PREPARE FOR COMMAND

BY CAPTAIN SHORTY CALLOW

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Boeing 737 300 cockpit

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PREPARE FOR COMMAND

Published by
SUBTLE CONCEPTS LTD
www.subtleconcepts.co.uk

© Written material – Subtle Concepts LTD

© Airline photographs – Captain Johannes Denysschen
© Other photographs – Captain Shorty Callow

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,

transmitted or utilized in any form by any means, including
photocopying and recording, without the written permission of the
publisher.
ISBN No. – 0-9646308-0-7
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Boeing 737 – 300 engine

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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 07

ABOUT THE AUTHOR 09

THE COMPANY PERSPECTIVE 13

STUDY PREPARATION 15

TROUBLE SHOOTING TECHNIQUES 19

CONSIDERING YOUR OPTIONS 23

MAKING YOUR DECISION 27

ASSIGNING THE TASKS 29

YOUR REVIEW 37

DECISION MAKING MODELS 39

MANAGING AN EMERGENCY 41

VISUALISATION TO BUILD AN ARTIFICIAL

EXPERIENCE BASE 47

TYPICAL PROBLEMS THAT A CAPTAIN

MAY FACE 52

CONCLUSION 55

DISCLAIMER 58
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Comair ATR 42 parked at Skakuza Airport which used to be the main airport
serving the famous Kruger National Park in South Africa.
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INTRODUCTION
My decision to write this book was born from feedback that I have received from the
numerous First Officers that I have conducted Command Assessments on, and from
Command courses that I have instructed on. A general feeling has been that there was
very little pre assessment or pre course guidance.

This book is primarily aimed at Airline First Officers moving into the command frame,
however, I believe that many other pilots could also benefit from reading it.

The bottom line is that in order to become an effective Aircraft Commander, a lot of hard
work is required. It will take hours of studying and hours of mental visualisation. One
without the other will not arm you with sufficient skills to be effective.

As with most things in life, some people find the transition from being a First Officer to a
Captain easier than others. Some First Officers play the supportive role extremely
effectively and competently but when they become responsible for the decisions, they
become awkward and uncomfortable. In these cases a mind shift may be required and the
visualisation techniques will certainly help to become a little more assertive and
comfortable with decision making.

One of the most important aspects of being an effective aircraft Commander is to believe
in yourself. You need to be comfortable with your own level of knowledge, skills and
assertiveness. Comfort with these aspects will improve your confidence and in turn your
effectiveness.

The first step then in preparing for command is to evaluate your own strengths and
weaknesses. Identify those areas that will need the most work. It could be technical
knowledge or your assertiveness. It could even be over-confidence or mis-guided
expectations. Whatever it is, you need to identify it.

The second step is to formulate a Command Preparation Plan. Build on your strengths
and allow time and seek help if necessary to improve your weaknesses.

The aim of this book is to offer you some guidance as to how one could prepare for
Command and to provoke some ideas to stimulate your visualisation process.

Good luck.
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Sun International’s Citation V

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

I was born in Salisbury, Rhodesia as it was then. My parents spent most of their years
living in the bush, either farming or working for Tsetse Control. My mother taught my
brother and I until we went to boarding school at the age of nine. Our upbringing was
unique and many of the basic bushcraft techniques that we learned as children have
helped us through life, albeit somewhat adapted to suit modern life.

I joined the Rhodesian Air Force in 1978 as a pilot Officer Cadet and was awarded my
wings early in 1980. The Country changed its name but I continued to serve then in the
Airforce of Zimbabwe until June 1983. I was a Qualified Flying Instructor, Weapons
Instructor and a Survival instructor.

I then joined the South African Air Force and spent 2 years flying a small military jet,
which we knew as the Impala. It was an Aeromacci 326. After I left the permanent force,
I continued for another 2 years to fly for the Air Force on a part time basis.

My military flying training and experience gave me a very solid grounding to go out into
the civil aviation world. I did this in two ways, firstly, I continued to instruct at the flying
club. Secondly, I had a yearning to go crop spraying, so I joined a small crop spraying
company and went down to the Cape to spray during the winter season.

Crop spraying is a very seasonal occupation and subject to numerous factors, the largest
being the influence of the weather. Within a few months we were experiencing a severe
drought and I had no work to do. It was a difficult time financially but I managed by
flying part time in the Air Force and instructing at the flying club.

One day my boss phoned me and told me that another crop spraying company had a
Government night spraying contract but their specialist night spraying pilot had crashed.
He asked if I would be prepared to do crop spraying at night-time. I agreed providing that
I was made a partner. Over the next 8 years I flew nearly 2000 hours low level at night-
time and created my own Crop Spraying Company.
 10

“Finch Spraying” was the term used for the night spraying that I was doing. The red
billed finch is a small bird that flies around in swarms of thousands or even millions.
Naturally, they eat grass seed but when a farmer plants crops of wheat, millet and
sorgham, this to the finch is manna from heaven.

The birds would eat the crop during the day, and although only a small bird, due to their
sheer numbers, they would devastate a farmer’s crop within 2 days. They are gazetted as
a plague in the same way as locusts and it was for this reason that the Government was
involved.

At night time the birds would find a roost and the farmers would then call me in to spray.
The birds seldom slept in the crop, preferring trees or reeds and invariably making the
area extremely difficult to fly over. Tall dead trees, power lines, rocky outcrops and high
river banks were the more normal obstacles for me to work around.

