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a laal a laal a l
a al a laal a l
a al
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaasa al
adsaasCOMPLETE STUDY l
adsaasaMATERIALS adaadsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
a da a da a da a da
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww w ww
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+2 ZOOLOGY
grg .O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a da adsaaChapter
sa 1 Reproduction
a da adsaasa in Organismsadaadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww 1. Asexual reproduction wwww wwww wwww wwww w
i) Reproduction by a single parent without the involvement of gamete formation is asexual reproduction
grg .O rgrgproduced are genetically
O .O rgrgidentical.
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
and the offspringl alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
ii)ad adsaasa reproduction is
Asexual
a a adsaasa by amitotic or a
dausually mitotic
aa
daadsas division of the somatic a
aa
daadsas(body) cells, hence a d
is
a
saasa
adalso
P .P
. known
ww as somatogenic ww P
. .P
or blastogenic reproduction. ww P
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg 2. Sexualaireproduction. O rgrg
O When two . O rgrg participate in the
O
parents . O rgrg
O
reproductive O
processaiinvolving
. rgrg two types of i.O.O
O rgrg
i . a i i . a i i . i . a i
gametesa ala and sperm), it isascalled
saasl(ova aaslalasexual reproduction. a saaslala a saaslala a saaslala
a d d a d d a d d a d d a d d
.P.Pa
ww ww.P.Pa ww.P.Pa ww.P.Pa ww .P.Pa
ww
ww w w
w w w w w
w reproduction. The different w w
w w w w w w
3. What are the different mode of asexual modes of asexualwreproduction
grg seen in animals . O rgrare
O g fission, sporulation, . O rgbudding,
O rg gemmule formation, . O rgrg fragmentation iand
O . O rg
O rg
regeneration. . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l al a i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P4..P Fission type?
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww w w
w w w w
w w w w
w w
i) Fission is the division of the parent body into two or more identical daughter individuals. Four www w w
grg types of fissionrgrare
.O
seen in animals. rgrg
O g fission, multiple .O O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
ii) They l a
arelia i .
binary l alia i .
fission, sporulation l a
andlia i .strobilation. l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww 5. binary fissionwtype? ww
w wwww wwww wwww w
grg i) In binary rgrg fission, the parent organism
rgrg divides into two rgrghalves and each ihalf rgrforms
g a daughter rgrg
individual. l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a. O
i . O l a ia.Oi . O
l l l l l
a adsaaThe
daii) sa nucleus dividesdfirst
a a adsaasamitotically
a
or P a
mitotically
aa
daadsas (karyokinesis), a
aa
daadsas by the division
followed a
asa
daofadsathe
wwP
. .P ww P
. .P ww. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww cytoplasm (cytokinesis). wwww The resultant offsprings wwww are genetically identical wwww to the parent. wwww w
grg . O Ogrgthe plane of fission,
ron . O O grg fission is of the
rbinary . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
6. Depending a
lalai i . a
aslalai i . a i i .following types a i i . a i i .
d ad i)saasSimple irregular binary
d ad safission d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d a dsaaslala
a
.P.Pa ii) Transverse binary a a
.P.Pfission a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww iii) Longitudinal
w w binary fission w w w w ww w
grg iv) Oblique . O rgrgbinary fission i.O.O
O rgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l al a i l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P7..P Simple binary fission
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww w
i) Simple binary fission is seen in Amoeba like irregular shaped organisms.
grg ii) where theOplane
. rgrg of division is hard
O . O rgrobserve.
to
O g The contractile
. O rgrgvacuoles cease to function
O . O rgrg and disappear. i.O.O
O rgrg
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l al a i
a daadsaasa disintegrate and
The nucleoli
a da
saasnucleus
adthe a
a a adsaasa
divides mitotically.
d a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww iii) The cell then
ww.P.P
constricts in the middle, so the
ww.P.P
cytoplasm divides and .P.P
forms
ww two daughter cells.
ww .P.P
ww
ww 8. transverse binary wwww fission wwww wwww ww
ww w
grg i) In transverse rgrg binary fission, the rplane
grg of the division runs rgralong
g the transverse.axis rgrof
g the individual. .O.O rgrg
l
e.g. Paramecium a ia. O
i . O and Planaria. l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia O
i . O l a ia i
asa l aa l aa l asa l aa l
P a daadInsaParamecium
ii) theP a daadsas
macronucleus divides byP a daadsas and the micronucleus
amitosis P a daadsadivides by mitosis.P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww
ww w
9. longitudinal binary fission
grg . O rgrg binary fission, i.the
O O rgnucleus
O rg . O rgrg divides in the longitudinal
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
i) In longitudinal a i i . a i . and the i
cytoplasm
a i . a i i . axis of the a i i .
d a
organism.
d saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d a dsaaslala
a
PaIn flagellates, the basal
.P.ii) a a
.P.Pgranule a
Pa and the new basal
.P.two a
P.Pa forms a flagellum
.granule a
.P.Pa in
wwww wwww is divided ww
winto
w wwww ww ww
ww ww ww ww ww w
the other daughter individual. e.g. Vorticella and Euglena.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww wwww wwww wwww ww ww
ww ww ww ww ww w
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a l
a al a l
a al a l
a al a l
a al a l
a al
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ..
ww P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P
ww
ww ww
ww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww .P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww w ww
w w ww
w wwww w
10. oblique binary fission
grg .i)O O grgoblique binary fission
rIn .O rgrg the plane of division
O .O Orgrgis oblique. It is seen .O Orgin
rg dinoflagellates. i.O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i. l alia i. l al a i .
a aadsaasa
e.g.Ceratium.
d a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww .P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww 11. In multiple fission? wwww wwww wwww ww
ww w
grg i) In multiplergfission rg the parent body rdivides grg into many similar rgdaughter
rg cells simultaneously.rgrg rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia.Oi .O l a ia. O
i . O la ia.O
i . O l a ia.O
i. O
ii) If multiple
asa l fission produces four
aa l or many daughter saasa l
individuals by equal cell l
division
aa and the young ones
aa l
doa adsaseparate
danot until the a daadsasis complete, thenPthis
process a daaddivision is called a daadsasfission e.g. Vorticella
repeated a daadsas
ww P
. .P ww P
. .P . .P
ww P
. .P
ww P
. .P ww
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
grg 12.sporozoites.
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a
aslala i
i) In Plasmodium, multiple fission
a i occurs in the schizont a i
and in the oocyte stages. a i a i
d a
ii)d sWhen
a multiple fission d adsaaslalain the schizont, the
occurs d ad aaslala
sprocess is called d ad
schizogony
la
saaslaand the daughter d adsaaslala
a
.Pa
.Pindividuals a
.P.Pa a
.Pa occurs in thewoocyte,
.Pfission a a a a
ww wmerozoites
w ww w.P.P ww.P.Pand
ww
ww are called wwww When multiple wwww wwww it is called sporogony ww ww the w
daughter individuals are called sporozoites
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l ali
a i . la lia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
13.
a da adsaasa
pseudopodiospore a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  When conditions
ww ww.Pbecome
.P favourable,wthe ww P.P
.encysted Amoeba divides ww.P.by
P multiple fission and ww.Pproduces
.P
ww
ww w ww
w w w w w ww
w w ww
w w
many minute amoebae called pseudopodiospore or amoebulae.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a a adsaasa
14. strobilation
d a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  In some metazoan .P.animals,
P P.Ptransverse fission called
.of .P.Pstrobilation occurs ww .PP
ww
ww
ww
w ww
w
ww a special type
w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
w ww .
w w
 In the process of strobilation, several transverse fissions occur simultaneously giving rise to a
grg number
.O rgof
O rg individuals which O
.of O grg do not separate.Oimmediately
roften rgrg
O from each
.O grg e.g. Aurelia. .OO
rother
O rgrg
l
asa alia
Plasmotomyi . is the divisionaal alia i . multinucleated aal
parentalia i .
into many aa
multinucleate l alia i .
daughter individuals aal alia i .
P a daadsawith the division P
of a daadsas
nuclei. P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P
ww
ww  Nuclear division wwww occurs later to maintain wwww normal number ofww ww
nuclei. Plasmotomy occurs ww ww in Opalina w
grg and Pelomyxa rgrg (Giant Amoeba} rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
15.
.P.Pa budding a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww  In budding, w ww
w
the parent body produces ww
wone
w or more buds and w w
eachww
w bud grows into a youngw wone.
w w
ww ww ww w w w w
 ii).The buds separate from the parent to lead a normal life. In sponges, the buds constrict and detach
grg . O rgrparent
O g . O rgrdevelops
O g . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
from
l alia i .
the body and the
l alia i
bud. into a new
l alia i .
sponge. l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P16.
ww .P endogenous budding ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
 In Noctiluca, hundreds of buds are formed inside the cytoplasm and many remain within the body of
grg .O
theaparent. rgrgThis is called endogenous
O .O rgrg budding.
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l lia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P17.Morphallaxis ww .PP .P.P .P.P .P.P
ww
ww
ww
w ww .
w w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
w
i) In morphallaxis the whole body grows from a small fragment e.g. Hydra and Planaria.
grg ii) When Hydra .O rgrisg accidentally cut into
O .O O grg pieces, each piece
rseveral .O rgrcan
O g regenerate the lost .O Ogrg and develop .OO
rparts rgrg
l alia i .
asa new individual asaasa l ali
a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
into a
a da
a sa
d
whole
a da d a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
P P The parts usuallywretain
. .iii) P
. P their original polarity, P
. .Pwith oral ends, by developing P
. .P P
. P ends,
www. www.
ww ww ww tentacles and w aboral
ww
ww by producing basal wwdiscs. wwww wwww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d d saaslala
18. Epimorphosis.
a d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa i) Epimorphosis .Pisa a replacement of lost
.Pthe a a
.P.Pbody parts. It is of two a
.P.Patypes, namely reparative a
.P.Pa and
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww restorative regeneration. ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a i
a i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a i
a i . l a i
a i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.Pa a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
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a laal a laal a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww .. P ww.. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
ww wwww ww ww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
al reparative regeneration,
saasIn
adii)
l
adsaasa only certain damaged
l
adsaasatissue can be regenerated,
l
adsaasa whereas in restorative adsaasa
l
a da a da a da a da a da
.P.P regeneration severed
ww ww .P.Pbody parts can develop. ww.P.Pe.g. star fish, tail of wall ww.P.Plizard. ww .P.P
ww
ww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww w
19. syngamy?
grg i) The typesOof
. i.O rgrsexual
g reproduction seen
.O rgrin
O g animals are syngamy .O rgr(fertilization)and
O g rgrg
conjugation.
.O O .O rgrg
O
l alia l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
d d saasa
ii) Inasyngamy, the fusion of atwo
d dsaasahaploid gametes takes d
asa to produce a diploid
adsaplace d adsaaszygote.
a
d adsaasa
.P.Pa a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a
wwww wwww ww ww ww ww wwww
ww iii) Depending upon ww the place where w w
the fertilization takes place, ww it is of two types. ww In external w
grg fertilization, Internal rgrg fertilization. rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O
l l l l l
a
20. adsaasa fertilization adaadsaasa
daexternal a daadsas
aa
a daadsas
aa
a
aa
daadsas
wwP
. .P ww P
. .P w wP
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww In external fertilization, wwww the fusion of male ww ww and female gameteswtakes ww
w place outside the w ww
body
w of female w
grg organisms in the water medium. e.g. sponges, fishes and amphibians.
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
a i a i a i a i a i
21. d ad saaslala fertilization dadsaaslala
internal d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
.PIna
.Painternal fertilization, a
.P.Pthea a a
.P.Pfemale a
.Pa within the body
.Pplace a
P.Pa
.of
wwww wwww fusion of male ww wand
w gameteswtakes w www wwww female
ww ww ww w ww w
organisms. e.g. reptiles, aves and mammals.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
22. d saasal
adautogamy,fertilization) d adare
l
saasaprevalent amongad living
l
adsaasaorganisms. In autogamy, d
l
adsaasa the male andafemale d adsaasa
l
a a
.Pgametes
.P a a
.P.Pthe same cell or same a
.P.organism
P a a
.P.gametes
P a
P.Pform a
.to
wwww are produced wwww by ww ww and bothww ww
the fuse together wwww
ww w w
zygote e.g. Actinosphaerium and Paramecium.
w w w w ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a a adsaasa
23. exogamy
d a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.PIn
.Pexogamy, the male .P.Pfemale gametes arewproduced .PP .P.Pand they fuse to form .Pa.Pzygote.
ww
ww
ww
w ww
w
wand
w w www.
w
by different parents
w ww
w
ww
wwwwww
w
So it is biparental. e.g. Human – dioecious or unisexual animal.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a adsaasa
24. hologamy
dalower a
aa
daadsas the entire mature a adsaasa
daorganisms a adsaasa
dagametes a
aa
daadsas
PIn
. .P
ww organisms,
ww P
sometimes
. .P ww P
. .P do not
ww P
form
. .P but they
ww P
themselves
. .P
ww
ww behave as gameteswand ww
w the fusion of such mature ww ww individuals is known wwwas
w hologamy e.g. Trichonympha wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d d saaslala
25. Paedogamy.
a d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
Paedogamy
.P.Pa is the sexual a
union
.P.Pa of young a
individuals
.P.Pa produced immediately a
.P.Pa after the division of a
the
.P.Pa adult
wwww parent cell by mitosis. wwww ww ww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
26. merogamy l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaasaof the adult parent al mitosis. In merogamy,
adsaasby
l
adsaasa the fusion of small asal and morphologically
adsasized adsaasa
l
d
division
a a a dacell a da a da a da
.Pdifferent
ww .P gametes w ww .P.P
(merogametes) takes place. ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww ww
w ww ww wwww wwww w
grg 27. isogamy .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
Theda d saasa of morphological
fusion d
asa physiological identical
adsaand d adsaasa gametes (isogametes) d adsaasais called isogamy. d saasa
ade.g.
a a
.PMonocystis,
.P .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a
wwww wwww ww ww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg 28. anisogamy .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l a
a thelia i . l alia
agametes i . l alia i .
a a (Gr. An-without;aiso-equal; aal alia i . aal alia i .
a fusion of dissimilar a
daadsas daadsas daadsas dadsas daadsas
whereas is called anisogamy gam-marriage).
P
. .Pa P
. P a P a
. .P P
. .Pa P
. .Pa
ww
ww
ww
29. Conjugation?www
www. ww ww ww
wwww ww
wwwwww
w
grg i) Conjugation
. O rgrisg the temporary union
O . O Ogrgthe two individuals.O
rof Ogrg same species. .OO
ofrthe rgrg . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
ii) During
d ad saaslala their union both individuals,
d adsaaslala called the conjugants d adsaaslala exchange certain d ad
aslala of nuclear material
saamount d adsaaslala
a
.Pa and then getwseparated.
