26

Stability Of
Structures:
Additional Topics

26–1
Lecture 26: STABILITY OF STRUCTURES: ADDITIONAL TOPICS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
§26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–3
§26.2 Unified Buckling Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–3
§26.2.1 Effective Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–3
§26.2.2 Critical Load in Terms of Slenderness Ratio . . . . . . . 26–3
§26.3 Failure Mode: Buckling Versus Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–4
§26.3.1 Failure Envelopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–4
§26.3.2 Long Versus Short Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–4
§26.4 The Southwell Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–6
§26.4.1 Effect of Imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–6
§26.4.2 Southwell Plot Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–7
§26.5 The ITL Buckling Demo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–9
§26.5.1 Module Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–10
§26.5.2 Experimental Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–10
§26.5.3 Specimen Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–12
§26.5.4 Restraint Beam Attachment Details . . . . . . . . . . 26–12
§26.5.5 Miscellaneous Reminders . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26–13
§26.5.6 Comparing with Analytical Buckling Loads . . . . . . . 26–14

26–2
 §26.2 UNIFIED BUCKLING FORMULA

§26.1. Introduction

This Lecture covers additional topics that are useful for Homework 10 and the Final Exam, as well
as the “Labwork” demo on Friday November 30. The data collected from the lab is to be used for
Homework Exercise 10.6.

§26.2. Unified Buckling Formula

The bucking load formulas for prismatic elastic columns depends on the end conditions but contains
many common ingredients. For design purposes it is convenient to have a unified formula that makes
it look like the buckling load of an “effective” Euler column.

§26.2.1. Effective Length

The effect of different end conditions on the critical load of a column can be unified by expressing
it in the form
π2E I
Pcr = 2 (26.1)
Lef f

Here L e f f denotes the effective length of the column. This length turns out to have a simple physical
interpretation: distance between the inflexion points of the buckling curve associated with Pcr .

P
P P P

L
L eff =0.7 L
L eff = L L eff =2L L L L eff =L/2

fictitious
continuation
about fixed end

pinned-pinned free-fixed pinned-fixed fixed-fixed

(Euler column) (cantilever)

Figure 26.1. Effective lengths of columns with different end conditions.

Values of L e f f for three common support conditions are given in Figure 26.1. (The value of 0.7 L
listed for the pinned-fixed case is correct to 3 places; a more accurate value is 0.6992 L but 0.7 is
easier to remember.) The unified definition (26.1) allows us to extend results derived for the Euler
column to other cases, simply by replacing the appropriate effective length in the formula.

26–3
Lecture 26: STABILITY OF STRUCTURES: ADDITIONAL TOPICS

§26.2.2. Critical Load in Terms of Slenderness Ratio

In formula (26.1), I (the √
minimum second moment of inertia of the cross section) may be replaced
by A r 2 , in which r = + I /A is the radius of gyration of the column cross section. Examples of
r for three column cross sections:
• is a b × h rectangle with h ≤ b, I = b h 3 /12, A = b h, then r 2 = I /A = h 2 /12
If the section√
and r = 12 h/ 3 ≈ 0.2887 h.
• If a solid circle of radius R, I = π R 4 /4, A = π R 2 , then r 2 = I /A = R 2 /4 and r = 12 R.
• mean radius R and thickness t << R, I ≈ π R 3 t, A = 2π Rt,
If a thin-wall circular tube of √
r 2 = I /A = R / 2 and r = R/ 2 = 0.707 R.
Substituting I = A r 2 in (26.1) gives
π2 E I π2 E A r2 π2 E A
Pcr = = = , (26.2)
L 2e f f L 2e f f s2

in which s = L e f f /r is called the slenderness ratio of the column.