After 8 years, many engine malfunctions at night and a few other skirmishes with trees,
power lines and telephone lines, my exposure to the poisons started to affect my health so
I was advised to give up spraying altogether. Fortunately, I had continued to fly charters
and instruct over the years, so I was able to do some freelance flying on King Airs and
Citation aircraft. I employed my old Squadron Leader from the Rhodesian Air Force to
continue with the night spraying.

I was then lucky enough to pick up a job flying a Citation V for Sun International, a big
hotel group in Southern Africa. I did this for 2 years and had the pleasure of meeting
numerous interesting international celebrities.

I joined Comair, a South African airline, in 1995 and spent 3 very happy years flying
ATR 42’s and Boeing 737’s. I moved to the UK in June 1998 and spent a short time
flying for Ryan Air. I joined the airline, GO in October 1998 and remained with them
until it was bought out by Easyjet. I am still flying for Easyjet. All of these Airlines
operated Boeing 737’s

I have been involved in training, initially as a Line Trainer, and then as a TRI and TRE
for most of my flying over the past 6 years in Europe.
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The training departments in all the low cost Airlines have been extremely pressurised to
cope with normal training requirements as well as massive expansion plans. The trainers
have been under a lot of pressure which has been tiring and often relentless. In spite of
this, I have had the pleasure of working with some incredibly committed, professional
trainers whose passion is to teach. I have personally benifited by being associated with so
many highly experienced Airline pilots and trainers.

With so many more experienced Airline trainers and examiners around than myself, what
qualifies me to write this book?

Firstly, I have had a very varied flying career and experienced numerous “real life”
emergencies in various aircraft types. The principals and techniques that I share with you
in this book have enabled me to command situations in the past and are not specifically
Airline orientated. They have enabled me to command situations from crop spraying to
Airline flying. I believe that I was able to survive some of my most severe emergencies
by the application of these principals and techniques.

Secondly, part of being a trainer is the wish to be able to pass on information and I
believe that this is an area where I do have some information to pass onto those of you
who are seeking guidance for your Command preparation.
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This was a GO postcard

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THE COMPANY PERSPECTIVE

All companies that use aircraft as a part of their business have to apply for a licence with
the regulatory authority. The process of applying for an Operators Licence or Certificate
is a long one and the company has to be very specific about how it is going to operate the
business. Numerous factors are considered including financial viability, Technical and
maintenance plans, Standard Operating Procedures, Health and Safety, Training
programs and reference publications.

Additionally, the company will appoint post holders, subject to the regulatory authority’s
approval, who will be responsible for ensuring that the business is operated in accordance
with the terms of the Operators Certificate or Licence.

The post holder (Normally the Chief Operating Officer) cannot be involved in every
single action all the time. It is up to him then to ensure that the terms of the Operators
Certificate are adhered to and he achieves this by making sure that his various department
heads operate according to the terms of the Certificate.

With regard to the Flight Crew, The Chief Pilot is normally the department head and he
makes sure of compliance with the terms of the Certificate by ensuring that he has a solid
training department who will teach the crew to operate according to the SOP’s. Standards
are monitored periodically by the training department in accordance with both the Flight
Crew Licensing requirements but also the Operators Certificate.

A large part of the time, however, the Chief Pilot does not see exactly what goes on in the
cockpit, so he has to rely heavily on the Captains to adhere to, and to enforce that the rest
of the crew, adhere to the SOP’s.

It is for this reason that the selection process for a command course is not based simply
on handling ability and decision making. The Captains attitude is extremely important.
He is responsible for the safety of his crew and his passengers, but more than this, he is
charged with the responsibility of making sure that the operation is carried out in
accordance with the terms of the Operators Certificate.
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Non compliance with the SOP’s, even if it does not lead to an accident, may jeopardise
the Companies continued operation and the consequence of that could be huge.

The purpose of having a set standard method of operating is so that everyone knows
exactly what to expect and when. Sometimes there are numerous ways of doing things,
most of them could be correct, but if there is an element of the unknown or unexpected,
safety may be compromised.

The company expects in it’s Commanders, a positive, assertive and mature attitude that
accepts and understands the broad responsibility that the position requires. Mavericks and
negative people will need to get an attitude change before they can be considered for
Command.

Safety is paramount and the Company needs to know that their Captains will be able to
effectively manage non-normal situations. Management of a non-normal situation is
enhanced by an above average handling ability, by good decision making processes and
the utilisation of available resources. An ability to prioritise is an extremely important
part of the decision making process.

In summary, the Company expects of their Commanders:

A positive Company Attitude

Above average handling skills

A good knowledge of company procedures

A good technical knowledge

An effective management style.

An effective and safe decision-making process.

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STUDY PREPERATION
Many students have told me how they have had their heads in the books solidly for
months and yet when it came to the assessment, it has not helped them that much. I
believe that there is a very good reason for this, and that is that they have not worked
according to a specific study plan.

