Drives (vsd) also commonly known as variable frequency
Specifically BIM analysis tools help analyze heating and cooling requirements,
drives or inverters – are used to control the speed of AC induction motors.
identifying major building equipment that may reduce energy use. Additionally,
Energy use can be reduced considerably if the speed of the motor varies in
they incorporate local weather and electric grid data to estimate building
response to the changing process conditions.
energy consumption and carbon emissions.
Direct drive: takes the power coming from a motor without any reductions
(such as a gearbox)

A2.8 Metering, monitoring & targeting and building management

Installation of MM&T can deliver 15 – 20% savings
Ensure that all the required monitoring and metering equipment is correctly
installed, and provides useful information to the facility managers and the
wider organisation. Make sure the building operator understands the
building. Building operators should be briefed so they understand how to
operate the building to combine energy efficiency with occupant comfort.
When occupants’ needs change (e.g. Opening on a weekend), the building
operator should know how to change building controls to facilitate this in an
energy efficient manner.
On-going building monitoring can be used to discover faults, provide
feedback and maintain low carbon performance. Monitored data should be
used to optimise BMS settings. A common finding is that heating systems
are coming on too early, or running for too long at the end of the day, or
operating over weekends and shut down periods.
Feedback from building occupants on their perception of comfort should
also be used to understand building performance. Where improvements in
services and/or comfort have been undertaken, monitoring can show the
impact of these improvements on the energy demand. Asset registers must
also be updated and rigorous maintenance procedures and schedules
Metering, Monitoring and Targeting (MM&T), is the management created to embed the improvement of energy performance.
information system that supports energy management. It is an on-going
cyclical process from data collection to taking action, via data analysis and
The ability to verify savings made following project implementation. Meters
communicating the resulting insights, as shown above. MM&T will give you:
and/or sub-meters should be installed for major energy consuming equipment
• Timely, relevant information on energy use the ability to investigate the
as these enable action to identify and prevent excessive energy use.
energy performance of buildings and processes
Measurements of temperature and relative humidity can assist in monitoring
• The ability to take action to rectify exceptions in performance and to occupant comfort. This information also allows the efficient allocation of all
improve energy performance over time budgets involved in operating the building and the ability to set energy and
• Energy reports to support accountability for energy use emissions reduction targets.
A2.9 Organisational & Behavioural change

Everyone in the organisation should have some level of responsibility with
respect to energy efficiency. Adapting and changing operational procedures is
one way to instigate savings. In this way, energy efficient actions become an
integral part of standard tasks. This may include:
• Including specific actions for reducing energy wastage within maintenance
schedules (e.g. Changing/cleaning air filters at the correct intervals) – refer
also to the maintenance factsheet for other opportunities
• Job/priority sheets include actions for reducing energy waste (e.g. Repair
of steam leaks)
• Ensuring that operating instructions include energy use issues (e.g. Shut
down procedures).
It is also worth introducing active reporting systems for energy waste (lights on,
doors open, steam leaks etc.) and for staff members to make suggestions.

A3.2 Calculating Heat Load/Demand
A3 There are five factors that determine the energy load of a heating system:
• The design, layout and operation of the building – this affects how the
external environment impacts on internal temperatures and humidity.
Know your heating &

• The required indoor temperatures and air quality
• The heat generated internally by lighting, equipment and people – all of
these have an impact on how warm your building is;
cooling requirements
• The type, design and efficiency of the heating plant;
• Building usage patterns.
Using ‘rules of thumb’ or the Simple Sizing Calculation is often sufficient to
determine approximate plant requirements and sizes at the concept stage.
A3.1 Introduction A3.3 Rules of Thumb:

The most important aspect of an efficient heating system is getting the size Rules of Thumb are general principles derived from practice and experience
right. It was once common practice to oversize boiler plant, to ‘over-ensure’ rather than precise theory. They can be useful for approximately calculating
that heating demand was met. In addition, improvements in building fabric and values, setting outline targets and rapidly comparing different options
an increase in internal heat gains, such as from IT equipment and change of Some example BSRIA Rules of Thumb (2011) for heating loads.
use/occupancy, means that where a boiler has not been replaced for many Description Heating Load (w/m2 GIA)
years, the heating load of the building may have changed significantly. It is
Educational Buildings 87
therefore important to identify and understand core business requirements and
use this to inform any proposed improvements to an HVAC system. Typical Industrial Buildings 80
questions you should consider are: Offices 70
• What is the current internal temperature of the building? Residential Buildings 60
• Are employees happy with the internal environment? Retail Buildings 100
• Are there any hot or cold spots within the building? Example Office Block of 1,000m2 has 70kW heat load = 70 x 1000 ÷1000.
• Are there any areas of the building where temperature is critical?
• When is the building occupied Gross Internal Area (GIA): The floor area contained within the building
measured to the internal face of the external walls
No boiler is 100% efficient. Heat is lost via the flue gases and through the main Applying the Simple Sizing Calculation
body of the boiler itself. Therefore, this value needs to be adjusted to correctly
The following method can be used to check against existing boiler size,
size heating plant according to the plant efficiency.
and/or quotations received for replacement plant.
Boiler ‘seasonal efficiency’ values should be used rather than
manufacturers quoted instantaneous efficiencies, as this takes into account the
actual operation of the boiler or its practical use, measured at full and part A3.4 Simple sizing Calculation
load. It is a weighted average of a defined number of hours of full and part load This calculation method works by determining the primary heat losses in your
operation which represents a full year of operation. Note that the boiler building, and then working out the level of heating that would be required to
efficiency is also affected by the heating system type. achieve the building’s desired temperature. Begin by determining the Total
Heat Loss, QT:
Typical Seasonal Efficiency from CIBSE Efficiency %

