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IN THIS SESSION
● REVISION OF SOLUTIONS
● REVISION OF ELECTROCHEMISTRY
● MENTI QUIZ- solutions & electrochemistry
● REVISION OF CHEMICAL KINETICS
● REVISION OF SURFACE CHEMISTRY
● MENTI QUIZ- Chemical Kinetics & Surface chemistry
SOLUTIONS

SOLUTIONS
 What is a Solution?

Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more

substances in same or different physical phases.

SOLUTE SOLVENT
(present in large quantity) (present in large quantity)
 Types of Solutions

Type of Solution Solute Solvent Common Examples

Gas Gas Mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases

Gaseous Solutions Liquid Gas Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas
Solid Gas Camphor in nitrogen gas

Gas Liquid Oxygen dissolved in water

Liquid Solutions Liquid Liquid Ethanol dissolved in water
Solid Liquid Glucose dissolved in water

Gas Solid Solution of hydrogen in palladium

Solid Solutions Liquid Solid Amalgam of mercury with sodium
SOlid SOlid Copper dissolved in gold
Expressing concentration of solutions
1) Mole fraction (X)

Moles of solute
Mole fraction, X =
Total moles in solution
nsolute
X =
nsolute + nsolvent
If A, B, C… are different solutes and solvent
N
Then XA + XB + XC + … = ∑ Xi = 1
1 i=A
 2) Mass by Percent (% w/w)

Mass of solute
% w/w = × 100
Mass of solution

3) Volume by Percent (% v/v)

Vsolute
% v/v = × 100
Vsolution

4) Mass by Volume Percent (% w/v)

Wsolute
% w/v = × 100
Vsolution
5) Parts per million (ppm)

Mass of solute
Parts per million = × 106
Mass of solvent

6) Molality, m

Moles of solute
Molality, m =
Mass of solvent in kg

Units of molality = Mol/kg

7) Molarity, M

Moles of solute
Molarity, M =
Volume of solution in L

mol
Units of molarity =
L
 Henry’s Law

At constant temperature the mass of dissolved gas in a given

volume of solvent is proportional to the pressure of the gas with
which it is in equilibrium. This is called Henry’s Law.

Henry’s constant
P = KH X
 Raoult’s Law

According to Raoult’s Law the vapor pressure of any component

will be directly proportional to the mole fraction of that component
in the liquid phase.
It is applicable to
ideal solutions only
What will be the relation between V.P. and mole fraction of liquid?

Let’s consider

Solute A Solution Solvent B

V.P. of pure V.P. of pure

PAo = liquid A PBo =
liquid B
 Let’s consider PA = V.P. of liquid A

Solute A Solution Solvent B PB = V.P. of liquid B

XA = Mole fraction of liquid A

XB = Mole fraction of liquid B

PAo = V.P. of pure liquid A
PBo = V.P. of pure liquid B
V.P. of pure PA ∝ XA V.P. of pure PT = Total Vapour Pressure of
PAo = liquid A PBo = the solution
PB ∝ XB liquid B

⇒ PA = PAo XA
⇒ PB = PBo XB From Dalton’s Law
PT = PA + P B

PT = PAo XA + PBo XB
Since we are considering a case of binary solution,

XA + XB = 1
PT = PAo (1 – XB) + PBo XB
⇒ PT = PAo + (PBo – PAo) XB
Raoult’s Law – Graphical Interpretation

V.P
.

0 xA(Solute) 1
 Raoult’s Law – Graphical Interpretation

PT = PA + P B
PB0 PA0
o XA
PA
=
V.P
PA XA = Mole fraction of liquid A
P
. B =
P o
PA o = V.P. of pure liquid A
B X
B
PA = V.P. of liquid A in solution
0 xA(Solute) 1 XB = Mole fraction of liquid B
According to Raoult’s Law PB
o
= V.P. of pure liquid B
PB = V.P. of liquid B in solution
P A = P A o XA
PT = Total V.P. of solution
o
P B = P B XB ∴ P T = P A o XA + P B o XB

PT = PA +PB
 IDEAL & NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS
Ideal solutions Non-ideal solutions

