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These forms are

the most “useful”
implementations
of Maxwell’s
equations.

GAUSS-DIVERGENCE
THEOREM

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EXAMPLE

1. Find an approximate value for the total

GAUSS-DIVERGENCE charge enclosed in an incremental
volume of 10-9 m3 located at the origin, if
THEOREM
D = e-x sin y ax – e-xcosy ay + 2zaz C/m2

2nC
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EXAMPLE SW
2. In free space, let D = 8xyz4 ax + 4x2z4 ay + 16x2yz3 az pC/m2. 1. In free space, let D = 8xyz4 ax + 4x2z4 ay + 16x2yz3 az pC/m2. Find E at
Find the total electric flux passing through the rectangular P(2, -1, 3).
surface z = 2, 0 < x < 2, 1 < y < 3, in the az direction.

1365 pC E = -146.3745 ax + 146.3745 ay – 195.1660 az V/m

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SW
EXAMPLE
2. In free space, let D = 8xyz4 ax + 4x2z4 ay + 16x2yz3 az pC/m2. Find an
approximate value for the total charge contained in an incremental
3. Find div D at the origin if sphere located at P(2, -1, 3) and having a volume of 10-12 m3.
D = e-x sin y ax – e-xcosy ay +
2zaz C/m2.

2 C/m3 -2.3760 x 10-21 C

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Transmission Lines
• Are used to transmit electric energy and signals from one
point to another, specifically from a source to a load
• Transmission lines and waveguides offer an alternative way
Transmission Lines of transmitting signals in the form of guided wave
propagation.
• Transmission lines are typically electrically large (several
wavelengths), therefore, we must use a distributed-element
equivalent circuit which describes each short segment of the
transmission line by a lumped element equivalent circuit.

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Medium /
Plane Waves in Lossy Media
Transmitter Receiver
Channel • A plane wave loses energy as it propagates through a lossy medium. A
medium is defined as a lossy medium if it is characterized by any or all
of the following loss mechanisms:
conduction losses → σ > 0
The problem of
Guided Unguided plane waves dielectric losses → ε > 0
propagating in magnetic losses → μ > 0
air represents
an example of • Dielectric and magnetic losses are typically small and can be neglected
Conductive
Non- unguided wave for most materials. However, conduction losses can be significant for
conductive propagation. commonly encountered materials.

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Using KVL and KCL

• Consider a simple uniform two-wire transmission line

with its conductors parallel to the z- axis.
• Uniform transmission line - conductors and insulating
medium maintain the same cross-sectional geometry
along the entire transmission line

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• The equivalent Grouping the voltage and current terms, and dividing by Δz:
circuit of a short
segment Δz of the
two-wire
transmission line
may be represented
by simple lumped-
element equivalent
circuit.
• Where
R = series resistance per unit length (Ω/m) of the transmission line conductors
L = series inductance per unit length (H/m) of the transmission line conductors (internal plus
external inductance).
G = shunt conductance per unit length (S/m) of the media between the transmission line
conductors
C = shunt capacitance per unit length (F/m) of the transmission line conductors.

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Taking the limit as Δz → 0, the righthand side of the equations become

partial derivatives with respect to z which gives

Voltage and
Current
Wave
Equations

• These voltage and current wave equations are

derived using the same techniques as the electric
and magnetic field wave equations. Beginning
with the phasor transmission line equations, we
take derivatives of both sides with respect to z.

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• We then insert the first derivatives of the voltage and current found in
the original phasor transmission line equations.

The derivatives of the

voltage and current with For time-harmonic signals,
respect to time yield jω the instantaneous voltage
times the respective and current may be defined • The voltage and current wave equations may be written as
in terms of phasors such that
phasor which gives

• where γ is the complex propagation constant of the wave on the

transmission line given by

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The general solutions to the voltage and current Finding α and β

wave equations are • Expressions for ∝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽, when losses are small, require R ≪ 𝜔𝐿 and
G ≪ 𝜔C, a condition that is often true in practice.
𝑅 𝐺
• Let = ..
• The current 𝐿 𝐶

equation may be 𝐶
𝛾=𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔 𝐿𝐶
written in terms of 𝐿
the voltage • But, γ = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽
coefficients through • Therefore,
the original phasor 𝑪
transmission line 𝜶=𝑹
𝑳
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜷 = 𝝎 𝑳𝑪
equations.
• This line is said to be distortionless.