.P(DNA) a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww ww
w w www w wwand
w wwww
ww iii) Conjugation iswcommon w among ciliates, w w
e.g. Paramecium, w
Vorticella w bacteria ww
(Prokaryotes). w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.Pa a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a
wwww wwww ww ww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a l
a al a laal a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww .. P ww .. P ww.. P ww.. P
ww
ww wwww wwww ww ww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a a adsaasa of life cycle adaadsaasa
30.dPhases
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  Phases of lifeww .P.P Organisms have .P .P phases – Juvenile .P.Pphase, reproductiveww .P.P and
ww
ww
ww
w ww cycle:
w w ww
w
ww three
w ww
w
ww
wwwwphase w
senescent phase.
grg  Juvenile rgrphase/
g vegetative phase rgrgis the period of growth rgrgbetween the birthi.of grg individual upto .OO
rthe rgrg
l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O l al a O
i . O l alia i .
asa
adsareproductive maturity.asasa
a adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa
a da a da d a da a da a da
.P.P  During reproductive .P.P phase/ maturityww .PP the organisms reproduce
phase .P.P and their offsprings .P.P reach
ww
ww
ww
maturity period. wwww ww
wwww . ww wwww
wwwwww
w
grg  On thergbasis rg of time, breeding rgrganimals are of two types:
rgrg seasonal breeders rgrgand continuous i.O.O rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a i
l
breeders.
asa aa l asa l aa l l
a daadsaSeasonal breeders a daadsas at particular Pperiod
reproduce a daadsaof the year such as a daadsaslizards, most birds,
frogs, a adsaasa
dadeers
wwP
. .P ww P
. .P ww . .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww etc., Continuous wwww breeders continue to www w
breed throughout their w ww
sexual
w maturity e.g. honey wwwbees,
w poultry, w
grg rabbit etc.,
. O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
 Senescenta i i . phase begins at i
the
a i .end of reproductive i
phase
a i . when degeneration a i
sets i . in the structure and a i i .
a aslala
safunctioning a saaslala a saaslala a saaslala a saaslala
a d d of the d
body.
a d a d d a d d a d d
.P.Pa
ww ww .P.Pa ww .P.Pa ww.P.Pa ww.P.Pa
ww
ww wwww wwww ww ww wwww w
31. PARTHENOGENESIS
grg  Development . O rgrg of an egg into ia.Ocomplete
O rgrg
O individual without . O rgrgfertilization is known
O . O O grgparthenogenesis. .OO
ras rgrg
l alia i . l a a i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaItasawas first discovered al
saasCharles
adby Bonnet ina1745. adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
a da a da da a da a da
.P.P  Parthenogenesis .P.isP of two main wtypes .PP .PParthenogenesis
.P .PArtificial
.P
ww
ww
ww
w ww
w
ww
w www. namely, Natural
w w ww
w
ww
w
and
wwwww
w
Parthenogenesis.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a a adsaasa parthenogenesis
32. Natural
d a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  In certain animals, .P.P parthenogenesis occurs .Pregularly,
.P constantly and .P.naturally
P in their lifew .P.P and is
ww
ww
ww
w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
wwwwcycle
w w
known as natural parthenogenesis.
grg  artificial rgrgparthenogenesis, i.the rgrunfertilized
g egg (ovum) rgrgis induced to develop rgrginto a complete i.O.O rgrg
l alia.Oi . O l al a O
i . O l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O l al a i
asa
individual by physical or asa
chemical stimuli. e.g.,
adsaasa
Annelid and seaurchin eggsaa aa
P a daadsaNatural P
parthenogenesis a daadsamay be of two P
types, a daviz., complete and P a daadsas
incomplete. P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P ww. .P
ww
ww  Complete w ww
w
parthenogenesis is thewonly ww
w form of reproduction ww ww in certain animals w www
and there is no w
grg biparental rgrgsexual reproduction. These
rgrg are no male organisms rgrg and so, such individuals rgrg are represented i.O.O rgrg
a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i
d adsaaslala
by females only.
d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
.P.Paa  Incomplete a
parthenogenesis
.P.Pa is found in
.P.Pa asome animals in which
.P.Paa both sexual reproduction
.P.Paa and
wwww parthenogenesis ww ww occurs. e.g. In honeybees; wwww fertilized eggs (zygotes) wwww develop into queen ww
wand
w workers,
ww ww ww ww ww w
whereas unfertilized eggs develop into drones (male).
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
33.a da adsaasa
Oviparous a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  Ovum-egg-, Parere-
ww ww .P.P to produce) animals ww .P.P (egg laying animals), ww.Pthe
.P young hatch from ww.P .P laid
eggs
ww
ww wwww wwww ww ww wwww w
outside the mother’s body. e.g. reptiles and birds (their eggs are covered by hard calcareous shells),
grg .O
invertebrates, rgrg fishes etc.
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  34. Viviparous P.PVivus - alive, Parere
.(L., .P P produce) animals give
- .to .P.Prise to young ones. ww .PP
ww
ww
ww
w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
wwww . w
 Viviparity is a type of development in which the young ones are born alive after being nourished in
grg the uterus.O rgrgthrough the placenta.
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
 aMajority
a aa aviviparous.
a aa aa
daadsas dadsas dadsas daadsas daadsas
of mammalsaincluding human beingsaare
P
. .P a P
. .P a P
. .P a P
. .P a P
. .P a
wwww ww ww wwww wwww w ww
w
ww  35. In Ovoviviparous ww animals, the w w
embryo develops inside w thew egg and remains in the wwmother’s w
grg body until
. O rgrgthey are ready to hatch
O . O rgrgThis method of reproduction
O . O rgrg is similar to viviparity
O . O rgrg but the
O . O rgrg
O
a i i .
aslala have no placental a i
la i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
a saembryos a saaslaconnection with the mother
a saaslala and receive their a saaslala
nourishment from the eggsaslala
. P. a
P
d d
a yolk. . P. a
P
da d . P .Pa da d . P. a
P
da d . P. adaada
P
wwww  Ovoviviparity ww wiswseen in fishes like shark. wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a
wwww ww ww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a l
a al a l
a al a laal a l
a al
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ..
ww P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
ww ww
ww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
.PCHAPTER
ww .P :2 ww.P.P .P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww ww
ww wwww wwww wwww w
grg
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgHUMAN
O rg
REPRODUCTION
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l al a i l al a i l al a i l al a i l al a i
a aadsaasa
1. dmesovarium
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
.PThe
.P ovary remains attached .Pto
.Pthe pelvic wall and w .P.P by an ovarian ligamentcalled .P.P mesovarium ww .PP
ww
ww
ww ww
ww
ww thewuterus
wwww wwwwww
wwww . w
grg 2. fundus
i .O . rgrportion
O g
i .O . rgbody
O rg and the rounded region i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
The
aal al a i
major of the uterus
aa l ais
l a i
the
aal al a i superior to it, is thelafundus
aa l a i aa l al a i
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. 3..P what are the uteruswhas . .Pthree layers of tissues.ww . P . .P . .P
ww
ww
ww
 The w
wwofwthe
w
wall uterus has three layers wwwwof .tissues. The outermost ww
ww
wthin
w membranous serouswlayer wwwww
called the w
grg . O rgrg
perimetrium.
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i .
aslala the middle thick amuscular a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsa d dsaaslala layer called myometrium d adsaaslalaand the inner glandular d ad
lala called endometrium.
saaslayer d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa  a
.P.Pa undergoes cyclic changes
The endometrium a
.P.Paduring the menstrualwcycle a
.P.Pawhile myometrium exhibits a
.P.Pastrong
wwww w ww
w w www w w w wwww
ww ww during parturition. w
contractions w w w ww w
grg 4. Bartholin’s . O O grg
rglands . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa The Bartholin’s d saasal(also called greaterdvestibular
glands
ad
l
adsaasa glands) are located d saasal to the left and right
adposterior d adsaofasa
l
.P.P a a a a
.Pof.Pthe vagina. a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a
wwww ww
the opening
ww ww ww wwww ww
ww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg 5. Skene’s glands .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i .
asa They secrete mucus l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsa a daadsaatosalubricate the vaginaaand da
asahomologous to the bulbourethral
adsaare a da adsaasa glands of the amale. daadsaasa
.P.P  .P.P
The Skene’s glands are located on the .P.P wall of the vagina .P.Paround the lower end w PPurethra.
of .the
www.
ww ww wwanterior wwand
ww
ww wwww wwww w ww
w ww w
6. spermatogenesis
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aa l alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P . .P
ww ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww
ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
.P.Paa .P.Paa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww ww ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P .P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww
ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P .P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww
ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aa l alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P . .P
ww ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww
ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
.P.Paa .P.Paa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww ww ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a .P.P a a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a
wwww wwww ww ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a l
a al a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
ww wwww wwww ww ww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww ww ww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww ww ww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww ww ww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
.P.Paa .P.Paa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w www w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww w w
7. The ovum is surrounded by three coverings
w w w w ww w
grg  The iovum . O rgrisg surrounded by threei.coverings
O O rgrg namely an inner ithin
O . O rg
O rg
transparent vitelline membrane,. O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a a i .
asal thick zona pellucida l a a i . l a a i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
as amiddle al outer thick coat of follicular
adsaasand
l
adsaasa cells called corona saasal
adradiata. adsaasa
l
a da d a da a da a da a da
ww.P.P  Between the vitelline ww.P.P membrane and zona pellucida ww.P.P is a narrow perivitelline ww.P.space.
P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww ww ww ww
ww w
grg 8. Menstural
.O O grg
rcycle .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da d aasa menstrual or ovarian
asThe
a da
asa occurs approximately
adsacycle a da
asa in every 28/29 days aduring
adsaonce a da d saasa the reproductive lifedadofsaasa
aa
ww.P.P the female from w .P.P (puberty) to menopause
menarche
w ww.P.P except during pregnancy. ww.P.P ww .P.P
w
ww w  The cycle ofw
w w
w starting from one menstrual
events
w w
ww period till the next one w w
wwis called the menstrual cycle w w
ww during which w
grg cyclic changes
. O rgrg occurs in the endometrium
O . O rgrg every month. i.O.O
O rgrg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . l alia i .
a a is an indicator ofanormal l al a i
a a reproductive phaseasaasa l alia i . aal alia i .
 Cyclic menstruation
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a dadsas P a dad P a daadsas
ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww 9. Menstrual cyclewcomprises ww
w of the following ww
wphases
w ww ww ww
ww w
grg 1. Menstrual phasegrg
i . O . rproliferative
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
2. Follicular a i
or phase a i a i a i a i
a saaslala phase
3.adOvulatory
d d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
.P4..PaLuteal or secretory phase .P.Paa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww ww ww ww ww wwww ww ww
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grg 10. corpus albicans
. O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaasa  In the absence al
saasfertilisation,
adof
l
adsaasa degenerates completely
the corpus luteum sal leaves a scar tissuedcalled
adsaaand adsaasa
l
a da a da a da a da a a
ww.P.P wwP.P
corpus.albicans
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww  ii) It also wwww
initiates the disintegrationw wthe
ofw w endometrium leadingw wmenstruation,
tow w marking the w
ww w
next cycle. w
grg .O rgrg OVARY SYNDROME
O .O rgrg(PCOS
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
11. POLY l alia i
CYSTIC . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
di)adsaasaCOS is a complex endocrine d adsaasa system disorder that d saasa women in their reproductive
adaffects d adsaasa years. d adsaasa
.P.P a a a a
.P.P‘many cysts’. It referswtow a a
.P.P partially formed follicles a a
.P.Pon the a
.P.P a
wwww Polycystic ww
wmeans
w ww many wwww ww wovaries,
w
ww ww ww ww ww w
which contain an egg each. But they do not grow to maturity or produce eggs that can be fertilized.
grg .O rgrg with PCOS may experience
O .O rgrg irregular menstruali.cycles,
O O rgrgincreased androgen ilevels,
O .O rgrgexcessive facial or i.O.O
O rgrg
ii)
aal aliWomen
a i . aa l alia i . aal al a i . l al a i . l al a i
a daadsas body hair growthPa(hirsutism), daadsas acne, obesity,Preduced a daadsasfertility and increased a adsaaof
darisk sadiabetes.
a
aa
daadsas
ww P
. .P iii) Treatment w ww. .P includes a healthy lifestyle, ww. .P weight loss and targeted ww P
. .Phormone therapy. ww P
. .P
ww
ww wwforwPCOS wwww ww ww ww
ww w
grg 12. Disposal of rNapkins
. O O grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslali)a The ecofriendlysway
d ad aaslalato dispose menstrualawaste
d d
a
saaslalscientifically d ad saaslala is to destroy the dadsaaslala
and hygienically
.P.Paa sanitary.P a
Pa using incinerators.
napkins
. a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa aa
.P.P
www w ww w w ww w w www w ww w w
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a .P.P a a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a
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a laal a l
a al a l
a al a l
a al a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P ww.. P
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grg . O rgrg
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l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasaii) Measures areabeing
d d saasaltaken to install incinerators d
l
adsaasa and napkin vending d machines l
adsaasa in washrooms ofadaadsaasa
l
a
.P.P a schools .P a
P a
, .colleges and public facilities. .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.P
wwww ww ww wwww wwww wwww
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grg 13. Menopause rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O
a da adasaMenopause is the aphase
i) sa
daadsaainsaa women’s life when a da
ovulation
adsaasa and menstruation a d
stops.
aadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P ii)
ww The average age
ww .P.of
P menopause is 45-50 w .P.P
years.
ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww iii) wthe
ww
It indicates w permanent cessationw ofw wwprimary functions of w
wthe wovaries.
w
the w wwww w
grg 14. blastocyst rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
i) sala ia.O
alAt O point the embryo consists
i.this aa l alia.Oi . O of a fluid filled aa
hollow l alia.Oi
ball . O of about 100 cells, aal al
calledia.Oi .
the
O blastocyst. aal alia.Oi . O
P a daadas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
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ww
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww ww ww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww ww
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P15.
ww .P Monozygotic www .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww  ww w w w
w w w w
w w
Monozygotic (Identical) twins are produced when a single fertilised egg splits into two during the first www w w
grg .O rgrg They are of the same
cleavage.
O .O rgrglook alike and share ithe
sex,
O .O O grg genes.
rsame .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i .
a
16. adsaasa
daDizygotic a daadsas
aa
a daadsas
aa
a daadsas
aa
a
aa
daadsas
P
. .P i) P
. .P twins are producedwwhen P
. P P
. .P by two separate sperms. P
. .PThe
ww
ww
ww Dizygotic w
ww
ww
(Fraternal)
w ww www. two separate eggsware ww
w
wfertilised
w wwwwww
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twins may be of the same sex or different sex and are non-identical.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d dsaaslala
17. Siamese
a d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pai) Siamese (United) a a are the conjoined twins
.P.Ptwins a
.P.Pawho are joined duringwbirth. a
.PPa a
.P.Pa
ww
ww
ww
wwwwww
ww wwww
wwwww. wwwwww
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grg 18. gastrulation. . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d i)adsaasalthe transformation of d adthe al
saasblastocyst into a gastrula
d saasathe
adwith
l primary germ layerssby
d
l
adaasathe movement of the d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a a
.P.P gastrulation. .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a
wwww blastomeres wwww
is called wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l ali
19. organogenesis.a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a dai)adsaasaEach germ layer gives a da aasato specific tissues, aorgans
adsrise da adsaasand
a
organ systems a da
during
asa
adsaorganogenesis. a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww ww ww wwww wwww w
grg 20. gestation.O rgrg
period
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . l alia i .
asaabout 280 days or 40 a l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
dai)adsas Human pregnancy daadsafor
lasts saasaand is called the gestation
daweeks
d
aa
daadsas period
aa
daadsas
P a
. .P P
. .Pa P
. .Pa P a
. .P P
. .Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww 21. Parturition ww ww ww ww w
i) Parturition is the completion of pregnancy and giving birth to the baby.
grg . O rgrgThe series of eventsithat
O . O rgexpels
O rg the infant from the . O rgrg is collectively called
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i
ii) i . a i . a i i .uterus a i i .
“labour”. a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww ww
22. Braxter-Hick’s contractions w w w w ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a l
a al a laa l a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P
ww
ww wwww ww ww wwww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l
asala ia i . l alia i . l alia i . l a lia i . l alia i .
a da adsapregnancy
I)
a a adsaasaperiodic episodes aofdaweak
the uterus undergoes
d adsaasaand strong contractions. a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P ii) These contractionswcalled .PP .P.P lead to false labour. .P.P .P.P
ww
ww
ww
wwwww. Braxter-Hick’swcontractions ww
w
ww
wwwwww
ww wwww
w
grg .O rgrgreflex called Foetal iejection
O .O rgrg reflex or Fergusoni.reflex
O O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
23. neurohumoral
l al ia i . l al a i . l al a i . l a lia i . l alia i .
di)adsaasaThe descent of the foetus d adsaascauses
a dilation of cervix d saasthe
adof a uterus and vaginal canal
d adsaasresulting
a in a d adsaasa
.P.P a a .P a a
.P called Foetal ejection a a
.P.reflex
P or Ferguson reflex .P.P a a .P.P a a
wwww neurohumoral ww ww reflex ww ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
24. parturition or childbirth
grg .O O grg the secretion of.oxytocin
rinitiates O rgrg from the neurohypophysis
O .O rgrg which in turn brings
O .O rgrgthe powerful
O .O rgrg
O
i)
aal al i
This
a i . aal alia i . l alia i . l a lia .
about
i l alia i .
daadsas contraction of the daadsasmuscles and leadsPtoathe
uterine saasa
daadexpulsion
aa
daadsasthe birth canal. Padaadsas
of the baby through
aa
P a
. .P ii) P a
P is called as. parturition
.of.events . .P or childbirth. P
. .P a . .P
wwww This sequence ww ww ww ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
25. the “Let-Down” reflex
grg i) Oxytocin
. O rgrg causes the “Let-Down”
O . O rgrreflex-the
O g actual ejection . O rgrmilk
O
of g from the alveoli of.O.the rgrmammary
O g glands. i.O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i a i .
a saaslala a
la stimulates the recently
saaslaalso a
la
saaslaemptied a
la it to return to pres-aslala
saaslahelping
adaada
dii) During lactation, oxytocin d d uterus to contract,
d
. P a
P a d . P a
P a d . P a
P a d . P a
P a d . P P
wwww . pregnancy ww ww
size. . ww ww . wwww . wwww .