§26.3. Failure Mode: Buckling Versus Yield

A key question in column design is: will be column fail first by yield or elastic buckling? In other
words, which is the failure mode?
The average axial stress at the critical load Pcr expressed as (26.2) is

Pcr π2 E
σcr = = 2 , (26.3)
A s

This is called the critical stress. A key design question is: how does the critical stress compare with
the yield stress σY of the column material? Evidently if σcr > σY the critical load formula is not
valid, since the derivation is based on the assumption that the column is linearly elastic at buckling.
To visualize the limitation of the buckling formula, we will use a graphical interpretation of (26.3).

§26.3.1. Failure Envelopes

Introduce two dimensionless ratios for the column material:
def σcr def E
σ̄cr = , Ē = , (26.4)
σY σY
Dividing both sides of (26.3) by σY and introducing the ratios (26.4) gives a dimensionless version

π 2 Ē
σ̄cr = , (26.5)
s2
This is graphed in Figure 26.2 for the following materials: structural steel (E = 210 GPa, σY = 210
MPa, Ē = E/σY = 1000), aluminum alloy (E = 70 GPa, σY = 280 MPa, Ē = E/σY = 250), and
fir wood (E = 12.6 GPa, σY = 35 MPa in compression, Ē = E/σ y = 360). The curves delimit
what are called failure envelopes.

26–4
 §26.3 FAILURE MODE: BUCKLING VERSUS YIELD

1.2 Failure by yield

(short columns)
1.0 Failure by buckling
(long columns)

σcr = σ cr /σ Y
0.8

0.6
Fir Wood Steel
0.4 Aluminum

0.2

0.0
0 50 100 150 200
Slenderness ratio s = Leff /r

Figure 26.2. Column failure modes: buckling versus yield plotted in terms of the
slenderness ratio. Solid lines (“Euler hyperbolas”) represent failure by buckling; dashed
line failure by yield; black dots mark the critical slenderness ratios.

§26.3.2. Long Versus Short Columns

The following three failure cases may be distinguished according to the slenderness of the column.
• Long column. If the slenderness exceeds a critical value scr defined below, the column will
fail by elastic buckling, in which case σcr < σY or σ̄cr < 1. Failure occurs at one of the solid
curves, which are known as Euler hyperbolas in the literature.
• Short column. If the slenderness is less than than the critical value scr defined below, it either
fails by yield at σ = P/A = σY , or σ̄cr = 1 and the failure occurs at the dashed line.
• Goldilocks column. Not too short, not too long. If s = scr , where scr 2
= π 2 Ē = π 2 E/σY
the column will fail simultaneously by buckling and yield. That transition is marked by the
black dot in Figure 26.2. It represents the most efficient use of the material, so it is an optimal
design in that particular sense.
Remark 26.1. Most Mechanics of Materials books show failure diagrams by plotting (26.3) directly, that is,
without dividing through bt σY . As a result the horizontal scale is dimensionless (the slenderness ratio) but
the vertical scale (in stress) is not. The resulting graphs depend on column material as well as physical units
chosen.
Example 26.1. A pinned-pinned steel column with E = 210 GPa and σY = 210 MPa has a pin-to-pin length
of L = 5 m = 5000 mm and a b × h solid rectangular cross section with b = 0.12 m = 120 mm, and h = 0.08
m = 80 mm. Will the column fail first by yield or elastic buckling?
Solution. The critical Euler buckling load is Pcr = π 2 E I /L 2 since L e f f = L for the pinned-pinned case.
The minimum second moment of inertia is I = bh 3 /12 because h < b. Replace and divide by A = bh to
get σcr = Pcr /A = π 2 E h 2 /(12L 2 ) = 44.8 N/mm2 = 44.8 MPa. Compare to yield: σcr < σY = 210 MPa.
Thus the column will fail first by buckling .

√ s = L e f f /r , where L e f f = L and r = I /A = h /12. A

2 2
Alternatively one can check the√slenderness ratio:
quick computation gives s = L 12/ h = 5000 12/80 ≈ 216, which is way into the “long column” range as
can be quickly checked from Figure 26.2.

