Modules 20-22

20. Classical Conditioning

I. Associative learning- learning that certain events occur together.

II. Classical Conditioning- a type of learning in which an organism come to associate stimuli. A
neural stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that
anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian conditioning.
III. Learning- a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.
IV. Behaviorism- the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior
without reference to mental processes.

A- Although few researchers today would agree that classical conditioning

is a basic form of learning by which all organisms adapt to their environment.

V. Pavlov’s Experiments
A. Unconditioned Response (UCR) - In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring
response to the uncontrolled stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
B. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) - in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-
naturally and automatically- triggers a response.
C. Conditioned Response (CR) - a classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously
neutral conditioned stimulus.
D. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - a classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that,
after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
E. Conditioned- learned
F. Unconditioned- unlearned

VI. Acquisition
A. Acquisition- the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus
with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned
response.
B. That time that elapses between presenting the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
is not much (half a second would work)
C. If the UCS occurred before the Cs, rather than after, the conditioning would likely not occur.
D. Classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. It helps the organism prepare for good or bad
events.

VII. Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery

A. Extinction- the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.
B. Spontaneous Recovery- the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished conditioned
response.
VIII. Generalization
A. Generalization- the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit similar response.
B. Because of generalization, stimuli that are similar to naturally disgusting or appealing objects
will, by association, evoke some disgust or liking.
C. Peoples emotional reactions to one stimulus generalize to similar stimuli.

IX. Discrimination

A- Discrimination- in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a

conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

B- Updating Pavlov Understanding

X. Cognitive Processes

A- The more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response.

C. When two significant events occur close together in time, an animal learns predictability of the
second event
D. Expectancy- an awareness of how likely it is that the UCS will occur.
E. Conditioning occurs best when the CS causes the UCS.
F. Even in classical conditioning, it is not only the simple CS-UCS association but also the thought
that counts.

XI. Biological Predisposition

A. Learning enables animals to adapt to their environment.
B. Humans seem biologically prepared to learn some things rather after eating than others.

XII- Pavlov’s legacy

A. All researchers agree that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning.

B. Classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to adapt to their
environment.
C. Pavlov showed us how a process such as learning can be studied objectively.
D. Pavlov’s success therefore suggested a scientific model for how the young discipline of
psychology might proceed-by isolating the elementary building blocks of complex behaviors
and studying them with objective laboratory procedures.

XIII- Applications of Classical Conditioning

A. Countless areas of psychology, including motivation, emotion, psychological disorders, therapy,

and health, have applied Pavlov’s principles of classical conditioning to human health and well
being.
B. . Pavlov’s work also provided a basis for John Watson’s idea that human emotions and
behavior, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses.
Module 21: Operant Conditioning
I. Associative learning- learning that certain events occur together.
II. Operant Conditioning- a type of learning in which behavior strengthened if followed by a
reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
III. Responded Behavior- behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus;
Skinner’s term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.
IV. Operant Behavior- behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
V. Skinner’s Experiments
A. Law of Effect- Thorndike’s principle that behaviorism followed by favorable consequences
became more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less
likely.
B. Operant chamber- a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a
food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key
pecking. Used in operant conditioning research.
C. Experiments by Skinner and other operant researchers explored the precise conditions that
foster efficient and enduring learning.

VI- Shaping Behavior

A. Shaping- an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer
and closer approximations of a desired goal.
B. By making rewards contingent on desired behaviors, researchers and animal trainers gradually
shape complex behaviors.
C. Some experiments show that animals are remarkably capable of forming concepts; they
demonstrate this by discriminating between classes of events or objects.

VIII- Principles of reinforcement

A. Reinforcement- any event that increases the frequency of a praise or attention.

B. Reinforcer- in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
C. Most people think of reinforcements as awards
D. Anything that serves to increase behavior is reinforcement (Ex. Even yelling)
E. There are two types of reinforcements: positive and negative
F. Positive reinforcement strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus
after a response.
G. . A negative Reinforcement strengthens a response by removing an aversive stimulus.

a. Primary and Conditioned Reinforces

1. Primary Reinforces- an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

2. Conditioned reinforcement- a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a
primary reinforce; also known as secondary reinforcement.
3. Secondary reinforcement greatly enhances our ability to influence one another.

4. Our lives are filled with potential secondary reinforcement-money, good grades, a pleasant tone of
voice, a word of praise, etc.

b. Immediate and delayed reinforcement.

1. Small but immediate consequences are sometimes more alluring than big but delayed consequences.

. Reinforcement Schedule

1. Continuous Reinforcement- reinforcing the desired responses every time it occurs.

2. Partial Reinforcement- reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of
a response but much greater resistance to extinction that does continues reinforcement.

3. Fixed-ratio schedules- in operant conditioning, a schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a

response only after a specified number of responses.

4. Variable-interval schedule- in operant conditioning. A schedule of reinforces a response at

unpredictable time intervals.

B. Punishment

1. punishment- an event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

2. Reinforcement increases behavior, punishment decreases it.

3. Spanked children are at increased risk of aggression, depression, and low self-esteem.

4. Even though punishment suppresses unwanted behavior, it often does not guide one toward more
desirable behavior.

5. Punishment combined with reinforcement is usually more effective than punishment alone.

6. Punishment behavior may reappear if the threatened punishment can be avoided.

C. Updating Skinner’s Understanding

I. Cognition and Operant Conditioning

1. We have several hints that cognitive processes might be at work in operant conditioning.

a. Latent Learning

1. Cognitive Map- a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after
exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
2. Latent learning- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

3. Learning can occur without reinforcement or punishment.

b. Over justification

1. Over justification effect- the effect of promising a reward for doing what no one already liked to do.
The person may now see the reward, rather than instinct interest, as the motivation for performing the
task.

2. Intrinsic motivation- a desire to perform behavior for its own sake and to be affective.

3. Extrinsic motivation- a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of

punishment.

4. Rewards, rightly administered can motivate high performance and creativity.

II. Biological Predispositions

1. Biological constraints predispose organisms to earn associations that are naturally adaptive.

D. Skinner’s Legacy

I. Application of Operant Conditioning

1. Psychologists are applying operant conditioning principles to problems ranging from high blood
pressure to social withdrawal.

E. Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning

1. Learning depends on both nature and nurture.

2. Biological Predispositions make learning some associations easier than learning others.

Module 22: Learning by observation

1. Observational learning- learning by observing others

2. Modeling- the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

3. Mirror Neurons- frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing
another doing so. The brain’s mirroring f another’s action may enable imitation, language learning, and
empathy.
4. The imitations of models shape children’s development.

A. Bandura’s Experiments

1. We look, we learn.

2. By looking, we learn to anticipate a behavior’s consequences in situations like those we are

observing.

3. We are especially likely to imitate those we perceive as similar to ourselves, as successful, or a

admirable.

B. Applications of Observational learning

1. Antisocial models from one’s family, neighborhood or TV- may have antisocial effects.

2. The lessons we learn as children, are sometimes visited on future generations.

I. Positive Observational Learning

1. Prosocial behavior- positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

2. Models are most effective when their words or actions are consistent.

Television and Observational Learning

A. Television is a big source of observational learning, and is now all over the world
B. Violence is very common in television, and can cause people to act much more violently than
they would otherwise
C. However, correlation does not imply causation and these studies do not prove that T.V. has
violent effects
D. The violence comes from a variety of factors, including imitation of the characters on T.V.
E. Also prolonged viewing of television desensitizes views as they become more indifferent to
violence on T.V.
F. Bandura's work is important since it helps us understand learning more