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg 26. Colostrum rgrg
. O O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i .
i) sa alColostrum, a nutrient rich l a ia i .
l produced by the human l alia i . l a ia i .
l birth, is loaded with l alia i .
d adas immune, growth and d ad saasafluid d adsaasa
female immediately after
d adsaasa
giving
d adsaasa
.P.P a a .P.P a a tissue repair factors. .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a
wwww ww
wnatural
w w
tow
w w wwww wwwsystem.
w
ww ii) It acts aswaw antimicrobial agent ww actively stimulate the maturation ww of the infant’s immune ww w
iii) No artificial
grg
i . O . rgrg feed can substitute
O i . O . rthe
O grgfirst milk, with all its.O
i
natural
. rgrg benefits and therefore
O i . O .
should
rgrg be definitely i.O.O
O rgrg
l al
feda i to the baby after birth. l al a i l al a i l a l a i l al a i
a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.PCHAPTER
ww .P 3 ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww ww ww wwww ww ww w
Reproductive Health
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal al ia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal a lia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
wwww .PReproductive andwChild
. ‘1. ww. .P Health Care (RCH). ww . P
ww . are: Creating awareness wwww. .P
wwww. .P
ww  Major tasks www carried out under these w w
programmes ww and providing medical ww assistance to w
grg buildrga g healthy society. rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
 ala aila.O i.Or a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
d ad
Introducing
sas changes. sex education
d ad saaslala
in schools to provide
d ad saaslala
information about adolescence
d adsaaslala
and adolescence related
d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pand a a
.P.Paage groups about theavailable a
.P.Pa birth control methods .P.Paa
wwww Educating w ww
w
couples ww
those in the marriageable ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
andfamily planning norms.
grg  . rgrg awareness about care
Creating
O O . O rgrpregnant
for
O g women, post-natal . O rgrgcare of mother and child
O . O O grg
rand the . O rgrg
O
l al ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasaimportance of breast d saasal
afeeding.
d d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P  a a a
.P.supporting a a a a a a
wwww Encouraging and
ww wthe
w P governmental .and
w wwwP .Pnon-governmental agencies wwww.P.Pto identify new methods
wwww.Pand/or
.P to
ww improvew w
upon existing methods of ww birth control. ww ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l l i
2. Female afoeticide
a i .
asa foeticide refers toas‘aborting l alia i . l alia i . l a lia i . l alia i .
a das
a d aFemale a da d aasa the female inathe da
saasa womb’; whereasdfemale
admother’s a aadsaasa infanticide is ‘killing a da
saasa
adthe
.P.P female child afterwher
ww .P.Pbirth’. ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww  These have resulted wwwwwin imbalance in sex w ww
w
ratio. In UNDP’s GII 2018 w ww
w
(United nations developmental ww wprogrammes
w w
grg gender inequality
rgrg index) reflected that rgrIndia
g was ranked at 135 out
rgrof
g 187 countries due to.Oavailabilityrgrg of very few rgrg
l a i
economica. O
i . O opportunities to women
l a ia. O
i .
as O compared to men.. l a ia. O
i . O l a ia i . O l a ia.Oi . O
aa l aa l aa l aa l aa l
P daadsas method
3.aNatural
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P  Natural methodwisw
ww . .P to prevent meeting of ww .P with ovum.
.sperm ww. .P ww. .P
ww
ww w ww used
w w ww
w w ww
w w www w
 i.e., Rhythm method (safe period), coitus interruptus, continuous abstinence and lactational amenorrhoea.
grg . rgrg
4. Periodic abstinence/rhythm
O O method rgrg
. O O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i .
a Ovulation occurs atsabout a i i .
aslalathe 14th day of the menstrual a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslal
 d ad a d ad saaslala alive cycle.
d adsaaslainlathe female reproductive d adsaaslala
.P.Paa Ovum
.P.Pa
survives a for about two days and
.P.Paa
sperm remains for
.P.Pa
about a
72 hours
.P.Paa
wwww tract.www ww w www w ww
w wwww
ww w w w w w w w w
 Coitus is to be avoided during this time.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l al ia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a
wwww ww ww ww ww wwww wwww
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a laal a laal a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww .. P ww.. P ww .. P ww.. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O Orgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a a adsaasa
5. Tubectomy
d a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  Tubectomy w
ww P.Psurgical sterilisation inwwomen.
is .the .P.P In this procedure, w .P.P portion of both fallopian
a small ww.P.tubes
P are
ww
ww cut and tied wwwupwwthrough a small incision wwwinwwthe abdomen or through ww ww
wvagina. ww ww w
 This
grg
i . O . rgrgprevents fertilizationi.O
O
as well
. rgrg as the entry of the iegg
O . O . Orinto
grg the uterus.
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l al a i l al a i l al a i l al a i l al a i
a adsaasa
6.adVasectomy a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P .Pis.Pthe surgical procedurewforw .P.P sterilisation. In thiswprocedure, .PP P.Pcut and
.are
ww
ww
ww  Vasectomy
w ww
w
ww
w ww male
w w www.
w
both vas deferens
w ww
w
ww
w
tied through a small incision on the scrotum to prevent the entry of sperm into the urethra.
grg  Vasectomy
rgrg prevents sperm from rgrg heading off to penisi.as rgrgdischarge has no sperms
the ringrgit. rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia.Oi . O
aa l aa l aa l aa l aa l
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww .P Prevention of STDs
. 7.
ww ww ww . .P
ww ww. .P
ww ww . .P
wwww. .P
ww ww ww ww ww w
 Avoid sex with unknown partner/ multiple partners
grg  . O rgrgcondoms
O . O rgrg
O . O Orgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . use a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala . In case of doubt, d ad saaslalaa doctor for diagnosis
consult d ad slalaget complete treatment.
saaand d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
.P.Paa .P.Paa .P.Paa .P.Paa .P.Paa
wwww w ww
w w www w ww
w w ww
w
ww w w
8. The risk factors for cervical cancer
w w w w w w w
grg  Having . O rgrgmultiple sexual partners
O . O rgrg
O . O Orgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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l a ia i .
asalProlonged use of contraceptive l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsa a da adsaasa pills a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
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grg .O rgrg
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10.Other l
asa ali i .
causes
a of infertility l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaPelvic inflammatory disease a da adsaas(PID),
a
uterine fibroids a dand
a
asa
adsaendometriosis are the a d
most
a
asa
adsacommon a d
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sa
.P.P women.
ww ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
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 Low body fat or anorexia in women. i.e. a psychiatric eating disorder characterised by the fear of gaining weight.
grg  Undescended .O rgrg testes and swolleniveins
O .O rgr(varicocoele)
O g in scrotum .O .rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i .
asa clothing in men may l al a i .
asa the temperature in theasascrotum l alia i .
a a and affect sperm production. aa l alia i . aal alia i .
 Tight
daadsaUnder daadorsatestes. dad s daadsas daadsas
raise
P
. .P a developed P
. .P a
ovaries P
. .P a P
. .P a P
. .P a
wwww ww ww ww
wpartner's
w ww ww wwww
ww  Female mayw w
develop antibodies against her ww sperm. ww ww w
grg  Males may develop rgrg an autoimmune iresponse rgrg to their own sperm.i.O.O rgrg rgrg rgrg
a i . O
i . O a . O
i . O a i a i . O
i . O a i . O
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11. Assisted la
saAaslacollection
Reproductive Technology. aslala
sawhich la
slagametes
saaof aslala
saoutside saaaslala
a d ad of procedures,
a d ad includes the d
handling
a ad and/or embryos
a d ad the body to d
achieve
a ad
.P.Pa pregnancy, is known
ww ww .P.asPaAssisted Reproductive ww .Pa
.PTechnology. ww .P.Pa ww.P.Pa
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
grg 12.Intra-uterine . O rgrg insemination (IUI)
O . O rgrg
O . O Orgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i .
asal is a procedure to treat l a ia i .
asal men with low sperm l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
 sThis
adaThe adsainfertile al
adsaaascount.
l
adsaasa into the uterus through adsaasa
l
a da semen is collected a da
either from the husband or a da
from healthy donor and is a da
introduced a da
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww the vagina by wcatheter
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O Orgrg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
13.Insvitro l alia i .
fertilization (IVF) l a
orlia i .
Test tube baby l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adaasa In this technique, a da
saasa and eggs are allowed
adsperm a da adtosaaunite
sa outside the body d
a in
aadasaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww  Laboratory ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
 One or more fertilized eggs may be transferred into the woman’s uterus, where they may implant in the
grg .O rgrg lining and develop.
uterine
O .O rgrg
O .O Orgrg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i .
a a Excess embryos may abe l alia i . l alia i .
a afuture use. Initially, IVF l
awas alia i . aal alia i .
a cryopreserved (frozen) for a used to treat womenawith
P a daadsas blocked, P a
damaged, daadsaorsabsent fallopian tubes. P a daadsas P a daadsas P a dadsas
. .P
ww ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P ww. .P
ww
ww  Today, wwwIVF
w is used to treat manywcauses ww
w of infertility. The basic wwwsteps
w in an IVF treatmentwcycle ww
w are w
ovarian stimulation, egg retrieval, fertilization, embryo culture, and embryo transfer.
grg 14. Cryopreservation . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O Orgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i .
a freezing) of embryos
aslal(or a i i .
la used when there are a i i .
lala embryos than needed a i i .
lalaa single IVF transfer. saslala a i i .
a sa a saasislaoften a saasmore a saasfor
. P. a
P
d d
a  Embryo cryopreservation . P. a
P
d d
a can provide an additional . P.Pa d d
a opportunity for pregnancy, . P. a
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d d
a through a Frozen embryo . P. adaada
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wwww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww
ww transferw(FET), w without undergoingw w
another ovarian stimulationw w
and retrieval. ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O Orgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY HR SEC SCHOOL.d
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
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a l
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grg . O rgrg
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l al ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaasa intra-fallopian
15.dZygote d saasal (ZIFT)
adtransfer d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
a a
.P.P  As in IVF, theww a a
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.P.P tube by laparoscopy. w .P.Pa a
wwww w w w stage
w w w ww
w w w
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ww w w w w
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grg .O rgrg transfer (IUT)i.O.O
O rgrg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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16.Intralauterine
l ia i .
asaEmbryo with more than l al a i l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsa a daadsaa8sablastomeres is inserted
a da
saasuterus
adinto a to complete itsdfurther
a a adsaasadevelopment. adaadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww 17.Gamete intra-fallopian wwww transfer (GIFT) ww ww ww ww wwww w
 Transfer g of an ovum collected.Ofrom ga donor into the fallopian
grg
lalIn i.aO . rgrthe
O i . rgrthe
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rthe i .O . rgrg tubes. The
O i .O . rgrg
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aa ithis eggs are collected l al a i
from ovaries and placed
l al a i
with sperms in one oflathe l a i fallopian l al a i
daadsas zygote travels toward saasuterus
daadthe
a and gets implanted aa
daadsains the inner lining ofPthe adsaasa
dauterus. daadsas
aa
P
. .Pa P
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. .P . .P a P
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wwww ww ww ww ww wwww wwww
ww 18.Intra-cytoplasmic ww sperm injectionw(ICSI) w ww ww w
grg 
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rgrg is injected into thei.O focalrgrgpoint of the egg to fertilize. rgrg rgrg
a i . O
i . O
 a i . O
i . O a i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
saaslala  Fertilizationdoccurs la a saaslala saaslala
The sperm is carefully injected into the cytoplasm of the egg.
d ad ad saaslain 75 - 85% of eggs d ad saaslalwith
injected the sperms. d ad d ad
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pisa allowed to divide towform a
.P.Paan 8 celled blastomere a
P.Pthen
.and a a
.P.Pato
wwww  Thewzygote
www w w w w ww
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grg 19.Surrogacy . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l al ia i . l alia i . l
asal a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
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saassisted reproduction or adsaagreement whereby a woman al to carry a pregnancy
adsaasagrees adsaasa
l
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ww
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w
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w and w other's
grg uterus.
i . O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l al a i l al a i l al a i l al a i l al a i
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a da adsaasa
20.
.P.P Male infertility prevention
.P.P .P.P .P.P .P.P
wwww  Azoospermiaww ww w w ww
wspermatozoa
w wwwsemen
w wwww
ww is defined as the absencew ofw in the ejaculate ww on at least twowoccasionsw and is w
observed approximately in 1% of the population.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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aa 
l al ia i .
Micro-testicular sperm aal a ia i .
extraction
l (TESE) l
Microsurgicalalia i . sperm retrieval from l a i
the
l a i .
testicle involves a l alia i .
a daadsas small midlinePincision a daadsasin the scrotum, through a adsaasaone or both testicles
dawhich a dacan
asaseen.
adsabe a daadsas
aa
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. .P . .P the seminiferous w P
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ww
ww
ww  Under thew
w w www
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w w
w
wwtubules w wwww. of testicular tissue wwwwwinw
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active sperm production are removed and improved for sperm yield compared to traditional biopsy
grg . rgrg
techniques.
O O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.PaAmniocentesiswww
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.P.Pa a
.P.Pa .P.Pa a a
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wwww w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
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w of the amniotic fluid thatwsurrounds the foetus to diagnose ww for w
grg chromosomal
ila.O .Orgrg abnormalities . i.O.O rgrg i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
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 aAmniocentesis
l a i is generally a l a a
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al i in a pregnant woman l
asal a a i
between the 15 and 20 l a
weeks
l a i of pregnancy by l al a i
adsaasa asmall sample of amniotic adsaasa
th th
a
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a da a long, thin a d
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ww fluid. ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
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 The amniotic fluid contains cells shed from the foetus.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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22.Chorionic
asal al ia i . villus sampling l alia
(CVS) i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
d adsaCVS d saasa
adinvolves d saasa
adthe d adsaachromosomal
sa d adsaasa
.P.Pa 
a is a prenatal test
.P.Pa a
that taking a a
sample
.P.P a
of placental tissue to
.P.P a
test a for a a
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.P.P
wwww ww ww ww ww wwww wwww
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23.Foetoscope
grg  Foetoscope
.O rgrg is used to monitori.O
O the rgrfoetal
O g heart rate and other .O O grg
rfunctions during late pregnancy .O rgrgand labour.
O .O rgrg
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l al ia i .
asaThe average foetal heart l al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsa a daadsaasrate
a is between 120 and 160
a da adsaasbeats
a per minute.
a da adsaasa a da adsaasa
P
. .P  An abnormalwfoetal P
. P heart rate or pattern may P P that the foetus is not
. .mean P .P enough oxygenwand
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www.
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ww
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grg  A hand-held doppler device is often used during prenatal visits to count the foetal heart rate. During labour,
i . O . rgrg electronic foetal monitoring
O i . O . rgrg is often used i.O.O
O rgrg i . O . rgrg
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24. d adsaaslalaIMPORTENS DATES…
VERY d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.PaVitamin E is known w a
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.anti-sterility a
.P.Pina the normal functioning .P.of a
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.P.Pa
ww asw itw ww ww
wwww
ww ww vitamin asw helps ww ww
ww ww ww ww w
 Sex hormones were discovered by Adolf Butenandt.
grg . O rgrg
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l al ia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY HR SEC SCHOOL. d
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.Pa a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.P a a .P.Pa a
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a laal a laal a l
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grg . O rgrg
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l a ia i .
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d adthsaJuly d d saasal Day.
d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
a a
.P.P 1st December is observed .P.asa a
P World AIDS Day. ww .PPa a .P.P a a .P.P a a
ww
ww
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wwwwww
wwww . ww ww ww
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grg
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O i . O . rgrg was established ini.1992.
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 Syphilis l al a i l al a i l al a i l al a i l al a i
a da adsaasa and gonorrhoea are a da adsaasa called as international
commonly
a daadsaasadiseases. a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww 25. BREAST SELFwEXAMINATION ww
w AND EARLY wwww DIAGNOSIS OF CANCER ww ww wwww w
grg o Breast is divided into 4 quadrants and the center (Nipple) which is the 5th quadrant.
i .O . rgrg
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aal a
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daadsas o The examination daisadsadone saasa
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aa
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asa
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 This way if there are lumps or any deviation of the nipple to one side or any blood discharge from the nipple
grg . O rgrgidentify cancer at an iearly
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d adsa Mammograms are d
donead saa slawomen
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.P.Paa a a
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grg . O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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ww
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grg .O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa CHAPTER
a da adsaasa4 Principles
a daadofsaasInheritance
a
a daadsaasa
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grg 1. heredity .O rgrg variations
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l
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asa alia i . l alia i .
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grg each successive generation.
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 sThe a i
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grg 2. multiple . O rgrg
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l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
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w ww w w w w w w w w w w ww
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l a ia. O
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i . O l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O
l l l l l
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ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P .P.P
ww
ww
ww  KarlwLandsteiner
ww
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grg
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4. ased l al a i
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. .P and type ‘O’ (universal
P . .P donor)were recognized.