Positive deviation Negative deviation

A-B interactions ≈ A-A and B-B A-B interactions << A-A and B-B A-B interactions >> A-A and B-B
interactions interactions interactions

𝚫Hmix =0, 𝚫Vmix =0 𝚫Hmix >0, 𝚫Vmix >0 𝚫Hmix <0, 𝚫Vmix <0

E.g., dilute solutions, E.g., acetone +ethanol, acetone E.g., acetone+aniline,

benzene+toluene, +CS2, water+methanol acetone+chloroform,
n-hexane+n-heptane CH3OH+CH3COOH
 Osmotic Pressure

Elevation of Colligative Lowering of

Boiling Point Properties Vapour Pressure

Depression of
Freezing Point
 Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure

➢ We know that when a non volatile solute is added to a solvent

the vapour pressure decreases.

➢ The lowering of vapour pressure w.r.t. the vapour pressure of the

pure solvent is called “Relative lowering in vapour pressure”.

0
PA – PTotal
XB =
PA0

RLVP
 Relative Lowering of Vapour Pressure

nB PA 0 – PT
=
nA + n B PA0

But for very dilute solution nB < < n A Here,

wB → Given weight of solute.

nB PA0 – PT
⇒ = nA = w A / M A
nA 0 wA → Given weight of solvent.
PA

PA 0 – PT MB → Molar mass of solute.

wB MA
⇒ =
MB wA PA 0 MA → Molar mass of solvent.
 ELEVATION IN BOILING POINT

➢ Temperature at which the V.P. of a liquid becomes equal to the external

pressure is called Boiling Point

➢ On addition of a non-volatile solute the vapor pressure of solvent

decreases
➢ Therefore to boil the solution the required temperature will be higher
Boiling point of
solvent Solution
1 Atm
Vapour pressure
ent n
olv io
S
olut
S

ΔTb
Tb0 Tb
Temperature/K
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
 Electrochemical Cell

The device in which Chemical energy is converted in to

Electrical energy by spontaneous redox reaction is called Galvanic cell
or Electrochemical cell or
Q. What is Salt Bridge and explain function of salt bridge ?
 Representation of a cell

Zn(s) 丨ZnSO4 ॥ CuSO4 丨Cu(s)

Example
Zn(s) 丨Zn2-(aq) ॥ Cu2-(aq) 丨Cu(s)
ANODE SALT CATHODE
BRIDGE
 Electrode potential

Types of Electrode potential

Reduction electrode potential Ere
Oxidation electrode potential E
d ox

A2 + 2e– A Ere
+
A A2 + 2e– dEox
+
Eox = - Ere
d
 Standard Reduction Potential : (E°red/E °)

Reduction potential of an electrode when the concentration of the ions in the

solution is 1 mol/L and the temperature is 298 K is called standard reduction
potential

Concentration = 1M
For gases = 1 atm
Temperature = 298 K E0 = E0 red
 Cell Potential or EMF

E0cell = E0 – E0anode
cathode
Eg. EMF of Daniell Cell

Zn(s) + Zn+2(aq) + Cu electrode = Cathode

0
Cu+2(aq) Cu
E Cu2+,Cu or = 0.34 (s)
V Zn electrode = Anode
E00Cu2+⏐Cu or = –0.76 V
Zn2+,Zn
E0Zn2+⏐Zn
E0cell = E0 – E0
cathode anode

= E0Cu – E0Zn
= 0.34 – (– 0.76)
E0Cel = 1.1V
l
 NERNST EQUATION

The potential of an electrode in contact with its ions in solution varies

with the concentration of the ion. Thus, for a redox reaction,
Mn+ + ne- ⟶ M(s)
NERNST EQUATION- Electrochemical cell
Equilibrium Constant from Nernst Equation
 Electrochemical Cell and Gibbs Energy of the Reaction

ΔG0 = - nFE0cell

If E0 cell is positive, ΔG0 would be negative and reaction would be

spontaneous. If E0cell is negative, ΔG0 would be positive and the
reaction would be non - spontaneous.
 Resistance

Resistance is the measure of obstruction to the flow of current

 Resistivity

Resistivity is defined as the resistance of a conductor of 1 cm

length and having an area of cross section equal to 1 cm2.
 Conductance

Conductance is reciprocal of resistance, i.e., Unit of

conductance is ohm-1 or Siemen (S)
 Specific Conductance

Specific conductance ∧sp is reciprocal of specific resistance.