The sheer volume of material to study is intimidating enough. The fact is that most of us
would not be able to remember all the information presented in all the manuals. We need
to plan exactly how we are going to study and I would recommend something along these
lines. Create 4 categories and then study according to those categories and their
respective priorities.

a. Standard everyday Operating Procedures

b. Non normal Procedures
c. Technical knowledge
d. Worked examples

A. Standard everyday Operating Procedures

Think about the things that you would be expected to do automatically on an

everyday flight. You would be expected to know your standard calls and
responses. You would be expected to know any “memory or recall drills”. You
would be expected to know your low visibility procedures and you would be
expected to know how to do the normal calculations for your performance and
your loadsheet. Normal profiles for phases of flight should be known. Visual
circuits, circle to land, non-precision profiles, holding entry and holding patterns
should all be known.

B. Non-normal Procedures

This category probably represents the greatest volume of material because it

covers everything from Company structure to abnormal starts and is probably
found in numerous different manuals. The secret here is in “Knowing where to
find the relevant information”. It is also useful to further sub divide this
category into 3 sub categories, namely Fingertip knowledge, Quick reference
and Research.
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As you read through the manuals, write the headings of each item into its relevant
category or sub category along with its reference.

Fingertip Knowledge – This is the sort of information that you would not
need on any normal flight, but should you need it, you may need it
quickly. You are probably not expected to know the procedure off by
heart, but you would be expected to be familiar with the procedure. You
would also be expected to know exactly where to find supporting
information and to be able to do so quickly.

Typically it may be a non-normal starting procedures, unpressurised

takeoff configuration, minimum fuel policy, reduced performance figures,
Minimum equipment requirements etc.etc

Quick reference – This is additional information that you may need from
time to time. Sometimes this information may be directly related to the
aircraft and it’s crew and other times it may be more general policy related
issues.

Typically, it could be related to unusual cargo and dangerous goods,

company policy regarding delays, Flight and duty time limitations,
medical emergency frequencies and telephone numbers, airport hours of
duty etc etc.

Research – This information has little bearing on your function as a pilot.

Typically, it would be the sort of things that new recruits might ask, when
you are conducting an induction day. Another example may be when you
are required to do a company presentation. Simply knowing where to find
it is adequate.

C. Technical Knowledge

This is an extremely important part of Command preparation. A sound technical

knowledge is fundamental to good decision making and to non-normal situation
management. It is important to have both a specific technical knowledge on the
aircraft but also to have a good generic understanding of the principals involved
with the major technical systems.
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The real value of a good specific and generic system knowledge comes when you
are trying to troubleshoot a problem. By working through a problem using system
knowledge, a system problem could be narrowed down to a specific failure. For
example a Flap problem could be narrowed down to a No. 1 Leading Edge slat
fails to retract.

An essential part of troubleshooting is questioning what is and what is not

working. Spend some time working out relevant questions for each system that
will assist in directing you to the actual problem. Examples of flap related
problems may be:

Is it the LE, TE or both?

Is the problem that they are not extending or not retracting?
Will this affect me if I continue the flight or when I land?

D. Worked examples

A very important part of your preparation is to work through examples or to

create your own worked examples. There are many performance-related problems
that we may seldom have to use, but because they are invariably performance
reducing, it is imperative that we get them right. Examples of this would be things
like contaminated runway takeoff calculations, brake cooling schedules and
engine out performance.

Time allocation for your study plan

As with all plans, it is very important to allocate time for your plan. A little time spent on
allocating time according to your strengths and weaknesses and allocating priorities will
be time very well spent.

The process of studying to become an effective aircraft commander is a never ending one
and as professional pilots we should be continuously keeping up to date with the
changing environment. At this stage of preparing for command though, a good deal of
extra time and effort is required to get to the level of being an effective commander.
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My Pawnee windscreen was smashed by a duck while I was spraying low level at
night time. This happened 13 times during my 8 years of night spraying.
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TROUBLE SHOOTING TECHNIQUES

This is the process of gathering information and asking questions to determine broadly
the nature of the problem. This is then narrowed down to a specific problem. We can now
consider what caused the problem and how and if it can be fixed.

The basic principal of effective trouble shooting is to try to eliminate all factors that are
not relevant to the problem.

Note: When something goes wrong and the reason is not obvious, then make sure
that you have considered the following factors.

1. System controls are in the normal configuration for that phase of flight,
prior to the initiation of a non-normal procedure.

2. You have considered previously reported defects and if they have been
deferred.

3. Any aural warnings should be silenced and the Master Caution System
reset as soon as the cause of the warning has been recognized.

4 Lights, bulbs, indicators and gauges should be tested by the crew to verify
their serviceability.

5. Circuit Breakers should be checked and if tripped, resets should

only be done in accordance with the aircraft manufacture and
company policy recommendations.

Having checked the above-mentioned factors, we are now ready to start trying to
eliminate other non-relevant factors. Perhaps the easiest way to explain this would be
diagrammatically with a hypothetical situation.

Let us assume that the gauge shown in the diagramn on the next page is able to tell us if
the components A, B, C and the light are working or not. In the event where the gauge
tells us that the light is not working, how could we narrow down to find out exactly
where the problem is?
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Ω Light Gauge

A B C

Firstly, is the gauge working? Always consider the serviceability of gauges, indicators,
bulbs and circuit breakers.

Secondly, Can we eliminate half the search area?

Yes, by testing component B. If B works, then the problem lies between Component B
and the light. If it does not, then the problem lies between the gauge and component B.