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P ‘AB’
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ww
ww
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w ww
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(universal recipient) was discovered in 1902 by two of Landsteiner’s students on De Castelle and
grg . O rgrg
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
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.P.Pa .P.Paa a
.P.Pa .P.Paa .P.Pa a
wwww wwww ww ww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY HR SEC SCHOOL.d
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.Pa a .P.P a a a
.P.P a .P.P a a .P.P a a
wwww wwww ww ww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ..
ww P ww.. P ww.. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaasa
Sturli.Genetic basis ofdthe al
adsaashuman ABO blood aasa
adsgroups
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
a da a a a da a da a da
.P.P
ww ww.P.P .P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P .P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P . .P
ww ww. .P ww. .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P .P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww 5. Rhesus or Rhww w
–wFactor wwww wwww wwww w
grg  The rgrg Rh factor or Rhi.antigen rgrg is found on thei.surface rgrg of erythrocytes. rgrg rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a a O
i . O l a a O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O
adsaasa It was discovered
l l l l l
a da a daadsaasin
a 1940 by Karl Landsteiner
a daadsaasa and Alexander
a da
asa
adsaWiener in the blood of
a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww w.P.P Macaca rhesus
rhesuswmonkey, P.P later in human beings.
.and
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
 The term ‘Rh factor’ refers to “immunogenic D antigen of the Rh blood group system.
grg .O rgrgindividual havingi.O
O rgantigen
O rg .O rgrg (Rh+) and thosei.without
O O rgrg D antigen i.O.O
O rgrg
aal alia i . An
aal al a D
i . are Rh Dlapositive
aa lia i . aa l al a i . aal al a i
P a daadsas are Rh D P a daadsas (Rh-)”.
negative P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P . .P
ww ww. .P ww. .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
6. Fisher and Race hypothesis:
grg . O rgrgfactor involves three
O . O rgdifferent
O rg . O rgrglocated on three different
O . O rgrg closely
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . Rh a i i . pairs of i i
alleles
a . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa linked loci a
on
.P.Pa the chromosome a
pair.
.P.Pa This system is more a
commonly
.P.Pa in use today,a
.P.Pa and
wwww w ww
w wwww w ww
w w ww
w
ww w w 'Cde' nomenclature.w
uses the w w w w w w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww ww
ww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww ww
ww wwww wwww w
grg 7. Fischeri.O and rgrgRace hypothesisi.–O.O
O rgrgBlood Type - Homologous
Rh .O rgrg
O Chromosome .O rgpair
O rg (showing 3 i.O rgrg
O
l al a i . l al a i l alia i . l alia i . l al a i .
a adsaasand
daloci
a 2 alleles per locus)
a
aa
daadsas a
aa
daadsas a
aa
daadsas a daadsas
aa
wwP
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P P
. .P
wand
w ww P
. .P
ww
ww  In the wwwabove
w Fig. 4.1, threewpairs ww
w of Rh alleles (Cc,wDd ww
w Ee) occur at 3wdifferent ww
w loci w
grg on
rgrghomologous chromosome rgrg pair-1. rgrg rgrg rgrg
a i . O
i . O
a The possible genotypes a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
d adsaaslal d adsaaslala will be one dCador a D or d, one E or
lalone
saasc, d ad
a each
saaselalfrom d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.PaFor e.g. CDE/cde; .P a
.Pa a a a
.P.Pa
ww chromosome.
ww ww CdE/cDe; cde/cde;wCDe/CdEw.P.P etc., ww
ww
ww wwww ww
ww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a l
a al a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww .. P ww .. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
ww ww ww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa All genotypes d saasal a dominant ‘D’
adcarrying d
asal will produce Rh+positive
adsaallele d adsaasa
l phenotypedand adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a a
.P.P give rise to Rh-negative a a
.P.P phenotype. a
.P.P a
wwww double w
wwrecessive
w genotype w ‘dd’
wwwwill
w wwww wwww
ww ww w ww ww w
grg 8. Wiener .O rgrg
Hypothesis
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa Wiener proposed a daadsaasthea existence of eight
a da
asa (R1, R2, R0, Rz,
adsaalleles a daadsaasr,a r1, r11, ry) at aasingle daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww ww ww
Rh locus. wwww wwww wwww w
grg  All
rgrg genotypes carrying a dominant
rgrg ‘R allele’ (R1,
rgrg R2 ,R0 ,Rz) will produce
rgrg rgrg
l alia.Oi . O
Rh+positive phenotypel alia.Oi . Oand double recessive l alia.Oi . O
genotypes (rr, rr1, l ali
rr11,a.Oi . O
rry) will give rise l alia.Oi . O
aa aa aa aa aa
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P . .P phenotype. ww
to Rh-negative . P . .P . .P
ww
ww
ww
w w
ww
ww w ww .
w w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
w
9. Erythoblastosis foetalis
grg  . O rgrg
O
Usually no effects are . O rgrg
O
associated with exposure . O rgrof
O g the mother to Rh.Opositive rgrg antigen
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala during the first d ad saaslalabirth, subsequent
child d adsa
Rh
aslala
positive children d adsaaslalaby the same mother,
carried d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww  maywbe wwexposed
w w w ww
w w wagainst
w w w ww
w
ww w to antibodies w w produced by the w
motherw Rh antigen, w which
w are w
grg carried
rgrg across the placenta rgrginto the foetal blood rgcirculation.
rg rgrg rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O
l l of foetal RBCssresulting l al l
a daadsaasa This causesahaemolysis daadsaasa a da adaasa in haemolytic
a daadsaasjaundice and anaemia.
a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P is known as Erythoblastosis
This condition ww .P.P foetaliswor w.P .P
Haemolytic disease .Pthe
wofw .P
ww
ww ww ww wwww wwww wwww w
new born (HDN).
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a aadsaasa
10.dautosomes.
a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww ww ww wwww wwww wwww w
 Sex chromosomes determine the sex of the individual in dioecious or unisexual
grg O rgrg
O
.organisms. .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . asal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas The chromosomes P a daadsaother than the sexP a daadsas
chromosomes of an P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww  individual ww ww are called autosomes. wwww wwww wwww w
grg 11.Y CHROMOSOME . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala  The human d ad
lala
Ysaaschromosome is only d adsaasla
60
la
Mb in size with a60 d a saaslala genes whereas
functional
d d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
P.Pa
.in .Pa
.Pgenes. a
.P.Pa
wwww X w ww
chromosomes
w are 165wMb w ww
w size with about w ww
1,000
w w ww
w
ww ww w w w w w w
grg 12.Prevention . O rgrof
O g Eryhroblastosis . O rgrg
foetalis
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
l negative and foetus l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaasa  If the mother asaRh
adsais adsaasais Rh positive, aanti al
adsaDasantibodies should adsaasa
be
l
a da a da a da da a da
.P.P
ww ww.P.P to the mother w .P.P and 34th week of ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww ww ww
administered wwwwatw28th wwww gestation ww
as a prophylactic
ww w
grg
i . O . rgrgmeasure.
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l al a i  If the Rh negative l al a imother delivers Rh l al a i
positive child then anti l al
D a i
antibodies should l al a i
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww .P.P
be administered
ww to the mother ww .Psoon
.P after delivery. ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww w www w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w
 This develops passive immunity and prevents the formation of anti D antibodies in
grg .O rgrgthe mothers bloodi.O
O by rgdestroying
O rg the Rh foetal
.O rgrgRBC before the mother’s
O .O rgrg immune
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsas systemPisad adsaasa
sensitized.
a a daadsas
aa
a daadsas
aa
a
aa
daadsas
wwP
. .P . .P
whas
w ww P
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww  w ww
This
w to be done whenever wwww the woman attains wwwpregnancy.
w wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
i
13.Heterogametic
a i . Sex Determination:a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala  In heterogametic d ad saaslalasex determination d ad
aslala
saone of the sexes d ad
produces
la
saaslasimilar gametes d
andadsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww w
thewother sex produces dissimilar w w gametes. w w w w w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a l
a al a l
a al a l
a al a l
a al a l
a al
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaasa  The sex aofdaathe al
saasoffspring l
adsaasaat the time of fertilization
is determined adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
a da d a da a da a da
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww w ww
w w ww
w wwww wwww w
14.Heterogametic Males
grg  .O rgrg
In
O this method of sexi.O rgrg
determination
O the males .O O grgheterogametic producing
rare .O Orgrg dissimilar i.O.O rgrg
l alia i . l al a i . l alia i. l alia i. l al a i
a daadsaasa gametes while a da
saasa are homogametic
adfemales a daadsaasproducing
a similar
a daadsaasa
gametes. a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww  It iswof ww.P.P .P.PXX-XY type.
wand
w ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww ww
w two kinds XX-XO type wwww ww
ww ww
ww w
grg 15.XX-XO .O rgrg
Type
O .O Orgrg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
saassex
a determinationasaasa
daadsas
aa aa
daadsas
aa
daadsas
P
. .P adaadof
type adad P
. .P P a
. .P P
. .Pa P a
. .P
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww w w w w
 This method of sex determination is seen in bugs, some insects such as cockroaches w w w w w
grg . O rgrg grasshoppers. i.O.O
and
O rgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa  The female a a two X chromosomes
.P.Pwith a
.P.Pa are homogametic a
.Pa while the males
.P(XX) a
P.Pa
.with
wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww w w X chromosomeare w
only one w heterogametic (XO). w w w w w
grg O rgrg presence of an unpaired O rgrg X chromosomes O rgrg O rgrg O rgrg
l a
li
a . i . O
The la lia. i . O l alia. i . O
determines the male l ali . i
sex.
a . O l alia. i . O
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww  The males ww.P.with
P unpaired ‘X’ chromosome ww.P.P produce w w.Ptypes
two .P of sperms, one .P.Pwith
whalf
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w w
X chromosome and other half without X chromosome.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa The sex of the a da
saasa
adoffspring depends upon
a da
asasperm that fertilizes
adsathe a daadsaasthe
a egg
a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aa l alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
dsaaslala type (LygaeusdadType)
16.dXX-XY
a saaslalatype of sex determination
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa This method of a
P.Padetermination is seen
.sex a
.P.Pina human beings and a
.PaDrosophila. www
.Pin a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww www w
 The females are homogametic with XX chromosome, while the males are heterogametic with
grg X aand . O rgrchromosome.
Y
O g . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
al
adsaasHomogametic females al
adsaasproduce only oneakind
l
adsaasofa egg, each withaone
l
asachromosome,
adsaX while adsaasa
l
a da a da da da a da
.P.P the heterogametic .P.Pmales produce twowkinds .PP .P.PX chromosome and .P.P
ww
ww
ww
wwwwww
wwwww. of sperms some wwwwwwith
w wwwwww some w
with Y chromosome.
grg  The .Osex rgrof
O g the embryo depends .O rgrgon the fertilizing isperm.
O .O rgrg An egg fertilized
O .O byrgran
O g ‘X’ bearing .O.O rgrg
l alia i .
asa produces a female, l alia i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i
a daadsasperm a daadsaasaif fertilized by aada‘Y’ adsaasbearing
a sperm, a amale
daadsaais
saproduced
a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aa l alia i . aal ali
a i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
dsaaslala
17.dHeterogametic
a Females d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a i
a i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a i
a i . l a i
a i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a
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a laal a l
a al a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P
ww
ww ww
ww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l
asala ia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasIna this method ofasex
 daadsadetermination, a aadsaasa
the homogametic
d male possesses
a daadsaasatwo ‘X’ chromosomes a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww as in certainwinsectsw.P.P and certain vertebrates ww.P.P like fishes, reptiles ww.P.and
P birds producingwaw .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww single w
type of gamete; while females produce dissimilar gametes.
grg  The .O rgrg sex consists ofi.aO.O
female
O rgrg ‘X’ chromosome
single .O rgor
O rgone ‘X’ and onei.‘Y’ O rgchromosome.
O rg .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l al a i l alia i . l al a i . l alia i .
a da adsaasThus
a the females areasheterogametic
a da d aasa aadsaasa two types of eggs.
and aproduce
d a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  To avoid confusion .P.P with the XX-XOwand .PP .P.determination,
P .P.P
ww
ww
ww ww
ww
ww
wwwww. XX-XY typeswofw wwww
sex the
ww
ww
walphabets
w w
‘Z’ and ‘W’ are used here instead of X and Y respectively.
grg  Heterogametic
.O rgrg
O females are .Oof rgtwo
O rg types, ZO-ZZ type .O rgrand
O g ZW-ZZ type. .O.O rgrg .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i l alia i .
18. saasa Type
daadZO-ZZ daadsas
aa aa
daadsas
aa
daadsas
aa
daadsas
P a
.P of sex determination
. type P
. .Pa P a
. .P P a
. .P P a
. .P
wwww ww ww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
 This method of sex determination is seen in certain moths, butterflies and
grg . O rgrg domestic chickens.
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala  In this d a
type,
d
la
saaslathe female possesses
d ad
lala
saassingle ‘Z’ chromosomed ad
lala
saasin its body cells and
d ad aaslala
sis
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww ww
wheterogametic
w (ZO) w w ww
producing
w two kinds of w ww
eggs
w some with ‘Z’ ww
chromosome
w w and
ww ww w w w ww w
grg some without ‘Z’ gchromosome, while thegmale possesses two ‘Z’ chromosomes
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . r rg
O i . O . r rg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
l al a i and is homogametic
l al a i (ZZ). l al a i l al a i l al a i
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww ww
ww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww ww
ww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a adsaasa
daZW-ZZ a daadsas
aa
a
aa
daadsas a
aa
daadsas a
aa
daadsas
wwP19.
. .P type ww P
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww  This method wof
ww w sex determinationwoccurs ww
w in certain insects www(gypsy
w moth) and inwvertebrates
www w
grg such asrgfishes, rg reptiles and birds. rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
asIn la method the female
aslathis la one ‘Z’ and onesas‘W’
saaslahas lala chromosome (ZW) la
saaslaproducing two types aslala
saof
a d d a a d ad a d ad a a d ad a d ad
.P.Pa eggs, some carrying
ww ww.P.Pathe Z chromosomes ww.P.P
anda some carry the W
ww Pa
.P.chromosome. ww.P.Pa
ww
ww  The male sex w w w
w has two ‘Z’ chromosomes w w
w w and is homogametic w w w
w (ZZ) producing a single w w w
w type of w
grg sperm
. O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aa l alia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
wwww .P Sex determintion
. 20.
wwww.in.Phuman beings ww
ww .
. P
wwww. .P
wwww. .P
ww ww w w
 Genes determining sex in human beings are located on two sex chromosomes, called w w ww w
grg allosomes.