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Lossless Transmission Line

• If the transmission line loss is neglected (R = G = 0), the equivalent
−𝜸 𝑽𝟎 + 𝒆−𝜸𝒛 − 𝑽𝟎 − 𝒆𝜸𝒛 = − 𝐑 + 𝐣𝝎𝑳 𝑰(𝒛) circuit reduces to

• The complex constant ZO is defined as the transmission line

characteristic impedance and is given by

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Terminated Lossless Transmission Line

• For a true lossless transmission line, the insulating medium between
• If we choose our reference point (z = 0) at the load termination, then the lossless
the conductors is characterized by a zero conductivity 𝜎 = 0 , and transmission line equations evaluated at z = 0 give the load voltage and current:
real-valued permittivity and permeability 𝜀 = 𝜇 = 0 . The
propagation constant on the lossless transmission line is

𝛾 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝛽 = 𝑗𝜔 𝐿𝐶
𝛼 = 0; 𝛽 = 𝜔 𝐿𝐶
• Given the purely imaginary propagation constant, the transmission line • The ratio of voltage to current at z = 0 must equal the load impedance
equations for the lossless line are 𝑉0 + + 𝑉0 −
𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍0 [ + ]
𝑉0 − 𝑉0 −
• Solving this equation for the voltage coefficient of the –z traveling wave gives
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 +
𝑉0 − = [ ]𝑉
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Γ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑉0 − = Γ𝑉0 + 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒

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Reflection Coefficient
• The characteristic impedance of the lossless transmission line is purely real 𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0
and given by Γ=
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0
𝑳 • If the reflection coefficient is zero (ZL= Z0) there is no reflected wave and the load is matched to the
𝒁𝟎 = transmission line.
𝑪
• If ZL ≠ Z0 the magnitude of reflection coefficient is non-zero (there is a reflected wave).
• The phase velocity and wavelength on the lossless line are • The presence of forward and reverse traveling waves on the transmission line produces standing waves.
• We may rewrite the transmission line equations in terms of the reflection coefficient as:
𝝎 𝜔 𝟏
𝒗𝒑 = = =
𝜷 𝜔 𝐿𝐶 𝑳𝑪

𝟐𝝅 𝟏 𝒗𝒑
𝝀= = =
𝜷 𝒇 𝑳𝑪 𝒇

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Standing Wave Ratio Return Loss

• The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage magnitudes defines • Defined as the ratio of incident power to reflected power
the standing wave ratio. 𝑃𝑖 1
𝑅𝐿 = 10 log = 10 log = 10 log 𝛤 −2
𝑃𝑟 𝛤2
𝑉(𝑧) 𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 + Γ 𝑅𝐿 = −20 log 𝛤 𝑑𝐵
𝑆𝑊𝑅 = =
𝑉(𝑧) 𝑚𝑖𝑛 1 − Γ
𝛤 SWR RL
1 ≤ 𝑆𝑊𝑅 ≤ ∞ Matched Load 0 1 ∞ (dB)
Total Reflection 1 ∞ 0 dB

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• The time average power at any point in the transmission line Example
1 1. A 20 m length of transmission line is known to produce a 2.0 dB drop in power from end
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑅𝑒 {𝑉𝐼} to end. (a) What fraction of the input power reaches the output? (b) What fraction of
2
1 𝑉0 + 𝑗𝛽𝑧 the input power reaches the midpoint of the line? (c) What exponential attenuation
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑅𝑒 {𝑉0 + 𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 + 𝛤𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑧 ] [𝑒 − 𝛤𝑒 −𝑗𝛽𝑧 ] coefficient does this represent?
2 𝑍0
2
1 𝑉0 + a) The power fraction will be
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑅𝑒[1 − 𝛤 2 + 𝛤𝑒 𝑗2𝛽𝑧 − 𝛤𝑒 −𝑗2𝛽𝑧 ] 𝑃20
2 𝑍0 10 log = −2.0
2 𝑃0
1 𝑉0 + 𝑃20
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = (1 − 𝛤 2 ) = 10−0.2 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟏
2 𝑍0 𝑃0
2 2
1 𝑉0 + 1 𝑉0 + b) 2 dB in 20 m implies that, over a 10-m span, the loss is 1.0 dB. This represents the power
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = − 𝛤2 fraction, 10-0.1 = 0.794
2 𝑍0 2 𝑍0
2.0 𝑑𝐵 𝑵𝒑
c) 𝛼 = 𝑑𝐵 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒎
(8.686 )(20𝑚)
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑟 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑁𝑝
𝑃𝑟 − reflected power