QT = QF + QV (Watts)
Condensing boilers
QF is fabric heat losses; QV is ventilation & Infiltration heat losses.
• Under-floor or warm water system 90 or greater
Watts (W) are units of power, the rate at which energy is generated or used
• Standard size radiators, variable temperature circuit 87
and are often quoted in kilowatts, 1000W = 1kW.
(weather compensation)
• Standard fixed temperature emitters 85
(83°C flow 72°C return) QF = U × A × ΔT (W)
Non-condensing boilers U is the u-value for each surface material (W/m2ºC)
• Modern high efficiency 82 A is the surface area of each building component (m2)
• Good modern boiler design closely matched to demand 80 ΔT is the difference between desired internal temperature and external
temperature (°C)
• Typical good existing boiler 70
• Typical existing oversized boiler (atmospheric cast-iron 45 - 70
sectional) QV = ⅓ × N × V × ΔT (W)
N = number of air changes per hour
So for the Office Building in the previous example, assuming a condensing
boiler with standard size radiators is specified, the approximate boiler size V = volume of building (in m3)
should be 70kW x (1 ÷ 0.87): 80.5kW.

There are industry-accepted values for N based on building type – the reader However, some of these benchmarks are out of date, and so should be taken
should refer to CIBSE Guide A for examples. as a ‘minimum’ rather than a ‘maximum’ indication for potential improvement.
To calculate the Annual Energy Load, Eannual use:
Eannual = [[QT ÷ (Ti-To)] x DD x 24] ÷ 1000 (kWh)
Boiler replacement costing - worked example

Ti is the internal design temperature;
Changing a 15 year old boiler with a seasonal efficiency of 70% with a
TO is the outside design temperature.
condensing boiler of 85% efficiency:
DD is the Degree Days for your region, the number of days hotter or colder
e.g Eannual = 60,000 * (1/0.7) = 85,714 kWh
than a certain reference temperature (often 15 C).
Eannual = 30,721* (1/0.85) = 70,588 kWh, so saving is 15,126 kWh/yr,
As before actual energy load is dependent on efficiency of system
2,874 Kg CO2/yr, £454
Etotal = [[QT ÷ (Ti-To)] × DD × 24 x (1 ÷ η)] ÷ 1000 (kWh)
Simple Payback = (£1,500/£454) = 3 years 4 months
η is the system seasonal efficiency

Total annual consumption can then be calculated from:
Eannual = Etotal × heating hours in year
Once this has been estimated, compare this value to how much energy the
building has actually used over the last year to determine whether your system CIBSE Guides A and B or Carbon Trust Guide CTV046
is sized correctly. It can also be used to see how much difference a new more include recommended temperatures for particular buildings,
efficient boiler will make and the resulting payback. external design temperatures, and other key data.
www.cibseknowledgeportal.co.uk & www.carbontrust.com
Finally your consumption and load can benchmarked against buildings of
similar types. CIBSE Guide F and their TM46 provide detailed benchmarks for
a number of building types, based on m2. Comparing to benchmarks provides
an indication of the overall opportunity to improve and reduce consumption. Degree days for your region can be had from
www.degreedays.net

Modular systems
A3.5 Multiple & Modulating Boilers
Low Temperature Hot Water (LTHW) boilers give optimum efficiency at a Modular systems are generally composed of several identical boiler units
particular load point (standard boilers at full load, condensing boilers at part although a mix of condensing and conventional boilers could be used. The
load) so, it makes sense to have a series of boilers operating at around their condensing boilers should in general be the ‘lead’ to maximise system
peak efficiency loads and together matching the range of heating demands efficiency. To gain the maximum benefit from arrangements of this type
that may be experienced in a commercial building. appropriate sequence control needs to be implemented Refer to Chapter
A6 – Best Practice Controls.
Single large boiler vs multiple smaller boilers - worked example

Consider a building with a peak winter heating demand of 100kW. If a
single standard boiler were to be used, it would operate at full capacity,
and peak efficiency, for only a few weeks of the year. If three modular
boilers of 35kW each were used instead, lower heating demands
experienced at other times of the year could be met by a reduced number
of boilers operating at full capacity