26–5
Lecture 26: STABILITY OF STRUCTURES: ADDITIONAL TOPICS

Example 26.2. A fixed-fixed steel column (same E and σY as in the previous example) of length L = 6 m has
a solid circular cross section of unknown radius R. Find (1) R in mm so the column fails simultaneosuly by
yield and by elastic buckling, and (2) which maximum load Pmax the so-designed column can support if the
safety factor against both buckling and yield is s F = 4.
Solution. For (1), equate σcr = σY and solve for R. Details: L e f f = L/2, I = (π/4)R √
4
, A = π R2,
r 2 = √I /A = R 2 /4. σcr = π 2 E (R 2 /4)/(L 2 /4) = π 2 E R 2 /L 2 = σY , whence R = σY /E L/π =
L/(π Ē) = L/99.34 = 6000/99.34, hence R = 60.4 mm . The area of this optimal design is
A = π R2 = 11461 mm . The failure load is Pcr = σY A = 2.407 × 1012 N. Divide this by 4 to get
2

Pmax = 6.02 × 1011 N .

§26.4. The Southwell Plot

The Southwell plot1 provides a clever graphical method for nondestructive critical-load testing
of columns (as well as other structural components that may fail by buckling). This method is
particularly useful for field tests of structures or structural components that are likely to be damaged
by being taken up to and beyond the critical load, such as reinforced concrete columns or advanced
composite materials.

§26.4.1. Effect of Imperfections

For the method to work well, the column should be subjected to eccentric axial loads, or to tiny
lateral loads that “trigger” measurable lateral deflections prior to buckling. Let P be the applied
axial load P < Pcr . Let vm (P) denote a measured lateral deflection at load level P. Southwell
observed that the following approximation holds as P approaches Pcr :
a
vm ≈ (26.6)
Pcr − 1
P
where a is a constant. Equation (26.6) may be transformed to

vm
vm = Pcr −a (26.7)
P

If vm /P and vm are plotted along the x and y axis, respectively, (26.7) becomes the equation of a
straight line: y = mx − a, in which the slope m = Pcr .
This observation furnishes a simple but effective experimental method: from measurements at
several axial loads P < Pcr one obtains vm and vm /P as data points. These are plotted along the

1 R. V. Southwell, On the Analysis of Experimental Observations in Problems of Elastic Stability, Proc. Roy. Soc. London,
Series A, 135, pp. 601–616, April 1932. Bio note: Sir Richard Southwell was honored by a nobiliary title in 1948
because of his contributions to the British WWII effort. He was a developer of “relaxation” methods, which were used
to solve systems of hundreds of equations prior to computers. (Before digital computers appeared ca. 1951, the term
“computers” meant humans working on numerical calculations. To solve large systems of equations by relaxation, dozens
of “computers” — mostly women during WWII — were gathered in a large room; each did part of the computations
on desk calculators, receiving and passing results to neighbors.) One important application was the prediction of the
Normandy weather for D-day: June 6, 1944. It worked.

26–6
 §26.4 THE SOUTHWELL PLOT

vm

experimental data points

~ Pcr
slope =

vm
P

Figure 26.3. The Southwell plot.

vertical and horizontal axes, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 26.3. This is the Southwell plot.
A straight line is fitted to these points. Its slope estimates Pcr . The value of the constant a is of
little importance.
This technique has the important advantage of being non-destructive because P need not exceed
the critical load Pcr . For this reason it is often used in aerospace structures fabricated of expensive
materials such as composites.
If (26.6) or (26.7) were to hold exactly, the points would fall neatly on a straight line, as Southwell
discovered. This will not be generally the case in experiments because of various factors, which
are discussed in §26.5.