. O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslaInlamammals, sex ddetermination
 adsaaslala is associated
d ad
lala chromosomal differences
saaswith d adsaaslala between the d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa two sexes,wtypically a
.P.Pa XX females and a
P.Pamales. 23 pairs of
.XY a
P.Pa chromosomeswinclude
.human a
.P.Pa 22
wwww ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
ww ww
pairs of autosomes w
(44A) and onewpair of sex chromosomes w w (XX or XY). ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
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ww ww ww ww ww w
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a laa l a laal a l
a al a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ..
ww P ww.. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l alia i . l a ia i .
l of gametes (egg), l alia i . l a ia i .
d saasaFemales
ad adsaasa producing only
are homogametic
d d saasatype
adone d adsaasaeach containingaone d sal
adsaaX
.P.Pa a a a
.P.P the males are heterogametic a
.P.P a a a
.P.Ptypes of sperms with .P.X a
P and
wwww chromosome ww ww
while wwww producing wwwtwo
w wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
Y chromosomes.
grg  An .O rgrg
independently
O evolved .O rgrg XY system of sex
XX:
O .O rgrg
chromosomes
O also aexist .O rginrgDrosophila
O .O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i . l lia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww .P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal a lia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww . .P
ww ww. .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww 21.Barr body. ww ww ww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww w
grg  In 1949, Barr and Bertramgfirst observed a condensed body in the nerve g cells of female
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . r rg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . r rg
O i . O . rgrg
O
l a
al a i
cat which was absent l aina i the male. l a a i l a a i l a a i
d adsaas This condensed d saasalwas called sex chromatin
abody
d d
l
adsaasa by them andawas d sal referred as Barr
adsaalater d adsaasa
l
.P.Pa a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww body.ww ww ww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww w
grg rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
l a
22.KinaSelection
lia.Oi .O l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O
a da
sasa
ad All other females a d adsaasa are diploid having
which
a a da
asa
adsadeveloped from a d adsaasaeggs help to raise
fertilized
a a daadsaasa
the
.P.P
ww .P.P
ww ww.P.P .P.P
wsuccess
w .P.P
wtow
ww
ww queen’s w ww
eggs
w and so contribute w wthe
tow w queen’s reproductive wwww and indirectly wwww their w
grg own,ragrg phenomenon known ras grgKin Selection. .OO rgrg rgrg rgrg
 l a
Theia. O
i . O
queen constructs l a
theiria. O
i . O
social environment l a
byia i .
releasing a hormone l a ia.O
thati . O suppresses l a ia.Oi . O
aa l aa l aa l aa l aa l
P a daadsas fertility of the P a daadsas
workers. P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww . .P
ww ww. .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg 23.haplodiploidy rgrg mechanism i.O.O rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
a i . O
i . O a i a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa  In hymenopteran a
.P.Pa insects such aswhoneybees, a
.P.Pa ants and wasps a
.P.Paamechanism of sex a
.P.Pa
wwww w www w w w w ww
w w ww
w
ww w w
determination called haplodiploidy w w
w mechanism of sexwdetermination is common w w w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a aadsaasa
24.haplodiplody
d a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww  Fertilizedweggs .P.P develop into females
w ww.P.P(Queen or Worker)wand .P.Punfertilized eggs develop
w ww .P.P
ww
ww w w
w w
into males (drones) by parthenogenesis. w w
w w w w
w w w w
w w w
grg  .ItOO rgrg that the malesi.O
means havergrghalf the number iof
O .O rgrg
chromosomes
O (haploid) .O rgand
O rg the females i.O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l al a i . l al a i . l alia i . l al a i .
a daadsaasa have double the a da
saasa (diploid), hence
adnumber a da
asaname haplodiplody
adsathe a da
asa this system of sexasaasa
adsafor adad
ww.P.P determination.ww.P.P w .P.P
w w .P.P
w w w.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg 25. Colour blindness rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
 l a ia O
.human
i . O l a ia.Oi . O – l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O
aa Inl beings a dominant
saasa l X linked gene aais l necessary for the l
formation
aa of colour aa l
P a daadsas sensitive cells,Pthe a daacones.
d P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww  The recessive wwww form of this genewisw wincapable
w of producing wwwwcolour sensitive cone wwwcells.
w w
grg Homozygous rgrg recessive females rgrg (XcXc) and hemizygous rgrg recessive males (XcY)
rgrg are unable i.O.O rgrg
a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i
d adsaaslatoladistinguish reddand ad
lala colour.
saasgreen d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa  The inheritance a
.P.Pofacolour blindnesswcan a
.PPbe a studied in the following a
.P.Pa two types of marriages. a
.P.Pa
ww
ww
ww
wwww ww
wwwww. wwwwww
wwwwww
w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a
wwww ww ww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
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a l
a a l a laal a laal a l
a al a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P ww.. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a aadsaasa
26.dKaryotyping
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P .P.P is a technique through .P.Pwhich a completewset .PP .P.P
ww
ww
ww  Karyotyping
wwwwww
wwww ww
wwwww. of chromosomes www wseparated
isw w w
from a cell and the chromosomes are arranged in pairs.
grg  .OAn rgridiogram
O g refers to .aO rgrg
diagrammatic
O .O
representation rgrg of chromosomes.
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P27.
ww .P karyotype ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
 The individual chromosomes are cut from the photograph and are arranged in an
grg .O rgrg fashion in homologous
O
orderly .O rgrg
O pairs. .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aa l a lia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas  This arrangement P a daadsasis called a karyotype. P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P
ww
ww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww w
28.Applications of Karyotyping:
grg  It helps . O rgin
O rg gender identification. . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i .
aslaislaused to detect theasachromosomal a
aslalai i . a i
la i . a i i . a i i .
dadsaIt d d aberrations
d ad saaslalike deletion, a saaslala translocation, dadsaaslala
duplication,
d d
a
.P.Pa nondisjunctionww a a
P.Pchromosomes.
.of a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa aa
.P.P
wwww ww ww w w www w www w
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg  It helps to identify the abnormalities of chromosomes like aneuploidy.
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
sIt l a
isl a i
also used in predicting l al a i
the evolutionary a a
relationships
l l i between species.l al a i l al a i
a d adaasa a d adsaasa a d adsaasa a d adsaasa a d adsaasa
.P.P  Genetic diseases
a .P.in a
P human beings canww a
PPdetected by this technique.
.be .P.P a .P.P a
ww
ww
ww
wwwwww
wwww . wwwwww
wwwwww
w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
29.Human asal a lia i .
Karyotype l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
d adsaDepending d saasa
adposition d adsaasand
a
d adofsaastwo
a
d adsaasa
a
.P.P a upon .P.P a
the a of the .P.Pa
centromere a relative a
length
.P.P a arms, human a
.P.P a
wwww chromosomes wwware
w of three types: ww ww ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww w
grg Metacentric, rgrg sub metacentric rand
grg acrocentric. The.O photograph
rgrg of chromosomes rgrg are arranged i.O.O rgrg
in l a i
thea. O
i . O
order of descending l a ia. Oi
length. O in groups from l aAia i .
to O G l a ia. O
i . O l a a i
aa l aa l aa l aa l aa l
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa .P.Paa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww ww ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg 30.Pedigree .O Ogrg
rAnalysis .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
daadsas Pedigree is aPa “family
daadsas tree”, drawn with daadstandard
saasa genetic symbols, daadsasshowing the Padaadsas
aa aa aa aa
P a
. .P inheritance .P
.pathway for specific P
. .Pa P a
. .P . .P
wwww wwww ww wphenotypic
w characterswww
w wwww
ww w w w w
 Pedigree analysis is the study of traits as they have appeared in a given family line for w w ww w
grg . rgrg past generations
several
O O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
31.d a saaslala
Thalassemia
d d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa  Thalassemia .P a
Pa a
.P.Padisorder. It is caused a
.P.Pbya a
.P.Pa in
ww
ww
ww
wwwwww is. an autosomal recessive wwww ww
wwwwww gene mutation wwwww w
resulting w
excessive destruction of RBC’s due to the formation of abnormal haemoglobin molecules.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a lia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a .P.P a a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww wwww ww ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a l
a al a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww.. P ww .. P ww .. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i .
asalNormally haemoglobin l alia i . l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsa d adsaasa is composed aofdaadfour saasapolypeptide chains,
d sal alpha and twodabeta
adsaatwo dsaasal
a
.P.P a .P.Pa a .P.P .P.Pa a a
.P.P a
wwww globin chains. ww ww wwww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
 Thalassemia patients have defects in either the alpha or beta globin chain causing the
grg .O rgrg
O
production of abnormal O rgrg
O
.haemoglobin molecules .O rgrg
O
resulting in anaemia. .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasaThalassemia isadclassified aadsaasa into alphaaand daadsaasbeta
a
based on d adsaasachain of haemoglobin
which
a a a daadsaasa
ww.P.P .P.P
waffected.
w ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww molecule wwwisw wwww wwww wwww w
grg  It is controlledrgrg by two closely rgrlinked
g genes HBA1 rand grg HBA2 on chromosome rgrg 16. Mutation i.O.O rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a i
aaor l deletion of one or more
aa l of the four alpha gene
aa l alleles causes Alpha aa l
Thalassemia. In Betaaa l
P a daadsasThalassemia, production P a daadsas of beta globin P a daadsasis affected. Padaadsas
chain P a daadsas
ww. .P ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww  It is controlledwwww by a single gene www(HBB)
w on chromosome wwww 11. It is the most common wwww type of w
grg Thalassemia
rgrg and is also known rgrg as Cooley’s anaemia. rgrg rgrg rgrg
a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
d adsaaslalaIn this disorder thesasalpha
d ad a
lala chain production
d ad
a
lalincreased
saasis and damages
d adsaaslalathe membranesdof adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa RBC. w.P.Pa a .P.Paa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww www wwww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
32.Phenylketonuria
grg  . O rgrisg an inborn error of
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg caused due to ai.pair
O O rgrof
O g autosomal . O rgrg
O
l alia i . It l
asala ia i .Phenylalanine metabolism
l alia i . l
asala a i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa recessive genes. a daadsaIt is caused due toamutation daadsaasa in the gene PAH a daadsa(phenylalanine a daadsaasa
ww.P.P hydroxylaseww .P.Pgene) located on chromosome ww .P.P 12 for w the
.P.P enzyme “phenylalanine
whepatic
w ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww ww
w wwww w
hydroxylase” This enzyme is essential for the conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine.
grg .O rgrg .O rgrgthis enzyme, so phenylalanine.O rgrg .O grg
rand .O rgrg
l a
lia i . O
Affected individual l ali i
lacks
a . O l alia i . O accumulates l alia i . O gets l alia i . O
a daadsaasa converted toadaphenylpyruvic adsaasa acid and a daadsaasaderivatives. adaadsaasa
other a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww  It iswcharacterized
ww
w by severe www w
mental retardation, light wwwwpigmentation of skinww w w
and hair. w
grg Phenylpyruvic acid is excreted in the urine.
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
aal al a i aal al a i aal al a i aal al a i aal al a i
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
dsaaslala
33.dAlbinism
a d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa  Albinism .P a
is.Pana inborn error of metabolism, .P.Paa caused due .P.P
to
a
anaautosomal recessive
a a
.P.Pgene.
wwww w ww
w w ww
w w www w ww
w
ww Melaninw w pigment is responsible w w for skin colour. w w ww w
grg i.O rgrg of melanin results
Absence
O . O rgrgin a condition called
O . O rgalbinism.
O rg A personi.with O rgrgthe recessive
O . O rgrg
O
l al a i . l alia i . l a ia i . l a a i . l a ia i .
adsaasa allele lacks the adsaasa
tyrosinase enzyme system, al
adsaaswhich is required dfor asal conversion of asaasal
adsathe
a da a da a da a a adad
w.wP.P dihydroxyphenylw .wP.P alanine (DOPA) w .wPinto
. P melanin pigmentww P.P the melanocytes.
.inside w .wP.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
 In an albino, melanocytes are present in normal numbers in their skin, hair, iris, etc.,
grg .O rgrglack melanin pigment.
but
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w wwww w
34.Huntington’s chorea
grg  . O rgrisg inherited as an autosomal
It
O . O rgrg dominant lethal
O . O Ogrg in man.
rgene . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala It is characterized d ad
la involuntary jerking
saaslaby d ad
la the body and progressive
saaslaof d adsaaslala degeneration d adsaaslala
of
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pasystem, .P.Paa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww the nervous
ww ww wwww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a .P.Pa a .P.P a a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a
wwww ww ww wwww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a l
a al a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww .. P ww .. P ww.. P ww.. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O Orgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l al ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaasa  accompanied al
saasgradual
aby mental andda saasal deterioration.dThe
physical l
adsaasapatients with thisadaadsaasa
l
a da a da d a a d a a
.P.P .P.P die between the P.P of 35 and 40. ww
.age .PP .P.P
ww
ww
ww disease
wwwwwusually
w wwwwww
wwww . wwwwww
w
grg .O rgrg
O .O Orgrg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
35.Chromosomal
l al ia i . Abnormalities l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa Each human diploid
a daadsaas(2n)
a
body cell a
has da46
asa
adsachromosomes (23 a d adsaasaChromosomal adaadsaasa
pairs).
a
.P.P
ww ww .P.P w w.P.P .P.P
wof
w ww.P.P
ww
ww disorders wwwware caused by errorswin ww
w the number or structure wwww chromosomes. ww ww w
grg  Chromosomal rgrg anomalies usually rgrg occur when there isgan error in cell division.
rg rgrg Failure of rgrg
i . O
i . O i . O
i . O i . O
i . O r i . O
i . O i .Oi . O
aal al a
chromatids to segregate l al a
during cell division l al a
resulting in the gain or a
loss
l l a of one or more l al a
a daadsas chromosomesPisadcalled aadsaasaaneuploidy. adaadsaasa a
aa
daadsas a
aa
daadsas
ww P
. .P ww . .P ww P
. .P w P
. .P P
. .P
wthat
ww
ww  It is caused wwww by non-disjunction www
ofwchromosomes. ww
Group wwofwsigns and symptoms wwww w occur w
grg together
rgrg and characterize argparticular
rg abnormalityrgis rgcalled a syndrome. In
rgrghumans, rgrg
i . O
i . O i . O
i . O i . O
i . O i . O
i . O i . O
i . O
d a saaslalDown’s
a a syndrome,sa
d a a
Turner’s
a
slala syndrome, Klinefelter’s
d a
a
saaslala syndrome, sPatau’s
d a aaslala syndrome are asaaslala
a a
a
.P.Pa d some of the.examples a
P.Pa d of chromosomal a d
.P.Padisorders. a
.P.Pa d adad
.P.P
wwww www w www w www w www w
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg 36.Down’s Syndrome/Trisomyrgrg – 21 rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O
al
adsaasTrisomic conditiondad al
ofsaaschromosome l
adsaasain Down’s syndrome.
- 21 results adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
a da a a a da a da a da
ww.P.P  It is characterized ww .P.P by severe mentalww .P.P .P.P
wdevelopment ww.P.P
ww
ww w ww
w w ww retardation,
w
defective
w ww
w
w of the central
wwww w
nervous system, increased separation between the eyes, flattened nose, ears are malformed,
grg mouth.O rgrgis constantly openi.O
O and Orgrgthe tongue protrudes. .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l al ia i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P37.
.P Patau’s Syndrome/Trisomy-13 ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg  Trisomic
rgrg condition of chromosome
rgrg 13 results in Patau’s
rgrg syndrome. Meioticrgrg non rgrg
l al ia.Oi . O
disjunction is thought l alia O
.to
i . Obe the cause for this
l alia O
i . O
.chromosomal abnormality.
l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O
aa aa aa aa aa
P a daadsas  It is characterized P a daadsasby multiple andPasevere daadsasbody malformations P a daadsaass well as profound P a daadsas
ww. .P w . .P
w ww . .P ww. .P ww. .P
ww
ww mentalwwwwdeficiency. wwww wwww wwww w
grg Small head with rgrgsmall eyes, clefti.palate, rgrg malformation ofi.O the rgrbrain
g and internal organs rgrg are some of i.O.O rgrg
a i . O
i . O a O
i . O a i . O a i . O
i . O a i
d d saaslala of this syndrome.
the symptoms
a d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww 38.Allosomal abnormalities wwww in humanwbeings w ww
w w ww
w wwww
ww ww w w w ww w
grg  Mitoticrgorg meiotic non-disjunction rgrg of sex chromosomes rgrgcauses allosomali.abnormalities.rgrg rgrg
i . O
i . O r i . O
i . O i . O
i . O O
i . O i . O
i . O
sSeveral
l
asala a sex chromosomal l a a
abnormalities
l have l
beenal a detected. l al a l al a
a d
aadaEg. Klinefelter’s d adsaasa and Turner’s asyndrome.
syndrome
a a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww 39.Klinefelter’swSyndrome ww
w (XXY Males) wwww wwww wwww w
grg  This .O rgrg disorder is due
genetic
O .O toOrgrthe
g presence of an .additional O rgrg
O copy of the iX .O rgrg
chromosome
O .O rgrg
O
l al ia i . l alia i . l alia i . l al a i . l alia i .
a daadsaasresulting
a in a karyotype
a daadsaasaof 47,XXY. a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  Persons with w .P.Psyndrome have 47wchromosomes .PP .P.P .P.P
ww
ww
ww
w wwthis
w
w w www.
w
(44AA+XXY).
w ww
w
ww
wwwwww
w
 They are usually sterile males, tall, obese, with long limbs, high pitched voice, under
grg developed
.O rgrg genitalia and have
O .O O grg breast (gynaecomastia)
rfeeble .O rgrg
O developmenti.O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l al ia i . l alia i . l alia i . l al a i . l alia i .
a aadsaasa Syndromea(XO
40.dTurner’s aa
daadsasFemales) a
aa
daadsas a
aa
daadsas a
aa
daadsas
ww P
. .P P
. .P
wdisorder
w ww P
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww  This genetic wwww is due to the wwwloss
w of a X chromosome wwww resulting in a karyotype wwww of 45,X. w
grg rg g rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
ala ila.O
Persons
a i.Or with this syndrome a i . O
i . O have 45 chromosomes a i . O
i . O
(44 autosomes and a i
one. O
i . OX chromosome) a i . O
i . O
d ad sas d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa (44AA+XO) and a
.P.Pa are sterile females. a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww  Lowwstature, w ww
w webbed neck, w ww
w
under developed breast, w ww
w
rudimentary gonads w
lackwwofw
ww w w w w w ww w
grg menstrual
rgrg cycle during rpuberty, grg are the main symptoms rgrg of this syndrome. rgrg rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O
l asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY sal al l
a daadsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. a daadsaB.ED, a daadsaaPRESIDENCY d adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10
HR SEC SCHOOL.
a a a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laa l a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww.. P ww .. P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w
UNIT II 5. MOLECULAR GENETICS
grg O rgrg
O
.gene-one .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
1. sOne l alia i . enzyme l
hypothesisalia i . l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  The experiments .P.P
of George Beadle and .P.P
Edward Tatum in the early 1940’s
.P.P on Neurospora crassa.P.P red
(the
w ww
w w www w ww
w w ww
w w www
ww bread mould) wwled them to propose one w w
gene-one enzyme hypothesis, wwwhich states that one gene wwcontrols the w
grg production
. O rgrgof one enzyme. i.O.O
O rgrg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l
asa alia i . aa l al a i aal a lia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a da2.adsaOne gene-one polypeptide
P a daadsashypothesis P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww . .P . .P
wbe
w ww. .P ww. .P
ww
ww  It was www w
observed that an enzymewmay ww
w composed of morewthan ww
w one polypeptide chain wwww
and a gene can w
code for only one polypeptide chain.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
ai i . Thus one gene-one a i
polypeptidei . hypothesis states a i
that i . one gene controls the a i i .
production of only one a i i .
d a dsaaslala polypeptide chain d ad
lala
saofasan d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa enzyme molecule.a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w www w ww
w w ww
w w www
ww w w
3. Gene as the functional unit of inheritance
w w w w w w w
grg . O rgrg
following
O properties: .OO rgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l
asala ia i . l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaNumber d aasa
adsorganism d saasal
adnumber d saasal
adhence d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a of genes in a
.P.P a
each is more than
.P.Pa a
the of chromosomes; a
.P.P a several genes are
.P.Pa a
located
wwww ww ww wwww ww ww ww ww
ww on the samewchromosome.
w ww ww ww w
grg  The genes rgrgare arranged in a single grg order like beads on
rlinear Ogrg rgrg rgrg
arstring.