A4 Typical air pollutant emissions from different heating technologies
Emissions, Local NO , x
Local PM, CO2 emissions,
mg/kWh mg/kWh mg/kWh g/kWh
Fuel Choice & Pollution Solar thermal 0 0 0
Heat pump
A4.1 Air pollution and heating system choice 0 0 132g/kWh
(electric)
The heating system and fuel(s) used in your building will be the main
determining factor of how much air pollution your building emits (see table at Ultra low-NO gas
x
< 40mg/kWh < 1mg/kWh 185g/kWh
right), so if an opportunity arises to replace the energy plant air pollution boiler
emissions should be considered as part of the selection criteria. Some
Oil fired boiler < 120mg/kWh 16mg/kWh 245g/kWh
systems, such as solar collectors for hot water or air source heat pumps, both
minimise air pollution and carbon emissions and are eligible for various Proposed London
subsidies. Most types of gas boiler come in “ultra low NOx” variants that can To be announced No standard set
CHP standard
minimise toxic air pollution at little or no extra cost. Biomass boilers, emit
comparatively large amounts of toxic air pollution per kWh of heat generated, Biomass Boiler < 530mg/kWh < 107mg/kWh 0
(see right) and so are unsuitable for many London locations and are forbidden
in many boroughs. The pollution’s impact is also determined by the location
and height of the exhaust or flue from the heating systems, and the abatement Pre-1998 boilers are usually only 50%-60% efficient, while modern boilers have
equipment interposed between the boiler and the flue. This section outlines the seasonal efficiency of 90%-96%. So pre-1998 boilers should be replaced as
advantages of disadvantages of the main systems suitable for use in London the payback is likely to be around one year. For newer boilers the expected
and explains the circumstances in which it can most appropriately be applied. fuel savings from any efficiency gains should be compared with replacement
A4.2 When is it cost-effective to replace a boiler? costs. A payback time of less than 3 years suggests replacement will be cost-
The cost of fuel burnt annually in a boiler can be 2–3 times the cost of the effective, especially as gas prices rise. If payback is longer, fitting better
boiler itself. As a result, replacing a boiler with a newer and more efficient controls or a lean burner may be cost effective options to increase efficiency.
model can be very cost-effective, with paybacks of 2-3 years if an For more information, see Section A7.
improvement in efficiency of 10% or more is achieved.

A4.3 Select the correct heat supply for the application and location
The heat and electricity supply is affected by three main factors - the type of Site & usage category Best solution
heat and power demand on the site, whether there are local planning or terrain
issues and whether there is a local air pollution problem. Broadly this allows
Locations with air quality issues, restrictions or AQMAs (B4.3)
several categories of application and site to be identified. These may be
divided into roughly three categories.
Heat pumps– air, ground or water
Low but steady heat load demand
• Locations with air quality issues with suitable loads for renewable heat sourced
• Locations with air quality issues where demand for heat is likely to require
more heat than can be supplied using heat pumps or solar hot water. In High hot water or year round heating demand
general high efficiency or condensing gas boilers are the most cost Solar Hot Water
with large roof area available
effective solutions for this situation.
• Locations without air quality issues. As a rule these are the only locations High efficiency gas boilers are suitable in all locations where gas is
where biomass fuel is appropriate. Biomass is forbidden in most London
available, or where neither of the above is appropriate (B4.4)
boroughs due to its very high emissions of air pollution. In the event that
there is high continuous and simultaneous demand for heat and electricity
Part-load; low return flow temperatures Condensing boilers
for more than 4500 hours per year, CHP may also be suitable.
These options are explained in detail in the accompanying guidance “Manual B
– For new build” and the relevant sections are shown in the table at right. Small or ad-hoc hot water demand Combination boilers
Large, variable heat demand Modular boilers
Locations without local air quality issues
High steady heat and electricity demand and CHP and tri-generation, district
few site or planning restrictions heating

A5 The 3 Golden Roles of Heating Control

• Use plant ONLY when necessary
• Do not heat & cool simultaneously - It is essential to ensure that
Best Practice For

controls do not interfere or conflict with each other.
• Provide flexibility
Good practice control systems for under 50kW
Optimisation & zoned time-switches
Heating Control
•
• Weather compensation & zone controls
• Boiler interlock
A5.1 Introduction • Building Management System
If you have an appropriate system, you need to ensure it operates at the Good practice control systems for over 50kW
highest level of efficiency possible. This requires the system to be controlled
• Optimisation & zoned time-switches
well, so that it only operates as and when required; and that it is proactively
• Zoned weather compensation & zone controls
maintained to achieve its’ designed level of efficiency. Even well designed
heating systems can perform badly if the controls are inadequate or incorrectly • Boiler interlock & minimise standing losses
installed. As a general rule, clearly it is best not install unnecessarily complex Building Management System
control systems. However, more control complex systems give the greatest
potential for energy savings provided they are correctly applied and Staff available to manage the system A complex control system needs
maintained. Before deciding on the appropriate level of complexity it is worth suitably trained people with the time available to manage it and use the data
considering the building size and the staff available to mange the system produced. There must be staff resource to ensure that controls are calibrated
The size and complexity of the building. For small individual buildings or correctly, tested and working well, as controls will not continue to make
those with a uniform pattern of occupancy, pre-set or self-adaptive controls savings on their own. If no one is available, it is unlikely that the potential
with an override option for out-of-hours working should provide an appropriate savings of the control system will be achieved. This is particularly true when
level of comfort and energy savings over a poorly controlled system. Bigger operating a BMS system effectively
buildings with varied requirements will usually benefit from more complex Heating system controls comprise all three of boiler controls, time controls
control systems. and temperature controls.