§26.4.2. Southwell Plot Example

This example illustrates an actual Southwell plot produced with data collected in the Fall 2010
semester in the lab demo described in §26.5. The example pertains to the pinned-pinned end
support case of that lab. Four load eccentricities of 1.5 through 6.0 mm were used. Tray-load
versus lateral deflection results are collected in Table 26.1.
The offsets listed in Table 26.1 were not part of the collected data. They were selected afterwards
by trial and error so the lower left portion of the 4 Southwell plots look reasonable. If an offset is
too low or too high, that part of the plot may look like an “outlier” region. (Those portions of the
plots are associated with lower applied loads; as a result vm /P is more sensitive to deflection data.)
The Mathematica script used to produce the Southwell plots is listed in Figure 26.4. The plots are
shown in Figure 26.5 (axis labels were added by Adobe Illustrator). Since the 4 slopes look fairly
consistent, the best-fit red line shown in Figure 26.6 was chosen by “eyeballing” using the pen tool
of Adobe Illustrator. That slope is approximately (see the red dashed lines):

50 mm 50 mm
= = 51.02 N. (26.8)
(1.09 − 0.11) mm/N 0.98 mm/N
Thus the predicted buckling load is

PcrSouthwell = 51.02 N. (26.9)

26–7
Lecture 26: STABILITY OF STRUCTURES: ADDITIONAL TOPICS

Table 26.1 - Experimental Data for Pinned-Pinned Column (Fall 2010)

(Converted from Excel spreasheets to TEX table format)

e = 1.5 mm (1 notch) e = 3 mm (2 notches) e = 4.5 mm (3 notches) e = 6 mm (4 notches)

Offset=1.7 mm† Offset = 4 mm Offset = 4.5 mm Offset = 7.5 mm
TLoad(N)‡ Def(mm) TLoad(N) Def(mm) TLoad(N) Def(mm) TLoad(N) Def(mm)
4 2.1 4 5 3 5 3 8
8 2.8 8 7 6 6 6 9
12 3.5 12 8 9 7 9 10
16 4.2 16 9 12 8 12 11
20 5.6 20 11 15 9.5 15 13
24 7.5 24 15 18 11.5 18 15
28 11.2 28 21.5 21 13.5 21 18
30 14.5 30 25.5 24 16.5 24 21
32 19.8 32 34 27 22.5 27 28
34 30.0 34 48 30 31.5 30 39
36 53.1 35 61 33 48.5 33 59
34 59
† Offsets are chosen by trial and error so lower left portion of the S-plots look reasonable.
‡ TLoad means “tray load”. Actual load on tested columns is (4/3)× tray load.

The analytical critical load is given by Euler’s formula for the pinned-pinned case: Pcr = π 2 E I /L 2 ,
where I is the minimum second moment of inertia of the cross section. The Mathematica script of
Figure 26.7, which uses the geometric and material data for the lab stated in §26.5, computes

PcrEuler = 50.54 N. (26.10)

This corresponds to a critical “tray load” of (3/4) × 50.54 = 37.9 N. As can be seen the agreement
for this BC case is quite good, since the two values differ by only about 1%.

26–8
 §26.5 THE ITL BUCKLING DEMO

<<Graphics`MultipleListPlot`;

(* Southwell plots for Pinned-Pinned column - Fall 2010 lab *)

offs1=1.7; offs2=4; offs3=4.5; offs4=7.5;