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . l a ia.Oi . O l a ia.Oi . O
l l l l l
a da d aasa gene occupies aaspecific
asEach
daadsaasaposition called locus. a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P  Genes may existwinw .P.P w .P.P alleles.
w ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww several alternate forms
wwwwcalled
wwww wwww w
 Genes may undergo sudden change in positions and composition called mutations.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O O rgrg
O
.copies. .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
 Genes
aal alia i .
are capable of self-duplication
aa l alia i . producing their own
aal a lia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P 4. chromosomes ww . P . .P . .P . .P
ww
ww
ww
wwww . wwwwww
wwww ww
wwww ww
w
 As early as 1848, Wilhelm Hofmeister, a German botanist, had observed that cell nuclei organize
grg . O rgrg into small, rod like
O . O O grg during mitosis called
rbodies . O rgrchromosomes
O g . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a
aslala i .
themselves
i a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d 5.adsanuclein d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa Miescher, a Swiss a
P.Pa isolated a substance
.physician, a a
.P.Pfrom a
Pa it
.P.called
wwww In 1869,
ww wFriedrich
w wwww ww ww the cell nuclei ww ww
and
ww ww ww ww ww w
as nuclein
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal a lia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww . .P ww. .P ww. .P ww. .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d a dsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww ww ww wwww ww ww ww ww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a
wwww ww ww wwww ww ww ww ww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a l a
al a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
.P.Paa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww ww ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aa
Nitrogenous l alia i .
bases asal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas The bases are nitrogen P a daadsacontaining moleculesP a daadsas the chemical properties
having P a daadsaofs a base (a substance P a daadsas
that
. .P
ww ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P
ww
ww accepts H+ wwwion
w or proton in solution). wwww wwww ww ww w
grg  DNArgand rg RNA both have four rbases
grg (two purines and two rgpyrimidines)
rg in their nucleotide rgrg chain. Two of i.O.O rgrg
a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i
la bases, Adenine (A)saand
saaslathe slalaGuanine (G) haveddouble la
saaslacarbon–nitrogen saaslala and are calleddadsaaslala
ring structures
a d ad a d ad a a ad a d ad aa
ww.P.Pa purines.
w w.P.Pa w w.P.Pa w w.P.Pa w w.P.P
ww
ww  The bases, wwwThymine
w (T), Cytosine (C) wwwand
w Uracil (U) have single wwwwring structure and theseware wwwcalled w
grg . rgrg
pyrimidines.
O O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia
 Thymine
l i . l a ia i .
l while Uracil is unique l a ia i
l RNA. . l alia i . l alia i .
adsaasa adaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa
is unique forsDNA, for
a da a da a da a da a da
.Pribozyme.
.P .P.Pbiochemical reactionsww .PP .P.P by RNA. This catalytic .P.P RNA
ww
ww
ww There are ww
ww
wseveral
w wwwwin .living systems thatware ww
w
wcatalysed
w ww wwww
w
is known as ribozyme.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa of genetic material
Properties
a da
saasa versus RNA) dadsaasa
ad(DNA a a a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P w w.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww  Self Replication: wwww It should be able to replicate. wwww According to the rule wwww ww
of base pairing and complementarity, ww w
grg both nuclecacids (DNA and RNA) have the ability to direct duplications. Proteins fail to fulfill this criteria
Stability:lalia.O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
aa i aa l al a i aal al a i aal al a i aal al a i
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P  It should be stable ww .P
.structurally and chemically. ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww w ww
w w www w
 The genetic material should be stable enough not to change with different stages of life cycle, age or with
grg change . O rgrphysiology
in
O g of the organism. . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i .
aslala as one of property a i
la i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
dadsaStability d ad saasoflagenetic material wasd ad saaslalaevident in Griffith’s
clearly d ad
aslala
satransforming principle. dasaasal
d
l a
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.Pa a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww.. P ww.. P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P
ww
ww ww ww wwww ww ww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i .
asal which killed the bacteria l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaHeat adsaasadid not destroy some adof al properties of geneticasa
saasthe asal In DNA the twoasaasal
material.
a da a da a da a da d adad
w.wP.P strands being complementary, w.wP.P if separated w .wP.P
(denatured) by heating canw .wP.Ptogether (renaturation)
come w .wP. P
when
ww
ww ww ww ww ww
appropriate w w
condition is provided. ww ww ww w
grg  Information .O rgrg storage: It shouldi.O
O be rgable
O rg to express itself ini.O the rgform
O rg of ‘Mendelian characters’. .O rgrg
O RNA can .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l al a i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasdirectly
a code for protein
a da
saasa
adsynthesis and can easilydexpress
a a adsaasa the characters. adaadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww ww ww wwww ww ww wwww w
grg  DNA, .O rgrg depends on RNA
O .O rgrgsynthesis of proteins.i.O.O
O rgrg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i .however l alia i . for l al a i l alia i . l alia i .
a adsaasBoth
da
a DNA and RNA can
a
asaas a genetic material,abut
daadsaact a
aa
dadsasDNA being morePstable a
asa the genetic information
daadsastores a daadsas
aa
P
. .P P P genetic information.ww
. .the P
. P . .P P
. .P
ww
ww
ww and RNA transfers ww ww ww
wwww . ww ww ww
wwwwww
w
 Variation through mutation: It should be able to mutate. Both DNA and RNA are able to mutate. RNA
grg . O rgrg mutates at a faster
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
being a i i .
unstable, a i i .
rate. a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala Thus viruses having d ad
lala
saasRNA genome with d a
shorterd
lala
saaslife span can mutate d
andad
aslala
saevolve faster. DNA d ad saaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww ww
Replicationww wwww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
 Replication of DNA takes place during the S phase of cell cycle.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
 During l
asala ia i . replication, each DNA l alia i .
molecule gives rise to two
l a ia i
DNA. strands, identical l a
toia i .
each other as well as to
l a ia i .
adsathe adsaasa al been proposed asaasal
adsaashave adsaasa
l
a da parent strand. Three a dahypotheses of DNA replication
a da a da d a da
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww  . They are conservative ww ww replication, dispersive wwww replication, and semi-conservativeww ww replication. ww ww w
 In conservative
grg
i . O . rgrg replication, the original
O i . O . rgrgdouble helix servesi.as
O O . ragrtemplate.
O g
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
 The l al a i
original molecule is l a
preservedl a i intact and an entirely l a
new
l a i double stranded moleculel al a i is synthesized l al a i
adaadsa. aIn
sadispersive replication,
a da aasaoriginal molecule aisdabroken
adsthe adsaasa into fragments and a daadsaasfragment
each
a
serves as a
a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww.P.P .P.P
wfragments.
w ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww template for w wsynthesis
the
w w of complementary wwww Finally two ww w
neww molecules are formed www w
which consist w
grg of both old and new fragments.
i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
 Semi-conservative
l
asa al a i replication aal a
was
l a i proposed by Watson aa l a
andl a i
Crick in 1953. This l a
mechanism
aa l a i of replication is aal al a i
P a daadsabased on the DNA a
model.
P daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww. .P . .P
wstrands
w ww . .P . .P
watw
ww
ww  They suggested ww wthat
w the two polynucleotide wwww of DNA molecule ww ww unwind and start separating wwww one end. w
grg  During this process, covalent hydrogen bonds are broken.
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
 The a i a i a i a i a i
d adsaaslala separated single strand
d adsaaslala
then acts as template for
d ad saaslala
the synthesis of a new strand.
d ad saaslala
Subsequently, each
d ad saaslala
a
.P.Pa daughter double a
.P.Pa
helix carries one polynucleotide a
.P.Pa strand from the parent a
.P.Pa
molecule that acts as a template a
.P.Pa and
wwww wnewly
wisw w w ww
w ww w w wwww
ww the other strand ww synthesised and wwcomplementary to the parent ww strand. ww w
grg . O rgrg of DNA replication
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
Experimental l a ia i . proof
asalmode of DNA replication l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
adaadsaThe a daadsaasawas determined ina1958 da adsaasbya Meselson and Stahl. a da
saasadesigned
adThey an experiment
a daadsaasa
ww.P.P to distinguish between ww.P.Psemi conservative, conservative ww .P.P and dispersive w w.P.P
replications. ww .P.P
ww
ww ww ww wwww ww ww wwww w
 In their experiment, they grew two cultures of E.coli for many generations in separate media.
grg  Thea‘heavy’ .O rgrgculture was grown iin.O.aO
O grg
rmedium in which theanitrogen .O rgrgsource (NH4Cl) contained
O .O rgrg the heavy
O .O rgrg
O
l lia i .
asa 15N and the ‘light’ l al a i
asa was grown in a medium l lia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaisotope a daadsaculture a da adsaasa in which the nitrogen a daadsaasource
sa contained lightdadsaasa
aa
ww.P.P isotope 14N for many ww.P.Pgenerations. ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
w
ww w ww w w www w ww w w www w w
 At the end of growth, they observed that the bacterial DNA in the heavy culture contained only 15N and in
grg .O O grg only 14N.
rculture .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
li
thelalight
a i .
asaheavy DNA could beadistinguished aal alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
adaadsaThe a dadsas from light a adsaasa(15N from 14N) with
daDNA a
asa
daadasatechnique called Cesium a daadsas
aa
P
. .P Chloride (CsCl)wdensity P
. P P
. .P P
. .P P
. .P
ww
ww
ww
ww www. gradient centrifugation. wwwwww
ww ww ww
wwwwww
w
 In this process, heavy and light DNA extracted from cells in the two cultures settled into two distinct and
grg . O O grg (hybrid DNA) .OO
rbands rgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
separate
a
aslalai i . a i
la i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d a saThe d a saasla d a saaslala that had only NH4Cl, d a ala took samples at asaaslala
saasland
a d heavy
.P.Pa various definite time
culture (15N)
a
Pa d
was
.P.intervals
then transferred into
a
.P.Pa
a d
medium a
.P.Pa d .P.Padad
www w ww w w (20 minutes www w
duration). ww w w www w
ww ww ww ww ww w
 After the first replication, they extracted DNA and subjected it to density gradient centrifugation.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a
wwww ww ww wwww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a l
a al a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P
ww
ww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i .
asalDNA settled into a band l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
asa The al was intermediate in
adsaasthat asal between the previously
adsaposition
l
adsaasa determined heavy adsaasa
and l
a da d a da a da a da a da
.P.P light bands.
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww w www w www w www w ww
w w
 After the second replication (40 minutes duration), they again extracted DNA samples, and this time found
grg the DNA .O rgsettling
O rg into two bands,i.O one rgratg the light band position
O .O rg
O rg one at intermediatei.O
and rgrg
position
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l al a i . l alia i . l al a i . l alia i .
a

daadsa. aThese
sa results confirm dWatson
a aadsaasa and Crick’s semiaconservative daadsaasa replication hypothesis. a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P
ww
ww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww ww ww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
d dsaasa
DNAapolymerase.
d adsaasa d adsaasa d adsaasa d adsaasa
.P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww  As they move
ww
waway
w wwww wwww ww wwith
w
ww ww in both directions,wnewly w synthesized complementary ww nucleotides are paired ww the w
existing gnucleotides on the parent strand
grg
i . O . r rg
O i . O . rgrg and covalently bonded
O i . O . rgrgtogether by DNA polymerase.
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
 aFormation
l al a i of new strand aal al
requires a i a primer (a short l
stretch
aa al a i
of RNA)for initiation. aal al a i aal al a i
sa
daadsareplication daadsas daadsas daadsas daadsas
P
. .Pa fork. P a
. .P P
. .Pa P a
. .P P a
. .P
wwww  At the point of origin wwww wwww wwww ww w w
ww ww of repliction, the helicases ww and topoisomerases (DNA ww gyrase) unwind and w w
pull apart the w
grg strands, forming
rgrg a Y-Shaped structure called
rgrg the replication fork. rgrg rgrg rgrg
 Transcription a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa  Francis a
.P.Pa
Crick proposed the Central a
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l l a i . for settling l alia i .
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d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
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grg  Origin of lifeg –g Evolution oflife formsg g
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 Theory l al aofi special creation statesl a a
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l i life was created by al a a i
supernatural
l power, l a
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l a i referred to as l al a i
a da adsaasa
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a da adsaasaof life (1924-1929).
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d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
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d P a dadsasevolution. P a daadsas P a daadsas
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ww ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w
 Fossilization is the process by which plant and animal remains are preserved in sedimentary rocks. They fall
grg underO
. rgrgmain categories. i.O.O
three
O rgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i a i i . a i i . a i i .
d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala
a
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.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww i) Actual remains ww
ww – The original hard wwww
parts such as bones, teethwor w ww
w
shells are preserved as w
suchwinw
w
ww ww ww w w w the w
earth’s atmosphere. This is the most common method of fossilization.
grg ii) .
When O rgrmarine
O g animals die, their . O rghard
O rg parts such as bones, . O rgrg etc., are coverediwith
O
shells, . O rgrsediments
O g and are i.O rgrg
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l alia i . l
asala ia i . l alia i . l al a i . l al a i .
a daadsaasaprotected from further a daadsadeterioration. a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P iii) They get preserved
ww ww.P.P as such as they are preservedww .P.P in vast ocean; thewsalinity .P.P in them prevents decay.
w ww .P.P
ww
ww iv) wwww w w
w w w w
w w
The sediments become hardened to form definite layers or strata. For example, Woolly Mammoth that w w
w w w
grg livedrg22 rg thousand years agoi.were rgrgpreserved in the frozen coast
rgrg of Siberia as such.i.Several rgrg human beings i.O.O rgrg
l a ia
and. O
i . O
animals living in the l a a
ancientO
i . O city of Pompeii l
were a ia. O
i . O
preserved intact by l a
volcanic a O
i .
ashO which gushed out l a a i
l l l l l
a daadsaasafrom Mount Vesuvius. a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  original portion wofw
ww .P.P body may be replaced ww .P.P .P.minerals
wby
w P ww .Psubstance
.P
ww
ww wwww their wwww molecule for molecule ww ww and the originalwwww w
being lost through disintegration.
grg O rgrg of fossilization isi.called
O
.method O rgrgpetrifaction. The principle
O .O rgrg minerals involved i.inO.O
O rgrgtype fossilization i.O.O rgrg
 This l alia i . l al a i . l alia i . l al a i this l al a i
asairon pyrites, silica, calcium aa aa aa aa
P a daadsaare P a daadsas carbonate and P a daadsas of calcium andPamagnesium.
bicarbonates daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww iii) Natural mouldswand www wwww
casts – Even after disintegration, the body of anwanimal ww
w might leave indelible wwwimpression
w on w
the soft mud which later becomes hardened into stones. Such impressions are called moulds. The cavities of the
grg moulds mayi.get O rgfilled
O rg up . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i .
lala and get fossilized, a i i .
lala are called casts. Hardened a i i . a i i . a i i .
by d a
hard
d saasminerals d adsaaswhich d adsaaslala faecal matter termed d adsaaslaaslacoprolites occur as d a saaslala
tiny
d
a
.Pa Analysis of the
.Ppellets. a
.P.Pa enables us to understand a
.P.Pa the nature of diet the a
.Pa
.Ppre-historic a
Pa
.P.on.
wwww www w
coprolites wwww wwww animals thrived
wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
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l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
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a laal a laal a laal a l
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P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
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ww P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P ww.. P
ww
ww wwww ww ww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a a adsaasa from comparative
Evidences
d a da adsaasa
anatomy
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww  Similarities in structure wwww between groups ofworganisms ww
w are accepted asw ww
w
indicators of relationship. w ww
w
For example, a w
grg comparativergstudy rg of the forelimbsi.ofO different
rgrg vertebrates exhibits rgragfundamental plan ofi.O similarity
rgrg in structure. i.O.O rgrg
 These l a ia. O
i . O l a a i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a i . O l a a i
l
relationships can be studied l under homologous organs, l analogous organs, vestigial l organs, connecting l
a da adsaasand
a
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww
links atavistic .P.P
organs.