Thirdly, we try to eliminate half the search area again by testing Components A or C as
applicable.
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Question technique

Did you notice that even in the simplistic example above, questions were asked to direct
me towards the problem. The process of asking questions in trouble shooting is an
essential part of the exercise.

Each system may have it’s own set of relevant questions, which will have the effect of
narrowing down your problem area. Generally, though, the first step could be checking
indications, gauges, bulbs and circuit breakers. Consider also what the normal indications
would be for that phase of flight.

Here are some examples of other questions that may be useful in troubleshooting:

What is the problem?

What are the indications?

Can we confirm the indications in any other way?

Is there an electrical source? Could it be a circuit breaker?

Are all the switches in their normal position?

Has there been a history of this problem?

What have we lost or not got?

What do we still have?

Will this problem affect us in continued flight?

Will this problem affect us when we approach to land?

Can we fix it?

Is the problem related to the extended position?

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Is the problem related to the retract position?

What would cause that?

What system operates that?

Is there a standby source or system?

How can we fix the problem?

All five senses can be used to assist with the troubleshooting process to assist with the
trouble shooting. Use of all available resources should be made and these would include
other crewmember knowledge, technical manuals and schematic diagrams, information
sources and communications.

The time spent on troubleshooting may well prevent you from leaping to conclusions and
perhaps entering the wrong checklist or taking inappropriate action.

One of the most important aspects of accurate troubleshooting is that you are then in a far
better position to consider the TIME aspect of dealing with your problem. It could be
useful to consider the time required or available to deal with a problem and to subdivide
the time available into three different categories.

a. Emergencies requiring a landing within 15 minutes.

b. Emergencies requiring a landing between 15 and 30 minutes
c. Non-normal situations requiring a change to the planned flight.

Priorities will differ with varying time criteria which will, in turn, influence the rest of the
decision making process.
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CONSIDERING YOUR OPTIONS

The first step to consider when wanting to gather information is to think about who does
what? Normally it would be appropriate for one person to fly the aircraft and the other to
gather the information.

With a time frame having been determined in the troubleshooting, it is now appropriate to
consider your options. This is the process of gathering all the information available from
all the resources available to determine the best options to suit the problem. Available
resources include other crewmembers and their local knowledge, ATIS, Air Traffic
Control, Ground personnel, Operations, Medlink and perhaps even other Professionals on
board.

Sometimes, a useful way of gathering your thoughts is by asking yourself these four
questions.

Where am I?

Where do I want to go?

How much time do I have?

How much fuel do I have?

The answer to the first question is really very important. It will kick-start you into
becoming situationally aware, and along with that, you will consider your position
relative to other airfields including those that may be behind you.

Additionally, you can determine what the MSA is and where the highest ground is.
Remember that there are numerous sources of information to assist you in determining
your position. DME, radio aids, map displays with a sensible distance scale and the fix
page in the FMC are all very useful for assisting situational awareness.
 24

Factors that would need consideration when choosing the options would include the
following. Where time is critical, consideration of the first four would perhaps suffice.

1. Suitable Weather

a. Cloud base
b. Visibility
c. QNH
d. Wind direction and strength
e. Icing conditions
f. Any other significant or limiting weather

2. Suitable Runway

a. Runway length
b. Runway strength
c. Runway condition
d. Navigation aids
e. Letdown charts (accessibility and availability)
f. Local knowledge
g. MSA, SSA and surrounding obstacles
h. Category of airport

3. Suitable Facilities

a. ATC facilities
b. Handling facilities
Steps, buses, towing, De-icing, re-fuelling, GPU, ASU
c. Technical facilities
d. Police, Medical, Fire, Customs and Immigration,
e. Hotel accommodation
f. Telephones, communications
g. Hours of Operation.
 25

4. Suitable Performance and Aircraft Status

a. System failures with associated limitations

b. Performance and operational charts.

5. Operational and Economic Considerations

a. Least disruption and Knock-on effect for Operations

b. Communication facilities for Operations
c. Preferred diversions
d. Landing fees, Parking fees and handling fees
e. Engineering support
f. Ease of flying an engineer there
g. Is it one of our destinations
h. Do we have our own handling agents there.

6. Crew and Passenger Convenience

a. Passengers would normally prefer to either return or go to planned

destination
b. Crew duty period and consequence of diversion.

The list of options must fit within the time frame. Remember that doing nothing may also
be an option. Where there is more than one option, the consequences of using each
option should be considered.

Once all the relevant information has been gathered, it is a good CRM principal to work
through the options together and consider the advantages and disadvantages of each one
in turn.
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View of the Boeing 737 300 Captains instrument panel from the jump seat
 27

MAKING YOUR DECISION

An essential and very important part of any decision is the consideration of time
available and the priorities.

A raging fire for example would require gear down, flap down and get down as the main
priority. A flap failing to retract or extend on the other hand may require careful
consideration and systematically working through the appropriate checklist. Entering the
hold or extending downwind may be appropriate.

Decision-making may be considered in two parts. Firstly, in a severe emergency, a quick

decision may be required to resolve the immediate flight path, configuration or time
requirements. This decision is required to regain control of the situation and is associated
with the AVIATE, NAVIGATE and COMMUNICATE part of managing an
emergency.

Very severe emergencies require quick action. Most severe emergencies are easy to
troubleshoot, as they are normally pretty obvious. In these cases it is normally
appropriate to initiate recovery action immediately and then to confirm the nature of the
problem.