PPdata1={{4,2.1},{8,2.8},{12,3.5},{16,4.2},{20,5.6},{24,7.5},{28,11.2},
{30,14.5},{32,19.8},{34,30},{36,53.1}};
PPdata2={{4,5},{8,7},{12,8},{16,9},{20,11},{24,15},{28,21.5},
{30,25.5},{32,34},{34,48},{35,51}};
PPdata3={{3,5},{6,6},{9,7},{12,8},{15,9.5},{18,11.5},{21,13.5},
{24,16.5},{27,22.5},{30,31.5},{33,48.5},{34,59}};
PPdata4={{3,8},{6,9},{9,10},{12,11},{15,13},{18,15},{21,18},
{24,21},{27,28},{30,39},{33,59}};
PPSouth1=Table[N[{(PPdata1[[i,2]]-offs1)/((4/3)*PPdata1[[i,1]]),
PPdata1[[i,2]]-offs1}],{i,1,Length[PPdata1]}];
PPSouth2=Table[N[{(PPdata2[[i,2]]-offs2)/((4/3)*PPdata2[[i,1]]),
PPdata2[[i,2]]-offs2}],{i,1,Length[PPdata2]}];
PPSouth3=Table[N[{(PPdata3[[i,2]]-offs3)/((4/3)*PPdata3[[i,1]]),
PPdata3[[i,2]]-offs3}],{i,1,Length[PPdata3]}];
PPSouth4=Table[N[{(PPdata4[[i,2]]-offs4)/((4/3)*PPdata4[[i,1]]),
PPdata4[[i,2]]-offs4}],{i,1,Length[PPdata4]}];
MultipleListPlot[PPSouth1,PPSouth2,PPSouth3,PPSouth4,
PlotJoined->True,Frame->True];

Figure 26.4. Mathematica script to produce Southwell plots for the data of Table 26.1.

50

40
Deflection in mm

30

20

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Deflection over column axial load in mm/N
Figure 26.5. Southwell plots for pinned-pinned column tested with 4 eccentricities.

50

40
Deflection in mm

30

20 "Eyeballed" best-fit

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Deflection over column axial load in mm/N
Figure 26.6. Red line is “eyeballed best fit” to plots of Figure 26.5.

26–9
Lecture 26: STABILITY OF STRUCTURES: ADDITIONAL TOPICS

Critical load of pinned-pinned test column (Euler column)

Em=190000*Nw/mm^2; L=600*mm; t=1.67*mm; w=25*mm;

Izz=w*t^3/12; Pcr=N[Pi^2]*Em*Izz/L^2; Ptray=Pcr*3/4;
Print["Pcr=",Pcr," Ptray=",Ptray];

Pcr=50.542 Nw Ptray=37.90 Nw

Figure 26.7. Critical load for pinned-pinned column computed using the Euler buckling formula.

§26.5. The ITL Buckling Demo

This section describes an experimental lab on column buckling that will be carried out on Friday
December 2 during lab hours. Prior to the Fall 2010 offering, this used to be Lab 3, a formal
experimental lab scheduled similarly to the first two ones. That it was converted to a ”labwork” or
“homelab”, meaning that experiments are done during the two regular lab sections. The collected
data is collectively incorporated into Homework Exercise 10.6, which deals with the Southwell plot
described in §26.4.

§26.5.1. Module Description

The apparatus being used is an off-the-shelf module produced by a British company by the name of
Hi-Tech Ltd.2 As befits its European provenance, relevant dimensions and weights are provided in
SI units. The Beam-Column Buckling Module is sketched in Figure 26.8. It consists of a mobile
steel frame that supports a load arm and end conditions for the beam-column. A high-strength steel
beam-column is provided with a nominal Young’s Modulus of 200–205 GPa. Pinned and clamped
conditions can be simulated at the top of the supplied beam-column with different adapters. The
boundary condition at the bottom of the beam can be varied from pinned to clamped through the
use of a restraint beam that provides adjustable levels of torsional stiffness at this point.
The end fixtures clamped to the beam-column also provide off-axis notches for applying eccentric
loads. These notches are spaced 1.5 mm apart. Typically, an eccentric load is applied by offsetting
the knife-edge contacts an equal number of notches off-center at the top and bottom of the beam-
column.
The ratio of the load arm lengths from the pivot point to the beam-column and from the pivot point
to the load tray is 3:4 as shown in Figure 26.8. Remember to convert the loads applied at the load
tray to those resulting at the beam-column appropriately. During loading, some friction between
the load arm and frame may develop. The effect of this friction on the deflection response can be
alleviated by gently tapping on the frame after loads are applied.