A5.2 Boiler controls demand fire, and that these boilers are used at their optimum efficiency load.
The principal function of most boiler controls is to maintain the desired Sequence controllers can also ensure that the order in which the boilers fire
temperature of water that flows from the boiler. At the most basic level, these can be rotated to minimise maintenance costs. Note that where there are both
controls simply turn the system on and off or provide a high or low setting, burt condensing and standard boilers installed, the condensing boiler should
have varying levels of complexity. always take the lead.
Burner controls Boiler inhibit/interlock controls which prevent unnecessary firing
Burner controls manage the fuel-to-air ratio which is critical to the efficient Boilers can continue to fire even when there is no demand for heat (called dry-
operation of the boiler. The fuel-to-air ratio is normally set on the burner cycling) and so all the heat energy is lost to the flue. Simple observation and
controls and will be based on the boiler manufacturer’s recommendations. listening when a building is at required temperature can often tell you if dry-
Proper control of this ratio will ensure that the boiler is as efficient as possible. cycling is occurring. Linking the boiler controls with the heating system
This ratio should be measured as part of routine servicing and where controls (such as room thermostats) via a boiler interlock will ensure that the
necessary remedial actions taken, such as upgrade of the burner to newer, boiler does not operate when there is no heat demand and will prevent dry-
energy efficient versions cycling. The best option will be determined by the size of the system and
Older boilers simply have an “on-off” burner. An improvement to the above is location of the boiler and controls. Interlock control is appropriate for all types
‘high-low’ control, where the burner has the option of going to a low firing of boiler.
rate, typically 40% of full capacity. This improves boiler efficiency under part- Door & Window interlocks
load conditions. A further improvement is a modulating control. With this Open doors & windows result in substantial heat losses. If heat is cut off when
type of control, the fuel and air supplies are regulated to exactly match the doors are opened, there is an incentive for people to keep doors closed.
required heat demand. This ensures good efficiency across the whole heat Simple interlock controls are relatively cheap to install and they will link the
output range of boilers. For larger boilers, a stack gas oxygen analyzer can be operation of heaters so that they switch off automatically when doors &
installed to continuously monitor excess air and adjust the boiler fuel-to-air windows are opened.
ratio for optimum efficiency. Retrofitting of burner controls is best suited for
older, conventional boilers with large, variable heat loads.
Boiler sequence control (load matching, reduced maintenance)
Where there are two or more boilers (other than duty & stand-by) with a
variable load pattern, sequence control should be installed. If all boilers are
firing and shutting down simultaneously, it is likely that they are operating only
at part-load and do not have sequence control. Good sequence control
ensures that only the minimum number of boilers required to meet the heat

A5.3 Time controls Delayed off controls

Time controls specify when the heating should come on and for how long. These are particularly useful where heating needs to be extended beyond
Set correctly, they ensure the system operates at the best times in terms of normal hours (for example, evening working in shops) or when occupancy in
building occupancy and requirements. an area is unpredictable (such as in function rooms). Heating is switched on by
Time clock (start/stop times) the occupant but automatically switches off after a pre-set period. These are
These can range from simple 24-hour dial time switches with heating either typically found in split AC units or fan-coil units.
switched on and off, to seven-day time switches allowing days of the week to PIR/Motion Detectors Setback
be selected or omitted, up to modern electronic time switches that allow the Installation of a two-stage thermostat can provide a setback temperature when
heating to be set for different times, for different days of the week, summer an occupancy sensor detects that a room is empty. When occupants return,
and winter. The latter give a much higher degree of control and should be a the thermostat increases the level of heating to the required occupant
minimum requirement. temperature. Substantial savings can be achieved depending on building size
Optimisers (times boiler to match occupancy) and occupation patterns
An optimiser is a sophisticated timeswitch linked to the internal and external
thermostats that enables the boiler to fire at exactly the right time to ensure A5.4 Temperature controls
that the building reaches the required internal temperature in time for Temperature controls help heating systems to provide just the right
occupation, rather than just based on the time switch setting. temperatures to maintain comfort without wasting energy and money:
Similarly, the boiler is switched off early so that the internal temperature is Thermostats – boiler/ zone/ room
maintained only when required. Wall/Room thermostat simple room temperature control. Wireless units are
Night/weekend setback (24hr heating requirement) now available that provide increased flexibility in positioning and eliminate
This reduces or ‘sets back’ space temperature during specific time periods, visible wiring. Programmable room thermostats allow different
most commonly at night and weekends, when the building is not fully temperatures to be set for different periods in the day or week, and provides a
operational. Setback is often provided as part of weather compensation & better match to the business working pattern. This is important if occupancy is
BMS controls and is mainly applicable to continuously occupied premises, for varied over the day or week. These can also provide a ‘night setback
example, hospitals, nursing homes or hotels. feature’ where a minimum temperature can be maintained at night. Many also
Boost/Extension timers allow time control of hot water. Frost Protection heating controls should
Provide greater flexibility if out-of-hours heating is required occasionally. This is protect the building, its contents, plant and pipework from frost and
a more efficient option than constantly reprogramming time switches. If only a condensation damage. They should automatically switch on heating when the
part of the building is to be used, it may be more economical to provide local space, external air or return water temperatures fall to pre-set minimum levels
heating, and shut the main system down. (usually below 5ºC). A separate thermostat may need to be fitted to some