The initial actions for these sorts of emergencies tend to be a little more autocratic as
there is little time for discussion. The process of confirming which engine, which lever,
which handle and which shut-off valve is to be actioned, should not be ignored.
Immediate consideration of whether to turn, climb or descend may be appropriate.

The decision that is associated with the DECISION MAKING MODEL is in severe
emergencies, the second decision. This is the decision regarding what further action to
take, whether to divert or not, where to divert to, etc etc and can really only be done once
the problem has been correctly identified and all the options have been considered.

There is not always a perfect decision. If, however, the troubleshooting of the problem
was done correctly, and all the Options and the consequences have been considered, then
it is probably the best decision that could be made at the time.
 28

Ryan air Boeing 737 200

Cessna 337 skymaster over flying Victoria Falls

 29

ASSIGNING THE TASKS

With the decision made, it is now an appropriate time to turn the decision into action and
to manage the situation. It is time to delegate and communicate.

If you have not already done so, it is often a good idea to let the First Officer fly the
aircraft so that you can sit back and manage the situation.

Once again consider the time required and how much time is available as well as the
priorities. Make sure that your wishes and expectations are made very clear to the other
pilot. An example of clear instructions would be:

“When I give you control, I want you to descend on heading 040 to FL120. Maintain high
speed and a high rate of descent. Any questions?”

“No”

“You have control and I will talk to ATC”

Consideration should be given to the workload and the capacity of each crewmember
before assigning tasks.Crewmembers need to feel comfortable to say something like
“Hold on, my hands are full at the moment.”

When crewmembers are given tasks they need to be questioned to ensure that they know
what to do and what is expected of them. Briefings should be short and to the point.

“This is the situation, we have had an engine problem, we are returning to XXXX,
landing in 15 minutes, secure the cabin and report back to me.”

Monitor and manage the situation as it developes. Make sure that the tasks that you
have assigned are being done. You may need to prompt and help the other pilot with
situational awareness by referring to distances to go and heights to lose or speeds to fly
and rates of descent required.

Assess again the communication that has been made and consider what communication
still needs to be made. A mental checklist would normally include;

Other flight deck members

ATC
Senior Cabin Crew Member
Passengers
Operations/Handling
 30

As each task is assigned, manage and monitor the situation again. Keep the other pilot
in the loop and give him the opportunity to keep you in the loop. Make sure, for example,
that you are told about ATC instructions whilst you were talking to the passengers.

This is where I started crop spraying, on a farm near Cape Town. My

Boss flew the Iron Thrush behind my Piper Pawnee in front.
 31

Cessna 337 skymaster (Military version “Lynx”)

 32

This was my Piper Brave.

It was about 2 o’clock at night and I was spraying an area that had an
estimated over 8 million birds. The problem was that the moon was
shining so the birds were particularily restless.

After my first spray run the birds flew up en masse and blocked the oil
cooler and air filter. The engine started running roughly and I knew
that a failure was immenent.

My vision was severly hampered by all the blood on the windscreen.

Frank Bishop, a very good friend of mine, was my ground crew that
night. He did a great job of talking me down onto a dirt road in front of
his vehicle for a precautionary landing.

Unfortunately, in the dark, he could not see a large fence post some
distance ahead of the vehicle. The successful landing was spoilt by the
right wing making contact with the solid fence post which then dragged
me into the bush on the right.
 33

Note the windscreen. At night the inversion is normally low so the

poison hangs in the air. Flying through it leaves a sticky smudge on the
windscreen and mixed with blood leaves a smear that you cannot see
through. Frank, below, tries to see through the windscreen.
34
 35

SIAI Marchetti SF 260 – As a young Air Force pilot, I was doing

aerobatics when I experiences an engine failure. I had to stretch the
glide to make my forced landing field but did not make it over the
perimeter fence which broke the nose wheel off.
 36

South African Air Force Aeromacchi 326 Mk ii – We knew them as the “Impala”
 37

YOUR REVIEW
Once all the actions have been implemented, a review of the whole situation should be
done to ensure that the decision did consider everything and that the decision is still valid.

Have all the tasks been completed and is everyone aware of the current situation?
It is worth running through the event from beginning to end again and asking questions
aloud.

What happened?
What were the indications?
We concluded that this was the problem because of what?
Could we have fixed it?
Have we considered all the options?
What are the possible consequences of our chosen option?
Are there any limitations on the use of our option?
Have I communicated with everybody that needs to know?
What will happen when we get on the ground?
Will we need any support services?
How can we assist the company?

Consider the knock on effects of the problem that you have. Perhaps it will affect your
steering or your braking. It may necessitate external power being brought to the aircraft
or perhaps the airstairs may not work and you will need steps brought to the aircraft.
There may be a need to be towed in.

Think of the consequences beyond the wheels touching down.

“TIME FOR YOUR REVIEW SHOULD ALWAYS BE FOUND!”

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 39

DECISION MAKING MODELS

If we were to make an acronym for the decision making process described in the last few
pages it would be TODAY.

T – Troubleshooting
O – Options
D – Decision
A – Assign tasks
Y – Your review

Various companies have their own acronyms for their decision making process. I have
come across DODAR, GRADE, CLEAR and PILOT. Essentially the considerations are
all the same and by working through these considerations, you have the best chance of
making the best decision at the time.