§26.5.2. Experimental Procedure

The experiment procedure consists of making load-displacement measurements for several combi-
nations of boundary conditions and eccentric loads. Initially, data will be collected for a nominally
pinned-pinned beam-column using two or three different eccentric load configurations. (The exact
number will be decided upon during the labs.) This data will be used to explore the benefits of
using the Southwell plot.
2 Not a very accurate name, but the apparatus is rugged and serves its purpose.

26–10
 §26.5 THE ITL BUCKLING DEMO

3L L

load arm knife edge

counterweight stop
beam-column specimen
of high-strength steel load tray
ruler
beam clamps
frame restraint beam

Figure 26.8. ITLL Beam-Column Buckling Module (aka Hi-Plan Module).

Following this, the BC at the beam-column base will be adjusted to a nominally clamped state and
then to an elastically restrained state.
Do not forget to make careful measurements of the beam-column dimensions.

BC Case 1: Pinned-Pinned Response

For this case the restraining beam should be detached from the beam-column. Assemble the beam-
column with zero eccentricity and with the ruler centered along the length of the beam-column as
demonstrated in the demos. (Use a tiny 2 N weight on the load tray to keep the beam-column in
place during assembly.)
Check that the lower knife-edge is located directly beneath the upper knife-edge by measuring the
distances from these boundaries to the right hand side of the frame. (How would you model errors
in this alignment?) Align the ruler with a reference point on the beam to ”zero” (don’t forget your
2 N load) the measurement. Measure the lateral deflections induced by applied loads varying from
”zero” to the critical load. (You may need to help the beam-column buckle to the right as described
in the demos.) Since the deflections of the beam-column will increase rapidly as the critical load
is approached, reduce the loading increments near this load. It is difficult to resolve deflections to
better than ±0.25 mm, so obtaining the larger deflection data near failure is important. You should
have at least 10 load increments. Once you are satisfied with the repeatability of your data for this
configuration, adjust the load eccentricity to 3 mm (2 notches) and repeat the load-deflection data
acquisition procedure. You may need to shift the ruler or adjust your displacement measurements
accordingly.
Repeat the procedure yet again for 6 mm of load eccentricity. Use a spreadsheet to plot the load-
deflection data and to generate Southwell plots of deflection vs. compliance. Fit lines to the
three data series in the Southwell plots to derive values for the critical loads for all three cases.

26–11
Lecture 26: STABILITY OF STRUCTURES: ADDITIONAL TOPICS

How does the apparent critical load in the load-deflection plots and Southwell analysis compare to
the theoretical prediction? (When measuring the geometry of the beam-column, consider which
dimension(s) are most critical.)

BC Case 2: Fixed-Pinned Response

Return the knife-edges to the on-axis notches (no eccentricity). Attach the restraint beam to the
bottom of the beam-column and position the restraint beam clamps as close as possible to the bottom
of the beam-column. Be sure to tighten the clamps to both the beam and the frame. Attachment
details are shown in Figure 26.9 on next page.
This will provide a nominally fixed boundary condition. In this test, we would again like to measure
the lateral deflection where it is greatest. Consider the buckled deflection profile you would expect
for these boundary conditions and adjust the vertical position of the ruler accordingly. You can
proceed to buckle the beam-column to check your decision. Explain how you selected this ruler
position in your lab report. Once the system is configured, repeat the pinned-pinned procedure for
collecting and analyzing the load-deflection data. Be sure to do the three eccentricities: 0, 3 and 6
mm.
How do the measured values for critical load, derived from Southwell’s plot, compare with the
theory for a fixed-pinned beam-column? How “fixed” does the lower boundary condition appear
to be?