simple controls. Frost protection space sensors or thermostats should typically Ensure operators are properly trained
be installed in the most vulnerable parts of the building.
All controls and BMS systems are only as good as the operators who use
Zoning them. Therefore it is essential that the staff who will be operating and
Buildings frequently have problematic areas with different time and
maintaining the systems are trained appropriately; and that the settings and
temperature requirements, where only one overall heating or cooling control any alarms are reviewed regularly.
system exists. In this instance zoning should be considered - where separate
time and temperature controls are installed for individual areas. Zoned areas
A5.5 Building Management Systems
will provide closer, more efficient heating control. Businesses spending more than £10,000 a year on energy should consider
Thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs) are the simplest and cheapest method installing Building Management System (BMS or BEMs). Building
of zoning and are useful for controlling individual rooms. Consider fitting Management Systems (BMS or BEMS) are computer systems which
tamperproof TRVs which lock at a fixed setting to prevent staff using them as control any or all of a buildings services. Intelligent controllers, or ‘outstations’,
on/off switches. For larger buildings, install separate pumps and pipework to monitor conditions throughout the building, and determine the operation of the
supply each zone, with motorised valves, zone temperature sensors and an plant such as boilers, pumps, fans, motors and lighting in response to
appropriate control system. Local control +/-2°C thermostats can be put in changing conditions like time, temperature and light levels. They can be linked
place to allow a limited degree of control. For buildings where there are using a simple communication network, and a PC can be connected to this
separate Air Handling Units (AHUs) serving different areas, generally controlled network to observe their performance and adjust settings. Many systems now
through the BMS, consider the use of reheats for sub-zones within these use web based platforms, allowing management from anywhere. The main
areas. Conventional thermostats are inappropriate for radiant heating systems advantage of a BMS installation is the ease with which users can review the
so consider black-bulb thermostats which are designed to measure radiant performance of controls and conveniently make adjustments. Other
heat rather than air temperature. advantages include:
Weather compensation (load matching) • Close control of environmental conditions
Weather compensation controls automatically adjust boiler circuit water flow
• Data can be logged and archived for energy management purposes
temperatures to suit the outside temperature, using a sensor outside the
• Rapid information on plant status
building and another connected to the boiler. This is more efficient than the
boiler turning on and off, and energy is saved since flow temperature is • Alarms can be automatically generated, and appropriate personnel alerted
reduced during milder weather. For smaller systems, a compensator can • Identification of maintenance requirements, both planned and reactive (e.g.
sometimes directly control the boiler. For areas of over 1,000m2, fit a weather systems can record the number of hours that motors have run, or identify
compensator and motorised valve to vary the flow of heat to the building. filters on air supply systems which have become blocked).

A5.6 Getting the best out of your controls

A simple way of assessing the effectiveness of your heating controls is to plot
heating energy consumption on a graph and compare with periods of building
operation and outside weather conditions (Heating Degree Days). Does the
building show high energy use out-of-hours? Is there a high heating load when
the weather is mild? Is there a poor degree of correlation between energy use
and cold weather? These are indications that control settings are inaccurate or
that additional controls are required
• Check time controls are accurate
o Are they displaying the correct time and date?
o Are they adjusted for daylight savings?
o Are they set for the right season?
o Do they match working hours
• Ensure that heating and cooling don’t operate at the same time
Set controls to give a wide gap between the temperatures at which heating
and cooling systems cut in. Set a gap between of around 4 – 5 ºC between
the heating and cooling thermostat set points to create a comfortable ‘dead
band’. This will also help to keep occupants happy. Unless this is
implemented, both systems may operate simultaneously.

a flue gas analysis (to check fuel-to-air ratio), an operational check, controls
A6 calibration, burner cleaning and limescale treatment.Boiler maintenance should

be carried out by GAS Safe or OFTEC registered contractors ONLY.
Best Practice For

Analyse flue gas
As mentioned in the previous section, the fuel-to-air ratio is critical in ensuring
efficient boiler operation. Analysis of the boiler’s flue gases for levels of carbon
dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2) and carbon moNOx ide (CO) will determine whether
Maintenance
this ratio is correct and what adjustments need to be made. For larger boilers
flue gas analysis should be carried out every three months by a suitably
qualified technician. Ask for a report on the combustion efficiency that includes
measures to improve it.
Effective maintenance is also essential in getting the best out of your heating
system. It can highlight potential problems quickly and enable remedial action
to be taken before there is a major impact on performance. PPM: Planned, Remove soot
If combustion conditions are not correct, particularly if too little air is used, fuel
Preventative Maintenance is any variety of scheduled maintenance to an object
combustion will not be complete and will result in the build up of carbon (soot)
or item of equipment, to ensure that an item of equipment is operating
will form. If these particles build up on the fire side of the boiler’s heat
correctly and to therefore avoid any unscheduled breakdown and downtime.
exchanger they will form an insulating layer, inhibiting heat transfer to the
The following actions are essential in any pro-active PPM schedule:
water. All hydrocarbon fuels – gas, oil, coal – may create soot. Oil, coal and
• Perform regular servicing at least annually
biomass are more likely to form soot and should be carefully monitored.
• Analyse flue gases
• Remove soot
Minimise limescale build-up
• Minimise limescale build-up In hard water areas, limescale can build up on the water side of the boiler’s
• Produce a maintenance plan, manual and logbook heat exchanger. This creates an insulating layer, inhibiting heat transfer to the
Each of these is discussed in more detail below. water in the same way as the soot deposits above. The most effective method
of limescale removal is through chemical treatment of the water.
Perform regular servicing, at least annually