If your Company uses a specific acronym, I would recommend that you use it and adapt
whatever useful information you can from this book.

The most effective way of using this decision making model is to practice it repeatedly so
that the thought process will naturally flow through the various considerations in a logical
sequence.

This can be applied to the visualization techniques described later on in this book for
dealing with emergencies as well as day to day problem solving.

The decision making process is a very important part of managing an emergency. In the
following chapter, Managing an emergency, we will see where it fits in.
40
 41

MANAGING AN EMERGENCY

It is not possible for an aircraft commander to anticipate every type of emergency

situation that he may incur either on line or in the simulator. Emergency checklists and
QRH’s are a very useful means to work your way through a problem once it has been
identified but it cannot possibly provide information for every eventuality.

There are three main steps to dealing with emergencies. Step 1 is to recognise that you
do have an emergency, step 2 is to Regain and maintain control of the aircraft and step 3
is to manage the situation and determine the course of action to be taken.

STEP 1. RECOGNISE THAT THERE IS A PROBLEM

Sometimes problems are obvious and sometimes not. The severity of the problem
must be considered and if severe, immediate recognition of the severity is
important so that appropriate action can be taken.

Other emergencies are subtler and if unattended, they could develop into serious
problems. Herein lies the importance of regular panel scans so that developing
problems can be picked up early. The other advantage is that you become familiar
with the normal indications.

STEP 2. REGAIN OR MAINTAIN CONTROL OF THE AIRCRAFT AND

THE SITUATION

A. AVIATE
B. NAVIGATE
C. COMMUNICATE
D. DELEGATE
E. DRILLS

i. Recall drills
ii. Emergency or QRH drills
iii. Normal checklists
 42

A. AVIATE
The first pilot to detect an existing or impending emergency or abnormal
condition should immediately inform the other. The pilot flying the
aircraft should probably continue to do so unless the Captain decides or
the company policy dictates otherwise

Make sure that the aircraft is established on a safe flight path (normally
wings level and a controlled climb) and a safe configuration (normal
consideration of landing gear and flaps, speedbrake and power).

B. NAVIGATE
It is extremely important to ensure that a safe flight path or an emergency
turn procedure is followed. Considerations of high ground, MSA/SSA,
obstacles, busy traffic areas and ATC assistance should be taken into
account.

C. COMMUNICATE
Communication is an ongoing requirement through any abnormal
condition. MAYDAY calls should be considered and made as soon as it is
established that it is appropriate. It is always possible to downgrade a
MAYDAY call later.

Any deviation from the Air Traffic Control instruction or their expectation
of what your flight path will be, must be communicated as soon as
possible

D. DELEGATE

It is imperative that the attention of pilots is not distracted from the basic
task of continuing to fly the aircraft. Determine which one of you is going
to fly the aircraft, which one of you is going to operate the radios, do the
drills and read the checklists.

Company procedures often dictate who does what with certain emergency
profiles.
 43

E. DRILLS

i. Recall or memory drills

These drills are performed methodically by or at the command of the

Captain. They should be performed without reference to the QRH or
emergency checklists.

Before any procedure involving the shutting down of an engine is

actioned, both pilots should positively establish which engine has failed.

Furthermore, both pilots should confirm before the movement of any

engine control lever, handle or switch that the correct selection is being
made for the appropriate engine.

ii. Emergency checklist or QRH drills

After completion of the recall items, checklists are used to verify their
completion and/or to command the accomplishment of each individual
reference item.

The pilot actioning the checklist should attempt to keep the other pilot in
the loop by showing him what actions he is about to take. The other pilot
who is not actioning the checklist should acknowledge that he has seen
and agrees with the action to be taken.

When the respective checklist has been completed, the pilot who has
completed the checklist should announce “ XXXXX. Checklist
completed”.

Some companies and manufactures specify how these actions should be

accomplished and as this will form part of the Operators Certificate, it is
important that the company or manufacturers recommendations and
procedures are followed.
 44

iii. Normal checklists

Make sure that normal checklists have also been completed. Some
Operators prefer the normal checklists to be performed after memory drills
but before the emergency checklists. Make sure that you are aware of your
own company requirement.

STEP 3. SITUATION MANAGEMENT AND DECISION MAKING

If it has not yet been done, the Captain might consider handing over control to the
First Officer so that he can now push his chair back and manage the situation
properly.

Handing over control and the requirements and expectations of the Captain should
be positively communicated to the First Officer.

“John, are you happy to take control of the aircraft and the radios?”

“Yes Captain.”

“I want you to maintain a heading of 080 and Flight Level 150. Tell ATC that we
wish to maintain for now, you have control.”

“I have control and the radios.”

The Captain has now created extra capacity for himself to deal with the
management of the situation. He is able to gather information for his decision
making process as well as monitor the actions of the rest of the crew and to give
consideration to how much capacity each crew member has for assigning tasks.