Molar Conductance
 Faraday’s Law of electrolysis
First law: The amount of a substance deposited or liberated at an
electrode is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity
passed through the electrolyte.
Mathematically,
Q∝Ixt M = Z It
I = current in amperes
t = time in seconds, and
Z = constant called electrochemical
equivalent
 Faraday’s Law of electrolysis

Second law: When the same quantity of electricity is passed through

solutions of different electrolytes, the weight of different substances
deposited or liberated at the respective electrodes are proportional to
their chemical equivalent weights.
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CHEMICAL KINETICS
 Chemical Kinetics

Chemical Motion/Speed of
Reactions reaction

Speed Spontaneity
Speed Rate of the reaction
Spontaneity Feasibility of the reaction

The area of Chemistry concerned with reaction

rates and the sequence of steps by which
reaction occur is called CHEMICAL KINETICS
 Rate of Reaction

Change in
concentration Final conc. – initial
Rate of of reactant or product ΔC
a reaction = = conc. =
Δt
Time
Time taken
taken

Units of rate = mol L–1 s–1

 Two kinds of rates

Average Instantaneous
rate rate

Average rate An overall rate measured over period of time interval.

Change of concentration of
raverage one of the reactant or products
=
Time
 Overall Rate of the reaction

In general, Just divide all the rates with

the respective stoichiometric
aA + bB cC + dD
coefficients to get the overall
rate of the reaction

1 Δ[A] 1 Δ[B]
Overall rate = = Keeping in mind that
(– a) Δt (– b) Δt
with reactants we put a negative
1 Δ[C] 1 Δ[D] sign and with products we
= = put a positive sign
c Δt d Δt
 Rate Law and Order of Reaction

What will be the effect of change of concentration of

reactants on the rate of the reaction?
aA + bB products
Let us consider :
‘m’ and ‘a’ and also
rate ∝ [A] m
Law of mass action ‘n’ and ‘b’ are not
necessarily related
∝ [B]n
to one another.
∴ rate ∝ [A]m[B]n
 To remove the proportionality sign we
incorporate a proportionality constant ‘k’ k is rate of that
So, rate = k[A]m [B]n reaction in which
concentration of
now, let us determine k. reactants is unity.

If [A] = 1M, [B] = 1M

⇒ Rate = k
K=Specific reaction rate
or Rate Constant

Rate = k[A]m [B]n This equation is called rate law.

 Order of a Reaction

Sum of powers of concentration terms involved in rate law

expression is called order of reaction.

aA+ bB products
m, n : orders (may be positive
– ve, zero or fractional)
R = k[A]m [B]n

Order w.r.t A is m
Order w.r.t B is n
Overall Order = m+n
 First Order
The integrated rate equation for a first order reaction is given
as

where k = first order rate constant

[A]0 = Initial concentration
[A]t = Concentration at any time.
 Second Order

The reaction in which sum of powers of concentration terms in rate law

equation is two.
 Zero Order

Those reactions in which rate of reaction does not change with

concentration of the reactants.
Rate law for such a reaction is expressed as.
Rate = k [A]0 [B]0
 Half life t1/2

Time when half of the reactant is consumed

[Ao]
So at [A]t =
t1/2, 2

Integrated rate law for zero order reaction

becomes,
[Ao]
= [A]o – k t1/2 ⇒ [A]o
2 t1/2 =
2k
 Arrhenius Equation

Arrhenius equation, K = Ae-Ea/Rt

where A is a constant known as frequency factor, and Ea is called
the energy of activation.
SURFACE CHEMISTRY
 Absorption Adsorption

BULK phenomenon SURFACE phenomenon

UNIFORM distribution NON-UNIFORM distribution

(Higher concentration on surface)

Neither EXOTHERMIC nor EXOTHERMIC

ENDOTHERMIC.