A full boiler service should be carried out by a qualified technician on an annual
basis, ideally before the start of the heating season. This service should include
Produce a maintenance plan, manual and logbook

To ensure effective maintenance is carried out, a maintenance plan should be
put in place. This will detail what maintenance tasks are to be carried out, the
frequency of these tasks and who is responsible. This plan should also include
details of age and efficiency of plant items, so that it is clear when upgrade to
improve efficiency should be considered. A maintenance manual should be
produced and updated regularly, that includes:
• The maintenance plan.
• Block diagram of the boiler plant showing key components and controls.
• Schematic diagrams of the heating system and the controls.
• Operating instructions and control settings
• Emergency shutdown procedures.
• Contact details of installation/maintenance technicians and boiler
manufacturers.
Particular attention should be paid to specific instructions from manufacturers
as these will ensure the optimum performance of the boiler plant. Also, failure
to follow them may invalidate warranties.
A maintenance logbook should be kept giving detailed records of maintenance
tasks, including which actions were taken, the person responsible, and when
they were completed. This logbook will ensure that tasks are carried out at the
correct frequency and will highlight on-going problems.

A7 Key actions to ensure a good investment

It’s important to follow these key principles so that you are ready to defend
How to develop a
and justify any request for investment:
• Evaluate projects diligently and never promote something you are
unsure of.
• Never make exaggerated claims.
business case for •

•
Try to leave yourself headroom to deliver more than you promised.
When you get approval for something, implement it without delay and
do everything you can to ensure its success. Keep a record of what
investing in new
you implemented when, so that you can track its impact.
• Wherever possible carry out pre-installation measurements and
baseline these against typical business operation. It is important to note
any key changes beyond your control that may adversely impact the
equipment •
savings achieved (see section A7.7.9 for more information).
Make sure people know what you have achieved, and that people
know that you need to be kept in the loop about any other
organisational changes that may have a negative impact on energy
A7.1 Introduction consumption e.g. investment in large, energy consuming equipment.
Long term commitment to business efficiency, including effective energy
management and reduction, requires investment in time, effort and resources.
Usually you must justify such investments with estimates of return, and this can A7.2 Justifying the investment: three main approaches to evidence
be tricky when dealing with energy consumption; large up-front cost is often Before presenting any business case to others, begin testing the business
compared with reduction in uncertain future energy costs. The separation of case approximately by calculating the predicted or likely energy savings that
‘investor’ and ‘receiver’ of benefits complicates things further, typically when will be achieved from the measure you are installing. There are three main
capital and operational budgets lie in different organizational divisions. This methods of calculating this, and each should be taken alongside an
chapter explains a number of methods to demonstrate how quickly an assessment of accuracy and confidence in the calculation.
investment will pay for itself, with different levels of detail and accuracy.
Three main approaches to cost & benefit evidence First principle calculations give the most accurate estimates
The three main approaches are to use: This method should provide you with a high level of confidence, of circa +/-
• General Estimates 5%. Remember to also include any other non-financial and indirect financial
benefits within your case, such as improved comfort levels, or reduced
• Rules of Thumb
peak demand charges. In particular, any changes to maintenance and
• First principles estimates replacement regimes should be noted – particularly if you are going to use
Both General Estimates and Rules of Thumb should include a confidence Whole Life Cost assessment methods within your business case (see A.7.7
level in the calculation, e.g. ±30%. for more details). If your proposal is not entirely justifiable on financial
grounds alone, show
General Estimates • How it helps to fulfil a concrete objective that the organisation has
These are approximate estimates from public sources such as advisory bodies previously set itself i.e. CSR targets
(such as Carbon Trust) or manufacturers, and are generally in the format of a • The risks attached to not proceeding with the project i.e. exceeding
predicted percentage reduction. For example: “Reducing your thermostat by supply capacity, or regulatory risk.
1°C can save approximate 8% on your heating consumption” (Carbon Trust).
They can also be simply based on surveyor knowledge. Wherever this method
is used, try to find out what assumptions were behind the claim. A7.3 Good Practice In Determining Costs & Benefits
When any of these methods are used, use widely cited and documented
Rule of Thumb/Best Practice:
evidence where possible, such as SPONS M&E or CIBSE guides. Include both
Similarly these are based upon figures from advisory bodies (CIBSE or BSRIA)
initial and operational costs such as maintenance, staff etc, in your totals.
but tend to be based more on practical application and case studies. Similarly
Obtain more than one quotation for measures that involve capital investment,
to above, try to find out what assumptions were behind these figures, and
and when comparing check that you are comparing like with like in terms of
amend if appropriate to fit your situation.
what’s included in the costs. If multiple quotes can’t be obtained, document
First Principles:
evidence or assumptions you’ve used, e.g. number of man hours x FTE rate.
This is the most accurate method, and can be used if you know the actual
change likely as a result of change in kW load, u-value, temperature etc. and
hours run. For example: Swapping 10 x 100W tungsten bulbs for 25W CFLs,
SPONS M&E is a good reference source for approximate costs
that are on for 5 hours per day would result in a saving of
of materials/measures and labour rates, and CIBSE
(10 x 75kW) x 5 x 365 = 1,360kWh. GUIDE M provides indicative costs for maintenance
of different building types.