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww wwww ww ww wwww wwww w
Homologous structures
grg  In vertebrates,.O rgrg comparative anatomical
O .O rgrgstudies reveal a basic
O .O rgrgin various structuresi.O
O
plan suchrgrgas fore limbs and i.O.O
O rgrg
l alia
asa limbs.i . aa l alia i . aal alia i . aa l al a i . aal al a i
P a daadsahind P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P Fore limbs of vertebrates . .P exhibit anatomicalwsimilarity . .P with each otherw . .P .P as
. such
ww
ww
ww
humerus, radius, wwwwww
ulna, carpals, metacarpals ww ww w
and phalanges. wwwwand
w is made of similar bones
wwww ww
w
grg  Structures rgrwhich
g are similar in origin rgrbut
g perform different .functions rgrg are called homologous rgrgstructures that rgrg
a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
a aslalaabout divergent evolution
sabrings a saaslala Similarly the thorn a saof la
aslaBougainvillea saaslala of Curcurbita and
and the tendrils
a a saaslala
a d d a d d a d d a d d a d d
.P.Pa Pisum sativum represent
ww ww .P.Pahomology. ww .P.Pa ww .P.Pa ww.P.Pa
ww
ww  The thorn in former w w w
w is used as a defence mechanism w w
w w from grazing animals w w w
w and the tendrils of latter w w w
w is used as a w
grg support for
. O rgrgclimbing.
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
d adsaasa structures
Analogous
a a a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P .P.P
wtermed
w ww.P.P
ww
ww  Organisms w ww
w
having different structural w ww
w
patterns but similar function www w
are as analogous w ww
w
structures. For w
grg example, rgrthe
g wings of birds and.Oinsects rgrg are different structurally rgrgbut perform the same function
rgrg of flight that i.O.O rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a i
l
brings about convergent l
evolution Other examples of l
analogous organs include the l eyes of the Octopus and l
a da adsaasofa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P .P.P
wDolphins.
w ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww  mammals and wwwthe
w flippers of Penguinswand ww
w wwww wwww w
grg  Root modificationrgrg in sweet potatorand grg stem modification in potato
rgrg are considered asi.analogous rgrg organs. Both i.O.O rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a O
i . O l a a i
of
aa l
these plants have a commonaa l function of storage of l
food.
aa aa l aa l
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P
ww
ww Theories of biological wwww evolution ww ww wwww wwww w
grg Lamarck’srtheory grg rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
 aJean a
lalai . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
sas‘Philosophie
Baptiste de Lamarck, la
saasinlathe
was the first to
saaslala
postulate the theory of
saaslala
evolution in his famous
saaslala
book
a d ad Zoologique’
a d ad year 1809. a d ad a d ad a d ad
.P.Pa The two principles
ww ww .P.ofPaLamarckian theory are: ww .P.Pa ww .P.Pa ww.P.Pa
ww
ww wwww ww ww wwww wwww w
 i. The theory of use and disuse - Organs that are used often will increase in size and those that are not used
grg O rgrg
O
willi.degenerate. . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a a i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
al in giraffe is an example
adsaasNeck
 l
adsaasa of use and absence asal in snakes is an example
ofsalimbs
a
l
adsaasafor disuse theory.adaadsaasa
l
a da a da a da d a da
.P.P  ii. The theory of
ww ww P.P
.inheritance w.P.P
of acquiredwcharacters - Characters that ww .P .P developed during w
are .P.Ptime of
thewlife
w
ww
ww w w
w w w w
w w
an organism are called acquired characters and these are then inherited. w w
w w w w w w
grg The main .O rgrg
objection
O to Lamarckism .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasLamarck’s
 a
a a adsaasa characters” was
“Theory of Acquired
d a daadsaasa by August Weismann
disproved
a daadsaasawho conducted adaadsaasa
.P.P .P.Pfor twenty generations P.Pcutting their tails andwbreeding
.by .PP them. .P.P
ww
ww
ww experiments onw
w wwmice
w
w w ww
w
ww
w www.
w w ww
w
ww
w
 All mice born were with tail. Weismann proved that change in the somatoplasm will not be transferred to the
grg nexti.O rgrg but changes ini.the
generation
O O Ogrg
rgermplasm will be inherited .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l al a i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a adsaasa
daNeo-Lamarckism a daadsas
aa
a daadsas
aa
a
aa
daadsas a
aa
daadsas
wwP
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w
 The followers of Lamarck (Neo-Lamarckists) like Cope, Osborn, Packard and Spencer tried to explain
grg Lamarck’s rgrgtheory on a more scientific rgrg basis. rgrg rgrg rgrg
a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O
slala considered that dadaptations
saThey
a a saaslala are universal. Organisms a saaslala acquire new structures a
la to their adaptationssastolala
saasladue
. P. a
P
da d a the changed . P. a
environmental
P a d conditions. . P.Pa da d . P. a
P
da d . P. adaada
P
ww  They argued w wwexternal conditions stimulate ww the somatic cells towproduce w wwhich
ww
ww w
wwthat ww ww wwww certain ‘secretions’ wwww w reach w
the sex cells through the blood and bring about variations in the offspring.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a
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a laal a laal a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ww .. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
ww wwww ww ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l
asal a ia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa theory of Natural
Darwin’s
a da adsaSelection a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  Charles Darwin
ww ww.Pexplained
.P the theory of ww .Pevolution
.P in his book w‘The .P.P Origin of Specieswby
w w.P.PNatural
ww
ww Selection’. w w
w w w ww w w w
w w w w
w w w
grg  Duringrhis grgjourney around the .Earth, rgrghe made extensive observations rgrg of plants and animals. rgrg He noted a huge i.O.O rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a i
l
variety and remarkable l
similarities among organisms l and their adaptive l
features to cope up to their l
a da adsaasenvironment.
a
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww .P.P
wfittest
w ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww  He provedwthat ww
w organisms canw www
survive and leave more progenies ww ww than the unfit ones ww w w
through natural w
selection.
grg  Darwin’s .O rgrtheory
O g was based oniseveral .O rgrg facts, observationsi.and
O O rginfluences.
O rg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l al a i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i .
saasa
daadproduction
Over aa
daadsasof production Padaadsas
(or) prodigality aa aa
daadsas
aa
daadsas
P a
. .P All living organisms P
. .Pa
increase their population . in.Plarger number. For example, P a
. .P Salmon fish produces P a
P 28
. .about
wwww ww ww ww
wifw w ww
w ww
wsalmon
w
ww million eggswduring w breeding season and ww all of them hatch, the ww seas would be filled with ww in few w
grg generations.
. O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i .
aslala the slowest reeder a i i .
lalacan produce six young a i i .
lala in its life time can sproduce a i i .
aslala 6 million descendants a i i .
 sElephant,
d ad a d ad saasthat d ad saasones d ad a d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa at the end of 750 yearsa
.P.Pa in the absence of any .P.Pa
check.a a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w www w ww
w w ww
w
ww Struggle forwexistence w w w w w w w w
 Organisms struggle for food, space and mate. As these become a limiting factor, competition exists among the
grg . O rgofrgthe population. Darwin
O . O Ogrg
rdenoted . O rgrgin three ways – i.O.O
O rgrg . O rgrg
O
members
l a ia i .
asal specific struggle between l alia i . ali
struggle forlexistencea i . l a a i l a ia i .

d adsaIntra d adsaasathe same species afordaadfood, saasaspace and mate. ada dsaasal d adsaasa
l
a a
.P.P Inter specific struggle a a
.P.Pwith different specieswfor .PP .P.P a a
.P.P a
ww
ww
ww
w ww
w
ww
w wwww.food and space. ww wwww
w ww
w
ww
w
 Struggle with the environment to cope with the climatic variations, flood, earthquakes, drought, etc.,
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a a adsaasa occurrence ofavariations
1. Universal
d da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  No two individuals
ww ww.P.are
P alike. There are variations ww .P.P even in identical twins. ww.P.PEven the children bornwof
w.P.the
P same
ww
ww parents differ wwwinw colour, height, behavior, ww ww etc., The useful variations ww ww found in an organism ww wwhelp them to w
overcomegstruggle and such variations
grg
i . O . r rg
O i . O . rgrgare passed on to thei.O
O
nextg generation.
. r rg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
1. Origin l
asa al a
of i species by Natural l a a
Selection
l i l al a i l al a i l al a i
a daadsaAccording to Darwin,ad adsaasais the most powerful
nature
a a adsaasa force. He compared
daselective a
asa
daadsaorigin of species by natural
a
aa
daadsas
wwP
. .P selection to a small ww P.P
. isolated group. ww P
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww w ww
w w www w ww
w w ww
w w
 Darwin believed that the struggle for existence resulted in the survival of the fittest. Such organisms become
grg better.O rgrg to the changed environment.
adapted
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
a saaslalato Darwinism dadsaaslala
Objections
d d d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa .P.Paa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww  Some objections ww wraised
w against Darwinism ww w w
were – wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
 Darwin failed to explain the mechanism of variation.
grg . O rgrgexplains the survivali.O
O rgthe
O rg fittest but not the arrival . O rgrof
O g . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
 Darwinism
l
asala ia i . l al a i
of. l a ia i . the fittest. l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaHe focused on small a d adsaasa variations that are
fluctuating d d saasal non-heritable. dadsaasal
amostly d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a .P.P a .P.P a a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a
wwww  He did not distinguish ww ww between somaticwand ww wgerminal
w variations. ww wwww wwww
ww ww w ww w
 He could not explain the occurrence of vestigial organs, over specialization of some organs like large tusks in
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrin
O g the extinct Irish deer, .O O grg
retc., .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l ali
extincta i . mammoths, oversizedlaantlers
asa Darwinism is the interpretation lia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaNeo a da adsaasa a aadsaasa through Natural
of Darwiniandevolution
a daadsaasa as it has been modified
Selection
a daadsaasa
.P.P since it was proposed.
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww ww ww ww ww ww ww w
grg O
.factsrgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
 sNew l
asa alia i . and discoveries aa l
aboutalia i .
evolution have led to aal alia i .
modifications of Darwinism aal ali
anda i .is supported by aal alia i .
P a daadaWallace, Heinrich, P a daadsas Weismann andPMendel.
Haeckel, a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww  This theory w ww
emphasizes
w the change in the ww wfrequency
w of genes in population
ww ww arises due to mutation, ww ww variation, w
isolation and Natural selection.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a
aslalai i . a
lalai i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
Mutation
d adsaHugo theory
de Vries put d a
forthd saasthe Mutation theory. d ad saaslala are sudden random
Mutations d ad
la
saaslachanges that occur d ad
in
aslala
saan
a
.P.Pa organism that iswnot .PPaa .P.Paa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
ww
ww
ww
wwwww.heritable. ww ww ww
ww wwww
ww wwww
w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
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a laal a laal a laal a laal a laal
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ww.. P ww .. P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P
ww
ww ww ww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i .
asalVries carried out hisaexperiments l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaDe d dsaasal in the Evening
d sal
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d
al
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and observed
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ww.PSalient
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O l alia.Oi . Og l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O
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fledged. aa aa
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grg  Sewell Wright, rgrg Fisher, Mayer, Huxley,
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a sagene a
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a d d a d d a d d a d d a d d
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ww
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l alia i . l a a i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
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rabout rgrg
l a ia. Oi . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
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variations l
in the individuals of the samel species and leads to l
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a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
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a P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
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to newly invaded habitats is called adaptive radiation.
grg  Adaptive
. O rgrg
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O . O rgrthat
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O . O rgrg
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d d saaslala finches and Australian
 Darwin’s
a d ad
a
saaslalmarsupials d d saaslala for adaptive radiation.
are best examples
a d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
.P.P a
a When more than one.P a a radiation occurs .inP.P a
anaisolated geographical.area, a ahaving the same structural a
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w ww wwww
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 Their common ancestor arrived on the Galapagos about 2 million years ago. During that time, Darwin's finches
grg . O rgrginto 14 recognized species
O . O rgrgdiffering in body size,
O . O rgrg shape and feedingibehavior.
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
i
havelaevolved
a i . l a ia i . l a ia i . beak l a a i . l a ia i .
da d saasal in the size and form
Changes d adsaaof
l beak have enabled sasal
sathe d ada d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a a a
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ww
ww
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w w w w w ww
w
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w
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grg  representsrsome grg of the finches observed rgrgby Darwin. Genetici.variation rgrg in the ALX1 genei.O Ogrg rgrg
inrthe DNA of Darwin
l
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in
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i . O l al a i . l alia.Oi . O
d saasa
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sathe Darwin finches.dadsaasa
.P.P 
a a mutation in the ALX1
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w w ww
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grg  It occurs rgrwhen
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l a ia
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i . O l a ia. O
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. .Pits allele's change in frequency P
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generation, may result from several evolutionary mechanisms acting at once.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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a i i .
lalaexample, one gene’s sallele a i i .
aslalafrequencies might be a i i .
aslala by both gene flow a i i .
lalagenetic drift, for saslala a i i .

a saasFor a a samodified a saasand
. P. a
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grg . O rgrg
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l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a
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a laal a laal a l
a al a laal a l
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grg . O rgrg
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l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
al are mainly three a
adsaasThere
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types adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
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.P.P  i. Stabilising Selection
ww ww .P.P (centipetal selection): ww.P.PThis type of selectionwoperates .P.P in a stable environment
w ww.P.P
ww
ww w ww w w w
w w
 The organisms with average phenotypes survive whereas the extreme individuals from both the ends are w w
w w w w
w w w
grg eliminated. rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
 aTherel al ia.Oi .Ois no speciation but l
thealia.Oi . O
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over generation. l a lia.Oi . O
a daadsasFor

a
example, measurements a da adsaasaof sparrows that survived a daadsaasathe storm clusteredaaround daadsaasathe mean, and the adaadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww.P.P around the extremes ww.P P
of. the variation showing
.P.P
wstabilizing
w
ww
ww sparrows that ww wfailed
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w wwww wwww w
selection.
grg .O rgrg Selection: The ienvironment
O .O rgrg
O .O Ogrg
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O .O rgrg
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 ii.laDirectional
l ia i . l al a i . which undergoes l alia i . change is subjected
l alia i . l a lia i .
aa asa of selection removes asaindividuals from oneaend aa aa
P a daadsasselection (Fig. 6. 7b).This P a daadsatype P a daadsathe P a dadsas towards the otherPend a daadofsas
. .P . .P For example, sizewdifferences . P P
. .female . .Pand
ww
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between male
w ww
w
w w
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w ww
w
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w w
female look alike externally but differ in body weight. Females show directional selection in relation to body
grg weight.
. O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a ia i . a
aslalai i . a i
la i . a i
la i . a i i .
d 
ad
lalDisruptive
saasiii. Selectiond adsa(centrifugal a
selection):dWhen
d saaslahomogenous a
environment
d dsaaslachanges into d ad saaslala
a
.P.Pa heterogenous environment a
.P.Pa this type of selection a
.P.Pisa operational (Fig. 6.7c). a
.P.PThe a organisms of both the a
.P.Pa
wwww w www w ww
w w www w www
ww extreme phenotypes w w are selected whereas w windividuals with average w w phenotype are eliminated. w w This results in w
grg splittingrgof rgthe population intoi.sub rgpulation/species.
rg rgrg rgrg rgrg
 aThis l aila.O i .O l a a O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O
d
a
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d saasal finches-beak size
selection
aDarwin's
d
but leads to formation
d sal to seed size inhabiting
of two
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or more different
d
l
species. It is also
adsaasa Galapagos islands.
called
d adsaasa
l
a a
.P.P  Group selectionwand radiation.