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Force on a Moving Charge

Example • In an electric field the definition of the electric field intensity shows us that the force
on a charged particle is
2. A 50 Ω lossless transmission line is terminated by a load impedance ZL F = QE
= 50 – j75 Ω. If the incident power is 100 mW, find the power dissipated
by the load. • A charged particle in motion in a magnetic field of flux density B is found
experimentally to experience a force whose magnitude is proportional to the product
of the magnitudes of the charge Q, its velocity v, and the flux density B, and to the
𝑍𝐿 − 𝑍0 50 – j75 − 50 sine of the angle between the vectors v and B. The direction of the force is
Γ= = perpendicular to both v and B and is given by a unit vector in the direction of v x B.
𝑍𝐿 + 𝑍0 50 – j75 + 50
F = Qv x B
Γ = 0.36 − 𝑗0.48 = 0.60𝑒 −𝑗0.93
• The force on a moving particle arising from combined electric and magnetic
Then, fields is obtained easily by superposition,
𝑃𝑡 = 1 − Γ 2 𝑃𝑖
𝑃𝑡 = 1 − 0.602 100 F = Q(E + v x B)
𝑷𝒕 = 𝟔𝟒 𝐦𝐖 This equation is known as the Lorentz force equation

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Example Find the Helmholtz/ Wave Equation. Use constitutive relations.

3. Two lossy lines are to be joined end-to-end. The first line is 10 m long and has a loss rating of • The flux and field quantities are related by the constitutive relations in
0.20 dB/m. The second line is 15 m long and has a loss rating of 0.10 dB/m. The reflection
coefficient at the junction (line 1 to line 2) is Γ = 0.30. The input power (to line 1) is 100 mW. vacuum:
(a) Determine the total loss of the combination in dB. (b) Determine the power transmitted to
the output end of line 2. D = ε0E ; B = μ0H
a) The dB loss of the joint is
1 1
𝐿𝑗 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log
1− Γ 2
= 10 log
1 − 0.09
= 0.41 𝑑𝐵 • We can use ε0 and μ0 to define other physical quantities
1
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑤 1) Speed of light: c =
ε0μ0
𝐿𝑡 𝑑𝐵 = 0.20 10 + 0.41 + 0.10 15 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟏 𝒅𝑩 μ0
2) Intrinsic impedance (n0): n0 =
ε0
b) The output power will be
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 100 𝑥 10−0.391 = 𝟒𝟏 𝒎𝑾

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Source-free Maxwell’s equations in phasor form

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• Note that taking the divergence of (1) and (2) yields (3) and (4) since
∇ ∙ ∇ 𝑥 𝑭 = 0, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑭
• Thus, in a source-free region (3) and (4) are not necessary. Taking the curl of both sides of (1)
and inserting (2) yields
∇ 𝑥 ∇ 𝑥 𝑬 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇∇ 𝑥 𝑯 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇 𝑗𝜔𝜀𝑬 = 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀𝑬 = 𝑘 2 𝑬 (𝟓)
• While taking the curl of (2) and inserting (1) yields
∇ 𝑥 ∇ 𝑥 𝑯 = −𝑗𝜔𝜇∇ 𝑥 𝑬 = 𝑗𝜔𝜀 −𝑗𝜔𝜇𝑯 = 𝜔2 𝜇𝜀𝑯 = 𝑘 2 𝑯 (𝟔)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 𝜔 𝜇𝜀 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
• Using the vector identity Laplacian of E:
∇ 𝑥 ∇ 𝑥 𝑭 = ∇ ∇ ∙ 𝑭 − ∇2 𝑭 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑭
• In (5) and (6) gives
∇ ∇ ∙ 𝑬 − ∇2 𝑬 − 𝑘 2 𝑬 = 0 7
∇ ∇ ∙ 𝑯 − ∇2 𝑯 − 𝑘 2 𝑯 = 0 (8)
• However, the divergence terms in (7) and (8) are zero in the source-free region. This gives the
wave equations (Helmholtz equations)
∇2 𝑬 + 𝑘 2 𝑬 = 0
∇2 𝑯 + 𝑘 2 𝑯 = 0

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