The Captain is now able to effectively work through his decision making
model. (TODAY)
 45

DECISION MAKING PROCESS (TODAY)

TROUBLESHOOT

TIME

TIME TIME NOT

LIMITED LIMITED

OPTIONS OPTIONS
SUITABLE: SUITABLE:
Weather Weather
Runway Runway
Facilities Facilities
Performance Performance
Operational
Economic
Crew & Pax

DECISION DECISION

ASSIGN TASKS (delegate and communicate) ASSIGN TASKS

YOUR REVIEW YOUR REVIEW

46
 47

VISUALISATION TO BUILD AN ARTIFICIAL EXPERIENCE BASE

Many pilots with relatively low experience are getting work with corporate companies
and Airlines.This coupled with the reliability of modern aircraft often means that pilots
reach potential command without any real experience of non-normal situations.
Commanding real emergencies is greatly assisted by being able to fall back on real life
experiences.

I firmly believe that it is possible to build an artificial experience base through

visualization that will be just as good as real experience and in some instances even
better. I say in some cases even better because you can constantly refine it and change it.
You can work on it without danger and without time constraints. You can constantly
improve it and more importantly, you can build your own weak areas into the scenarios.

If for example, you are not assertive enough normally, work the scenario so that you have
to be assertive.

It would be absurd to try to visualize every type of emergency but it is quite easy to group
emergencies into a few categories and then to visualize an emergency for that particular
category.

This is called “chunking” and I like to “chunk” or categorise emergencies according to

the time available or time required to deal with the problem.

Category 1 – Severe Emergency requiring to land in less than 15 minutes

This category will normally include all the fires. Engines, APU, wheel well, cargo
bay, cabin, toilet or any other fire. Others may include smoke, total loss of
electrical generators, Bomb threats, structural damage and life threatening
medical emergencies.

Priority – Regain control of the aircraft and land as soon as possible. (Limited
time)
 48

Category 2 – Emergencies requiring you to land at the nearest suitable runway (15 –
30 minutes)

Procedures cannot be established for all conceivable non-normal situations. In the

cases of engine failures, Reduced electrical power sources and reduced or severe
hydraulic problems, a landing at the nearest suitable airport where a safe landing
can be accomplished is normally recommended. Medical emergencies may also
fall into this category.

It is the responsibility of the Captain, after assessing the situation, to determine

the safest course of action taking into consideration all relevant factors including
aircraft condition, weather, suitable landing airports etc.

Priority – Conduct a safe landing at the nearest suitable airport which may not
necessarily be the closest airport. All normal and non-normal checklists should be
actioned and normal-operating procedures should be followed as far as possible.
(Normal and non-normal operations expeditiously)

Category 3 – Change to original plan requiring holds, diversion or a return to point

of departure (More than 30 minutes)

These emergencies are not specifically time limiting and allow far more latitude
to consider passenger comfort and convenience as well as company requirements.
Typically these emergencies include minor malfunctions that may preclude
continued flight to the planned destination.

Priority – A safe landing taking into account all possible factors. Generally safety
is not at risk and the company may well be keen to have an explanation of your
decision. HF radio communications with your operations may be useful. (Make
the right decision and be prepared to explain it.)
 49

Category 4 – Severe failures or fires requiring a rejected take off leading to an

evacuation (Immediate action required)

Although this emergency requires immediate action, it often needs to be slowed

down. Break it up into it’s component parts. Stop the aircraft, Action the
emergency and then if unsuccessful, evacuate.

Priority – Safely stopping the aircraft and calculated consideration before

evacuation (Time)

Category 5 – Unplanned and planned emergency landings

Time is a variable in these emergencies depending on the nature of the problem.

Running out of fuel is severely time limiting whilst a landing gear not extending
may require time to burn off fuel. The emphasis however is on preparing the
cabin crew and passengers for the landing.

Priority – Prepare the cabin crew and the passengers as much as possible for the
emergency landing. This ensures that the safest possible conclusion can be made.
(Maximum preparation in the time available)

Category 6 – Other severe emergencies

These would include rapid decompression and emergency descent, windshear,

TCAS and GPWS warnings and uncommanded flight control problems. These are
normally associated with recall drills.

Priority – Avoid associated danger immediately. (Quick reaction and action the
correct drills.)
 50

Choose an emergency for each category. Sit yourself down in a quiet place and visualise
the emergency in as much detail as you can. Think of the symptoms, the indications, the
sounds and the smells. What do other crewmembers see and say. Let the emergency
evolve and make as many corrections to your actions as you like. Consider exactly to the
finest detail what you would do and say and how you would manage the problem.

You need to allow yourself at least the amount of time that the emergency would take in
real time. I would suggest longer so that you can correct yourself and refine the process.
As you do so you may think of something that you should have thought of earlier. Go
back to where you should have thought about it. Insert it and carry on from there.

If you feel that you are weak in a particular area or a weak area has been pointed out to
you during your assessments, then build this into your scenario so that you can deal with
it. You need to face this problem and the best way of doing that is to prepare to deal with
it in the safety of a visualized scenario. Once you are prepared and have experienced
managing the problem, albeit artificually, you will become confident.

Repeat this process with that same emergency every day until you are satisfied with it
and then write down all the steps and commit it to memory. Now choose an emergency
from another category and do the same.

Within a couple of weeks you will feel armed with sufficient experience to manage any
emergency. By simply recognising an emergency and slotting it into one of your
categories, you are able to run through your thought process with sufficient spare
capacity to adjust for that particular problem.
51
 52

TYPICAL PROBLEMS THAT A CAPTAIN MAY FACE

There are thousands of little problems that a Captain may face during the course of a
normal day at work. A little visualisation of dealing with these problems will also greatly
assist a new Captain. Here are some ideas to provoke a little thought about some of the
problems that you may face.