A7.4 Simple methods of comparing costs and benefits Cost Per Tonne Of Carbon
Once evidence of the costs and benefits have been determined, several The cost per tonne of carbon saved is a useful additional benchmark. This
methods are available to compare them. These vary in complexity and rigour, uses energy saved in terms of carbon over the lifetime of a measure. The
but allow you to continue to screen the value of your projects as the evidence Carbon Trust provides guidance on typical values for lifetimes of measures
you gather includes more detail. A good business case will use the more (persistence factors) based upon practical application reference data, and this
rigorous methods outlined in the next section should be used in preference to manufacturers published data.
Wherever possible you should seek to justify investment against reductions in £/tCO2 saved = Capital Cost ÷
energy consumption or carbon, and the two simplest methods for this are the (Energy saved x carbon conversion factor x lifetime)
Simple Payback and the Cost per tCO2.
The current cost of carbon is your typical unit price for fuel + the CRC carbon
Simple Payback price; so any value for £/tCO2 under £150 would bring an immediate positive
Simple Payback is calculated using: value. For more information see the following references.
Simple Payback = Capital Cost ÷ Annual Energy Savings
This gives the number of months/years that it will take for the energy savings to
‘payback’ the capital investment. The key disadvantage of simple payback is
that it does not tell you how long the measure will keep saving for above and
beyond paying back the initial investment.
CIBSE GUIDE M Appendix 13.A1 includes indicative

life expectancy factors of building components.

A7.5 Financially rigorous methods of comparing costs & Benefits Example: Compare two projects using different methods
Simple Payback and Cost per tCO2 allow approximate comparison of project
options, but neither is suitable for final investment evaluation, in particular
before presentation to a finance department or CFO. In these circumstances Two projects are available, both of which cost £5,000 to install and setup.
you need to be able to demonstrate the Net Present Value (NPV) and the Project A will save £2000 per year but only for 3 years, while project B will
Internal Rate of Return on Investment (IRR). These calculations demonstrate save £1,500 per year but for 5 years. The discount rate is 8%, and discount
the longer term investment and benefit value, taking into account the lifetime of period typically applied is 5 years. Overall which one gives the best return?
savings achieved against the future value of money. It often reveals that
measures with poor simple paybacks (over 5 years for example), may in fact Using Simple Payback favours project A:
be a good long term financial investment. Applying IRR effectively allows an
• Project A Simple Payback: 2.5 years
organisation to accurately determine whether the project will pay for itself in the
• Project A Simple Payback: 3.3 years
period required. If the IRR value is greater than the organisations discount rate,
it will be considered effective. Microsoft’s Excel software includes functions for Using NPV of the benefits Project B is more attractive (we use the
both NPV and IRR calculations (see the box below). convention used in the Excel formula):
• Project A: = NPV(8%,2000,2000,2000,0,0) = £5,154
Net Present Value (NPV) compares the present value of money today to • Project B: = NPV(8%,1500,1500,1500,1500,1500) = £5,989
the present value of money in future, taking inflation and returns into
account. NPV is a central tool in discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis and is Similarly, using the Internal Rate of Return (again using Excel’s conventions)
a standard method for using the time value of money to appraise long-term Project A = IRR({-5000,2000,2000,2000}) = 9.7%
projects. It depends on use of a Discount Rate, representing interest rates
Project B = IRR({-5000,1500,1500,1500,1500,1500}) = 15.2%
or the rate of inflation, which varies by organization.
Again Project B would be funded, but Project A would be rejected. Overall,
Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of an investment is the discount rate at the more sophisticated methods suggest that Project B is a better choice.
which the net present value of costs of the investment equals the net
present value of the benefits of the investment.
Beyond NPV and IRR, the very best financial estimates will be obtained using Microsoft Excel provides simple to use NPV and IRR functions
Whole Life Cost Assessment. NPV of benefits in years 1..3 (in £s) given Discount Rate (in %) is given by
NPV(Discount rate%, £yr1,£yr2,£yr3)
IRR is calculated from the annual cash flow over each year e.g.
IRR(£year1, £year2, £year3, etc})
A7.6 Whole Life Cost Assessment A7.7 Ease And Effect