Rate of absorption- Rate of adsorption-

UNIFORM rate RAPID in the beginning Due to
availability of surface area
FALLS down later. Since the entire
surface area is occupied

INDEPENDENT of surface DEPENDS on surface area.

area.
Absorption Adsorption

SORPTION
Dyeing of fabric
The phenomenon
of adsorbed
molecules getting
dislodged from the
surface

REMOVAL of
DESORPTION
adsorbed
molecule
What are the types of adsorption ?
Depending upon the nature of forces
Between adsorbate and adsorbent , Adsorption of Two types

Type of Adsorption

Weak
Strong
 Type of Adsorption

Weak Strong

Van Der Waals Covalent bond

Physical adsorption Chemical adsorption

o rption Chemisorptio
s i s n
Phy
 Physisorption Chemisorption

The molecules are attracted The molecules are held to the

to the surface simply by surface by CHEMICAL BONDS
VAN DER WAALS FORCES. forming surface compounds.

It is relatively WEAK. It is relatively STRONG.

The heat of adsorption is low The heat of adsorption is high

and lies between 20 TO 40 KJ lying in the range 40 TO 200
MOL–1. KJ MOL–1.

It is REVERSIBLE. It is IRREVERSIBLE.

It involves the formation of It involves the formation of

MULTILAYER of adsorbed MONOLAYER of adsorbed
particles. particles
 Physisorption Chemisorption

It is NOT SPECIFIC in nature. It is SPECIFIC in nature

It occurs appreciably only at It occurs at ALL

LOW TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURES.
Freundlich adsorption isothermic
 Catalysis

In a homogeneous catalysis, the catalyst is present in the same

phase as the reactants

In a heterogeneous catalysis, the catalyst is present in a different

phase than that of the reactants.
 What are Enzymes ???

There are several reactions occur in

human body , Biochemical reactions

All biological reactions are catalysed by Enzymes

Enzymes are Biological catalyst

 Examples of enzyme catalysed reactions

Inversion of cane sugar

invertase
(i) C12H22O11 + H2O() C6H12 O6
(aq) (aq)

Canesugar glucose

Conversion of glucose to
ethyl alcohol
Zymase
(ii) C2H22O6 2 C2H5 OH (aq)
+2 C02(g)
(aq)
 Mechanism of Enzyme catalysis

+ +
Enzyme Substrate Enzyme–Substrat Enzyme Products
e
Complex
 Colloids

1nm – 103 nm

Starch in water

A substance is said to be in the colloidal state if it

acquires a particle size ranging between 1 nm to 103 nm
on treatment with a solvent.
 Colloidal dispersion It is a two phase system

Disperse Phase Dispersion Medium

DISPERSED PHASE DISPERSION MEDIUM
is analogous to is analogous to
SOLUTE SOLVENT
in the solution in ordinary solution

It is a are
Particles It is a in which
The medium
DISCONTINUOUS
being dispersed CONTINUOUS
dispersed phase exists
phase. phase.
 Classification of colloids
Name of Types of colloids
Disperse Dispersion
Colloidal Example
phase medium
system
Solid Solid Solid sol Ruby glass
Solid Liquid Sol Paints
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke
Liquid Solid Gel Jellies
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog
Gas Solid Solid foam Pumice stone
Gas Liquid Foam Froth,
whipped cream
 Classification of Colloids

Based on Nature of Interaction Based on the type of

b/w Dispersed phase and particles of the
Dispersion medium dispersed phase

Lyophilic Lyophobic Multimolecular Associated

sols sols colloids colloids
Macromolecular
liquid liquid colloids
loving hating

Colloid which is formed by aggregation of small molecules is called multimolecular colloid

 Tyndall effect :

Can we see the path of

light through the No
solution???

Replacing true solution

True solution with colloidal solution

Path of light
becomes visible
Occurs due to scattering
of light by colloidal particle
Colloidal solution
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