SIGN ON
Missing or late crew members.
Crewed with non cat 3 crew on bad weather day
Computer flight plans won’t print.
Weather at only available alternate precludes it’s use.
Flight with limited alternates. Heavy and fuel decisions
Contaminated runway/icing problems
Full load, hot day and wind dictates uphill limiting runway
Tech problems / Tankering problems
Notams – ATC on strike at destination - 2hrs 30 delay
Power/performance degradation due tech (DDM)
Mixed engine fleet – assigned a/c unable to complete task
During briefing you decide a crew member not fit for duty
Members of crew have domestic problems
Two members of crew detest each other

AT AIRCRAFT

Tech problems/MEL/DDM
Drunk and abusive Pax getting on board
Incorrect fuel loaded onto the aircraft
No refuel vehicle
Passengers boarded before refuelling and no fire cover
Baggage id required
Pax refuses to move from emergency exit
Pax has own baby seat – Can he use it?
Aircraft downgraded to cat 1
Passenger head count does not agree with loadsheet
Delays meaning you need to go into discretion
ATC has no flight plan
Passenger missing and he has a bag checked in
Loadsheet arrives with ZFW 2000 Kg higher than expected
Missed slot
At foreign base during turnaround a “policeman” has no ID
Passenger refused entry and deported on your flight
Unidentified package found on board
Re-routing requiring new CFP and extra fuel
 53

TAXI OUT

Medical problems
Technical problems
Disruptive passengers
Someone has forgotten something
Change of flight plan requiring extra fuel
Missed slot
Cleared to line up but cabin not secure
Another aircraft calls to say he sees an open hatch
Runway change
Weather change – starts raining
Take the wrong turning

IN FLIGHT EMERGENCIES

Loss of communication
Drunk or aggressive passengers
Medical emergencies
Unexplained leak from overhead locker
Security threats
Severe turbulance and damage
Fuel/oil/hydraulic leak

Additionally there are all the emergencies listed in the QRH or emergency
checklist

AFTER LANDING

Parking stand still occupied by another aircraft

Stand change with medical passenger
Stand change to bay with no bridge and air stairs are u/s
APU does not fire up
No GPU/stairs
No Lead in lights onto stand
Ground power trips out after shutting down APU
 54

PROBLEM SOLVING STRATEGY

It is not possible to consider every eventuality that you may face as a Captain but it is
possible to build a strategy for dealing with these problems.

There are basically two ways to work on building your strategy for dealing with
unpredictable problems.

1. Build an experience base on which you can refer back to.

This can be achieved in two ways:

a. On a daily basis, list the actual problems that you and

your Captain face. Note the things that he did to resolve
the problem and then spend some time thinking about
how things could have been handled differently or
better. Commit the revised, best way of dealing with the
problem to your memory “experience base”

b. One of the greatest resources that you have available is

the experience of the Captains that you fly with. Ask
them about difficult situations that they have been in
and find out how they handled it and what they would
do differently now with the benefit of hindsight.
Bounce some of the scenarios off other Captains and
then determine your own refined best way of dealing
with it. Commit this to your memory “experience
base”

2. Develop your own problem solving technique and

decision making process.

Once again, the use of the decision making model TODAY is

very useful in determining a logical thought process that will
enable you to annalyse the problem, consider your options and
deal with the problem effectivly.

Practise this process at every opportunity so that it becomes

second nature to you.
 55

CONCLUSION

The natural progression for most pilots is to move from the First Officer ranks to Captain.
This is not an automatic progression and like many other professions, in order to get to
the next level, you are required to pass exams, assessments and courses.

Unlike many other professions where you are groomed for progression, many airline
companies offer little guidance and expect the First Officers to use their own initiatives to
groom themselves towards command.

The purpose of this book was to try and give some guidance to those of you who are
using your own initiatives and preparing to be effective commanders. The methods and
examples that I have used have been based on my own experience and what has worked
very well for me. You may well have to mould and adapt the information to suit your
own type of operation and circumstances.

In summary then;

Make sure that you have a positive and professional attitude

Make sure that you have a study plan and a preparation plan

Study hard but study smart, know what you need to know and know where to find
the rest.

Use visualization techniques to build up an artificial experience base. Take an

emergency from each category and visualize every detail. Repeat the visualization
of the scenario often and refine it and improve on it. Make it perfect.

Practise your problem solving techniques whenever you can and as often as you
can.

In order to prepare to be an effective aircraft commander, a lot of hard work is required.

Make the plans and do the work and your efforts will be rewarded.
 56

Air Berlin is a rapidly growing European airline

 57

DISCLAIMER
This book does not guarantee your becoming a successful Commander. The guidance
given in this book is in a generic format so that pilots from any country, any airline and
any aircraft type can use it to assist in command preparation.

The opinions and examples used in this book pertain to the author’s own experience.
Aircraft Manufacturers Recommendations, Company Operating Procedures and
Company Training Standards as well as the rules and regulations determined by the local
Regularity Authorities must be adhered to at all times.

This book is not a training manual or a controlled document and should be used as
guidance only.
58
 59

NOTES
 60

NOTES
 61

NOTES
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 63

ISBN No. 0-9546308-0-7

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