BC Case 3: Elastically Restrained-Pinned Response

Loosen both restraint beam clamps and slide the left-most one completely off of the restraint beam.
Position the remaining clamp 500 mm from the beam column and position the top grips of the
restraining clamp to provide about 0.5 mm of clearance to allow lateral motion of the restraint
beam. Approximate where the maximum beam-column lateral deflection will occur and position
the ruler accordingly. Again, explain in the lab report how this was done. Repeat the data collection
and analysis procedure one last time for this case. Be sure to do the three eccentricities: 0, 3 and 6
mm. Attachment details are shown Figure 26.9 below.
How would you model the BC provided by the restraint beam? (The appropriate theory is provided
in Lecture 25, §25.4.) When this is done, how do the measured values for critical load, derived
from Southwell’s plot, compare with the theory?

§26.5.3. Specimen Dimensions

From measurements taken on 11/11/03, the beam-column specimen (and restraint beam) in the
buckling module seems to be nominally b = 1” = 25.4 mm wide and t = 1/16” = 1.58 mm thick. A
caliper measurement gives a thickness of about 68/1000 in = 1.7 mm, a bit larger than 1/16”. [This
is curious because all apparatus dimensions are supposed to be metric.] Note that the buckling
load Pcr is very sensitive to the thickness t because Izz = bt 3 /12.) Please recheck these specimen
dimensions.
The span between knife-edges is 60 cm = 600 mm. The elastic modulus E of the high strength
steel used in the specimen and restraint beam has a nominal range of 200 to 205 GPa.

26–12
 §26.5 THE ITL BUCKLING DEMO

Tighten clamp screws

to preclude rotations

Place aluminum spacer

below restraint beam
and under clamp grips

Figure 26.9. Attachment detail for fixed-pinned case.

Keep this clamp sufficiently loose

so it acts roughly as a hinge, allowing
rotation but little vertical motion
Slide this clamp
out of the way

distance 50 cm = 500 mm

Figure 26.10. Attachment detail for elastically restrained-pinned case.

§26.5.4. Restraint Beam Attachment Details

Fixed-Pinned Case. Slide the aluminum spacer (in blue plastic box) below restraining beam and
under grip of clamps, as sketched in Figure 26.9. Tighten clamps enough to prevent rotation of the
beam-column specimen, but do not overtighten. During this operation, please check that upper end
of beam-column stays aligned with knife-edge. If misalignment occurs, loosen one side slightly as
necessary to keep clamps even.
Elastically Restrained-Pinned Case. Slide one clamp out of the way. (Also do not continue to
use the aluminum spacer, save it in the blue plastic box.) Place the other clamp 50 cm (500 mm)
away from the beam column as sketched in Figure 26.10. Attach the bottom clamp screw to set the
distance. Keep the upper screws sufficiently loose to allow rotational motion as well as axial slip,
but not so excessively loose as to allow significant vertical motions. This configuration justifies
idealization of the clamp as a hinge BC in the theoretical analysis.

§26.5.5. Miscellaneous Reminders

• If something is wrong with the equipment, or you find that items are missing, do not proceed.
Report problem to instructor or TAs.
• At least one student in each subsection should bring a notebook to record measurements.
Transcribe data later to a spreadsheet. It is recommended to bring also a pocket metric ruler.
• For dimensions of the apparatus, beam column specimen and restraint beam, you may check
Instruction Manual HST/12, “Column Buckling Failure.” This is kept with the module. All
dimensions given there are in mm. But it is equally as easy to measure those yourself.

26–13
Lecture 26: STABILITY OF STRUCTURES: ADDITIONAL TOPICS

• Once finished with all Friday demos, disssamble the apparatus and place all items and tools
in the blue plastic box. Do not forget to insert the two restraint-beam attachment screws back
in the beam specimen to avoid loss.

§26.5.6. Comparing with Analytical Buckling Loads

The elastically restrained case is worked out in §25.4 of Lecture 25. This solution includes the
pinned-pinned and fixed-pinned columns as special cases by making the torsional spring constant
zero and infinite, respectively.

26–14