The Whole Life Cost Assessment adds another layer of evidence to the After all these calculations you may have the best business case ever, but you
calculation. On top of direct savings achieved as a result of the lifetime of the also need to ensure that the case includes allowance for building disruption – if
measure it also includes maintenance and overall building management costs. significant disruption is not mitigated then you may not get go ahead. Similarly,
Whole life costing takes into account: if your project would have other significant positive effects, such as improving
• Differences in maintenance costs – planned and unplanned (including comfort or meeting CSR goals, without necessarily having a large financial
consequential losses resulting from plant failure, such as loss of occupant impact, it should still be considered. It is therefore worthwhile including within
productivity or production plant downtime). your assessment an ease and effect matrix as part of your prioritisation for
capital works programme.
• Differences in time periods for replacement/upgrades and therefore aid
decisions as to whether to repair or replace specific plant items
A7.8 International Performance, Measurement And Verification
• Design decisions regarding the selection of systems and their components
Protocol (IPMVP)
• The effectiveness of a plant or system at the end of its life with a view to Once funding and resources to go ahead with energy efficiency measures have
future replication of the desirable features, e.g. ‘designing out’ been secured, it is just as important to verify that the measures achieve the
maintenance activities, reducing or eradicating unplanned downtime, predicted reduction in energy consumption. This both ensure the systems are
improving reliability and avoiding excessive maintenance expenditure. operating correctly and will strengthen your case for future investment. The
Obviously some elements of life cycle costs for specific systems cannot be traditional, generalised approach post-installations has been superseded by
accurately predicted and certain assumptions will always have to be made. the IPMVP. IPMVP is fast becoming the leading UK measurement and
Life Cycle Costs are the combined total of capital and revenue costs for an verification standard. The purpose of the IPMVP is to increase certainty and
item of plant or equipment throughout its useful life. reliability with forecasting the level of savings, and readers are recommended
to use the resources referred to below to build this into the Business Case.
BSRIA BG3/2004: Business focused maintenance & International Performance, Measurement And Verification Protocol
BSRIA BG7/2004: Business focused maintenance toolkit (IPMVP) defines standard terms and suggests best practise for quantifying
include Information on the expected life of a large selection of the results of energy efficiency investments and water efficiency, demand
building services plant and systems. management and renewable energy projects.
For more information on how to implement

IPMVP within your organisation see
www.evo-world.org.
Reducing air pollution from your building

Manual A - for building operators
Although every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the
information herein, the authors and publisher can accept no liability for
loss, damage or injury caused by errors or omissions in the information
given in this document.
ww.parhillresearch.com
© 2013 Par Hill Research Ltd.
The content may be distributed freely without the permission of the copyright
holder in electronic or other format, so long as the source and copyright are
acknowledged.
Par Hill Research Ltd, Company No. 7951099, VAT Reg No. 128939572.
Address for correspondence: 6 Salcombe Lodge, Lissenden Gardens, London
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Joanne Arbon & Iarla Kilbane-Dawe

Some important conventions used in this document

This series of guides to reduce air pollution from your building

Examples and Case Studies

2 - Reducing air pollution from your building

Contents A4 Fuel choice & pollution

A4.1 Air pollution and heating system choice

3 - Reducing air pollution from your building

4 - Reducing air pollution from your building

Reading guide for this document

Yes Read A1 – Consider all other

5 - Reducing air pollution from your building

Recommended minimum seasonal efficiency for existing boiler systems

Laws and regulations

A1.2 Building Regulations requiring conservation of energy

6 - Reducing air pollution from your building

Part L nondomestic compliance guide on

A1.3 EPCs and DECs show your buildings energy performance

8 - Reducing air pollution from your building

9 - Reducing air pollution from your building

A1.5 London’s Supplementary Planning Guidance A1.6 BREEAM & LEED

10 - Reducing air pollution from your building

A1.7 Health & Safety Air quality & Ventilation

11 - Reducing air pollution from your building

A2 The eight categories of energy efficiency measures

12 - Reducing air pollution from your building

A2.2 Audit the heating & cooling demand in your building

An energy audit is an inspection of the energy dynamics within a building

Do your own energy audit using Carbon Trust

13 - Reducing air pollution from your building

A2.3 Implement a heating & ventilation strategy

14 - Reducing air pollution from your building

• Hot liquid effluents

The Carbon Trust Heat Recover Guide provides lots more

15 - Reducing air pollution from your building

A2.4 Review and improve your building fabric

16 - Reducing air pollution from your building

17 - Reducing air pollution from your building

18 - Reducing air pollution from your building

A2.8 Metering, monitoring & targeting and building management

A2.9 Organisational & Behavioural change

20 - Reducing air pollution from your building

A3.2 Calculating Heat Load/Demand

Know your heating &

A3.1 Introduction A3.3 Rules of Thumb:

Typical Seasonal Efficiency from CIBSE Efficiency %

Non-condensing boilers U is the u-value for each surface material (W/m2ºC)

22 - Reducing air pollution from your building

Boiler replacement costing - worked example

η is the system seasonal efficiency

Eannual = Etotal × heating hours in year

23 - Reducing air pollution from your building

Single large boiler vs multiple smaller boilers - worked example

24 - Reducing air pollution from your building

A4 Typical air pollutant emissions from different heating technologies

Fuel Choice & Pollution Solar thermal 0 0 0

25 - Reducing air pollution from your building

Large, variable heat demand Modular boilers

Locations without local air quality issues

26 - Reducing air pollution from your building

A5 The 3 Golden Roles of Heating Control

Best Practice For

27 - Reducing air pollution from your building