.PP a
e.g.a a a
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ww
ww
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ww
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grg Hardy -i.Weinberg O rgrg Principle
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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l al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l a lia i .
a daadsaasfrequency
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a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P p = 0.3, q = 0.7 then,ww
ww .P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww p2 = (0.3)2 = 0.09 = 9 % AAw ww w w w
w w w w
w w w w
w w w
grg 2pq = 2(0.3)rg(0.7) rg = 0.42 = 42 % Aa rg g rgrg rgrg rgrg
q2s=as(0.7)2 i . O
laala 0.49 = 49 % aa saslaalia.O
i . O i.Or aa l alia.Oi . O
aal alia.Oi . O l
aa a lia.Oi . O
P a daada P a daada P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww .P Weinberg’s assumptions
. Hardy
ww ww ww . .P include
ww ww. .P
ww ww. .P
ww ww. .P
ww ww ww ww ww w
 No mutation – No new alleles are generated by mutation nor the genes get duplicated or deleted.
grg  Random . O rgmating
O rg – Every organism . O rggets
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O rg mating is randomi.with O rgreach
O g other with no .O.O rgrg
a
aslala i i . a
aslalai i . a i . a i . a i i
d adsapreferences for a particular
d adsagenotype. d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala
a
.P.P a No gene flow - Neither a
.P.Paindividuals nor theirwgametes a
.P.Pa enter (immigration) .Por a a (emigration) the population.
.Pexit a
.P.Pa
wwww w www w w w w www w www
ww  Very large population w w size - The population w w should be infinite in size. w w w w w
grg  No natural rgrgselection- All allelesi.O arergfit
rg to survive and reproduce. rgrg rgrg rgrg
 sIfaany l a ia. O
i . O l a a i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O
d sal one of these assumptions
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al were not met, the population
adsaaschanges d
l will not be in Hardy-
adsaasa to the other, evolution d
al
adsaawill
sWeinberg equilibrium. sa al
daadas
. P a
P a if the allele . P a
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frequencies from one
. P a
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PRESIDENCY HR SEC SCHOOL REDDIYARPALAM PUDUCHERRY
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l al ia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l a lia i .
a daadsaasa a da adsaasa 7. Human Health a daadsaaand
sa Diseases
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P ww.P.P
ww
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grg  Diseases rgrgwhich are transmittedi.O fromrgrgone person to another are called infectious diseases
rgrg rgrorg communicable i.O.O rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a a i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a i
aa l
diseases. Such disease causing
aa l organisms are called l
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a daadsas a daadsas physical a daadsaasaand vectors.
contact a
aa
daadsas a daadsas
aa
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grg . O rgrg
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O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala
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l al ia i . l a ia i .
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d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
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ww P ww.. P ww.. P ..
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grg . O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
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grg .O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
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grg .O rgrg
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aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa 2. NON COMMUNICABLE a
.P.Pa DISEASES a
.P.Pa a
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 Non-infectious w w
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grg  In rgrorigin
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l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
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i . O l a a O
i . O l a ia. O
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l l l l l
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grg .O rgrg the number of bacterial
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O .O rgrg with human
O .O rgrg
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l alia i . Though l alia i . l alia i .
only l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa diseases and are a da dsaasa pathogenic bacteria.
acalled a da
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.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww.P.P .P.P
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grg .O rgrg
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aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
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ww
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grg . O rgrg
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
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grg . O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
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grg .O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
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l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
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d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
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a d
aadsaCommon cold a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
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grg .O rgrg called the “Common
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l alia i .
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a daadsa4. a daadsaasa grouped into afour da
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a aadsaasa
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grg o Pneumotropic
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influenza) rgrg rgrg
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aa l aa l l l l
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o Dermotropic
daadsas o Viscerotropic
diseases
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(skin and subcutaneous
daadsas (blood and visceral a adsaasa
tissues
daorgans
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a adsaasa
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pox and measles)
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d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
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l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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grg
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l al a i histolytica, l
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aa l al a i  Symptoms of
aa l a a i
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l can range fromaal a a i
diarrhoea
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aal a a
blood
l i and mucus in the aal al a i
P a daadsas stool.
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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grg African sleeping sickness is caused by Trypanosoma species. Trypanosoma is generally transmitted by the blood
i .O . rgrg
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l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
al flies. ree speciesaof
adsaasTsetse al
saasTrypanosoma l
adsaasasickness in man. adaadsaasa
l
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2. T. rhodesiense
l lia i . is transmitted by a ia
Glossina
l l i . morsitans causing l a ia i
Rhodesian
l . or East African l alia i .
sleeping sickness. l alia i .
a daadsaasa 3. T. a da
cruzi aastransmitted
adsis a
by a bug a daadsaasTriatoma
called
a
megista a d
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saasa
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grg 7. Kala – a azar.O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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l lia i .
asa Kala – azar or visceral aa l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
daadsa daadsasleishmaniasis is caused saasLeishmania
daadby
a donovani, saasa is transmitted by the
daadwhich daadsas
aa
P
. .P a P a
. .P (sand fly). Infection P a
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. .Pcells, bone marrow, liver, P a
P
. .lymph
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vector Phlebotomus
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glands and blood vessels of the spleen.
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liver.
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a i . a i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala
a a
.P8..PTYPES OF MALARIA.P.Pa a a
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l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a .P.P a a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a a
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a laal a laal a laal a l
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
adsaasa  Malaria isacaused adsaasaby different types of adsaasa
Plasmodium species such asaP. al P. ovale, P. malariae
saasvivax, adsaasa
l
a da da a da a da d a da
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ww
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grg .O Ogrg
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the
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l alia i . l alia i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaaphases
sa
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P
9. three OF MALAIA .P.P
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10. Prevention
l alia i .
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a daadsas a dad
a the transmission cycle
a daadsas by killing the insect a adsaasa
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aa
daadsas
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the surface.
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rlarvae rgrg
a i i . a i i . the a i i . it for mosquitoa i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala breathe. dadsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
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TYPES AND INCUBATION PERIOD MALARIA
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
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grg .O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
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aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
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12. Malaria vaccine
grg . O rgrg
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a i i. a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala Malaria vaccine
d adsaaslala
is used to prevent
d adsaaslala
malaria. The only approved vaccine
d adsaaslala
as of 2015 is
d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
RTS,S(Mosquirix). a
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wwww  Itw w ww
w w wrelatively
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grg
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O . O . Orgrg WHO does not recommend i . O . rgrg the use of RTS,Si.vaccine
O O . rgrg in babies
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l al a i between 6 and 12l al a
weeks i of age. l al a i l al a i l al a i
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww ww ww wwww wwww wwww w
1. sporozoites
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l al a i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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ww.P.P 2. ookinete.In the
ww .P.P
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erythrocytes lyse and .P.P
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
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l alia i . l a ia i .
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d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
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O .O rgrg
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asal alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaAppearance a aasa on the skin, nails
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 Ringworms
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grg  Helminthes . O rgrg are mostly endoparasitic
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asal a ia i . l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .cause
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d d saasal
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grg round .O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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a da adsaasa anaemia, irritability
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a da adsaaand
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O .O rgrgbancroft i,
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aa l l a i .may
l al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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O O rgrg Culex mosquito Thi.O
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l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
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l al a i . l alia i . l al a i . l alia i . l al a i .
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limbs, scrotum and mammary glands.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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5. drug l al
abuse.
aa ia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
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that impair one’s physical, physiological and psychological functions is called drug abuse.
grg . O rgrg
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aslala which are commonly a i
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grg amphetaminesrand grg LSD. rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
l a ia. O
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grg . O rgrg
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala
a a cirrhosis
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l a ia. O
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asal
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grg hearti.O rgrg
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asal al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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d syndrome,daachronic
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asa commonly caused by
issamost d
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grg .O rgrg
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aa l alia i .
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aa l a i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
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ww. 2..PSeeking help from parents ww . .P and peers ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P
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grg 3. Education . O rgrgcounselling
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grg . O rgrg
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l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a aadsaasa
11. Alcoholism
d a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.PAlcoholism
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a d adsaasa Anonymous adaadsaasa
Alcoholic
a a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
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w started in 1935 by awbusinessman ww
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grg After the men .O rgrg each other to stopi.O
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O .O rgrganonymous to
O .O rgrg
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l alia i . l al a i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i .
helpdaadsaasaalcoholics. Since that
other saasaalcoholic anonymous
daadtime saasaspread throughout the
daadhas saasa
daadworld.
aa
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wwww 13. Life style modifications ww ww wwww ww ww wwww
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grg . O rgexercises
O rg . O rgrg and yoga can be idone
O . O rgregularly.
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a i i .
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ww .P.Pa
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asa alia i . diseases l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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adblood of human beings a d
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grg .O rgrg
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aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
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15. Filariasis
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. .P  Filariasis is caused
ww ww . .byP Wuchereria bancroftww i, P
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a
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d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
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l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.Pa a .P.P a a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
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r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a laal a laal
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grg . O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
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grg .O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P .P.P
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
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ww
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P .P.P
ww
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P .P.P
ww
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww. .P ww . .P ww. .P . .P
ww
ww
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P .P.P
ww
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
w18.
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ww
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l
asa alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
daadsaAcquired immunity hasda saascomponents
two
d
a – cell mediatedaa
daadsas immunity (CMI) adsaaantibody
and
da sa mediated da dsaasa
P a
. .P immunity or humoral P a a
. .P immunity. P a
. .P P a
. .P P
. .Pa a
wwww ww
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grg  WhenOpathogens
. rgrg
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rantibodies, then it is known
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a i i .
aslala response or cellamediated a i i . a i i . a i i . a i
d adsaimmune d dsaaslala immunity. dadsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa This is brought about a
.P.Pbya T cells, macrophages.P.and a a a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww w ww P natural killer cells.
w w ww
w wwww
ww  Antibody mediated ww immunity or humoral w w immunity w w ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
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r ia.O i .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww.. P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i .
asal pathogens are destroyed l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
dasaWhen
d saasal
adsaasa by the productionadaofadantibodies, then it is known
d adsaas
l
asaantibody mediated or asaasal
a a d
.wP.P humoral immunity. a
.wP.P a .wP.P a
.wP.P a adad
.wP.P
www www www www www
ww  This is brought ww about by B cells with the wwhelp of antigen presenting wwcells and T helper cells. ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  Antibody production .P.Pis the characteristic feature .P.Pof vertebrates only. ww .PP .P.P
ww
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P
ww
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P21.
.P Thymus ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww w ww
w w ww
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 The thymus is a flat and bilobed organ located behind the sternun, above the heart.
grg  Eachi.O lobe rgrof
O g the thymus contains .O rgrg
numerous
O lobules, separated .O rgfrom
O rg each other by connective .O rgrg tissue called
O .O rgrg
O
l
asa al a i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsasepta. P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww. .P  Each lobule is differentiated
ww . .P ww
into two compartments, . .P the outer compartment ww . .Por outer cortex, is densely ww . .P
ww
ww wwww wwww wwww wwww w
packed with immature T cells called thymocytes, whereas the inner compartment or medulla is sparsely
grg populated
. O rgrwith
O g thymocytes. .O.O rgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa One of its main w a
.P.Pa is the hormone thymosin.
secretions a
.P.Pa It stimulates the w a
P.Pto
T .cell a become mature and .P.Pa a
wwww w w w w ww
w w w w wwww
ww immunocompetent. w w By the early teens,w w the thymus begins to atrophy ww and is replaced by adipose ww tissue). w
 Thus thymus
grg
i . O . rgrg is most active during
O i . O . O
theg neonatal and pre-adolescent
rgr i . O . rgrg periods.
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
l al a i l a a i
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a a i l a a i l a a i
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
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r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a l
a al a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ww .. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
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grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aa l alia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
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22. Bone marrow
grg  Bone . O rgrg is a lymphoid tissue
O . O Ogrg within the spongy.Oportion
rfound rgrg of the bone. Bonei.O
O rgrg contains stem i.O.O
O rgrg
l a ia i .
marrow
l a ia i . l a ia i . l a a .
marrow
i l a a i
al known as haematopoietic
adsaascells
l
adsaasa cells. adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
a da a da a da a da a da
.P.P  These cells haveww .PP .P.P cell division and either .P.remain
P w.P.P
ww
ww
ww
ww wwthe. potential to multiply ww
ww
wthrough
w ww wwww as stem cellsw
wworww w
differentiate and mature into different kinds of blood cells.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a a adsaasa node
23.Lymph
d a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P  Lymph node is w
ww P.P
.small ww .Pand
.P is part of the body’s .P.P system. It is the w
wimmune .P.P
ww
ww ww wwa w bean-shaped structure ww ww ww ww w wwww w
first one to w
encounter the antigen that enters the tissue spaces.
grg  Lymph .O Ogrg filter and trap substances
rnodes .O rgrg that travel throughi.O
O rglymphatic
O rg fluid. laia.O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l al a i .
the
l i . l alia i .
a daadsaasThey
a are packed tightlyawith
a
aa
dadsas white blood cells, namely
a
aa
daadsas lymphocytes andPmacrophages.a
a a There are hundreds
daadsas a daadsas
aa
P
. .P P
. .P throughout the body.ww P
. P . .P P
. .P
ww
ww
ww of lymph nodes ww wwwfound
w ww ww . ww wwww
wwwwww
w
 They are connected to one another by lymph vessels.
grg . O rgisrga clear, transparent,icolourless,
O . O rgrg mobile and extracellular
O . O rgrg fluid connective tissue.As
O . O rgrg the lymph
O . O rgrg
O
 Lymph a
lalai i . ala i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaspercolates through thed adsaaslanode,
lymph the particulate d adsaaslalabrought in by thedlymph
antigen ad
la
saaslawill be trapped by d ad
thesaaslala
a
.P.Pa phagocytic cells, a
P.Pa
.follicular a
Pa
.P.dendritic a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww and interdigitating wwww cells. wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww w www w www w ww
w wwww w
24. Peyer’s patches
grg  Peyer’srpatches
Ogrintestine
g rgrg of thickened tissuei.that rgare
rg embedded in the mucus-secreting rgrg rgrg
are oval-shaped areas lining of
thel alia.O
smalli . of humans l ali
anda.Oi . O
other vertebrate l
animals. al a O
i . O l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O
asa asa saasa aa aa
P a daadsaPeyer’s patches contain
P a daaadsavariety of immune cells,
P a daad
including macrophages, P a daadsas cells, T cells, and
dendritic P aBdaadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww cells. ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
 Peyer’s patches are oval-shaped areas of thickened tissue that are embedded in the mucus-secreting lining
grg . O rgrg intestine of humans
O . O rgrg
O . O rgPeyer’s
O rg . O O grg
rvariety . O rgrg
O
oflathe
i i .small a i iand
. other vertebrate animals.
a i i . patches contain
a i ia. of immune a i i .
a ala including macrophages,
saascells, a
a
saaslaldendritic a
lala
saasand a saaslala a saaslala
a d d a d d cells, T a d d
cells, B cells. a d d a d d
.P.Pa
ww ww.P.Pa ww .P.Pa ww.P.Pa ww .P.Pa
ww
ww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a
wwww wwww wwww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a l
a al a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ww.. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a aadsaasa
25. Spleen
d a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P  Spleen is a secondary .P.P lymphoid organ located .P.P .PP .PP
www. www.
ww ww ww in the upper part of thewabdominal cavity close tow the
ww
ww w ww
w wwww ww ww w
diaphragm.
grg  Spleen
.O O grg
rcontains B and T cells. ItObrings
. i.O rgrg humoral and cell imediated
.O rgrg immunity.
O .O rgrg
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d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
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d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
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grg  These .O rgrgpeptide hormones secreted
O .O rgrgby the pituitary gland
O .O rgthat
O rg helps in the growth .O Ogrg development by .OO
rand rgrg
l
asa alia i .
are
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
d adsaincreasing the uptake of d saasa acids and promoting
adamino d
asa synthesis. Deficiency
adsaprotein d adsaasaof human growth ahormone d adsaasa
a a
.P.P causes dwarfism,wwhich .PPa a a a
.P.P hGH extracted fromwthe .PPa a .P.P a
ww
ww
ww
w www. could be treatedwbyw
w winjecting
ww
w w www. human pituitary glands.
w ww
ww
ww w
 Using recombinant DNA technology hGH can be produced.
grg  The gene
.O rgrfor
O g hGH is isolated from .O grghuman pituitary gland
rthe
O .O rgrg The isolated gene iis.O.inserted
cells.
O rgrg into a plasmid i.O.O
O rgrg
l
asa alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l al a i l al a i
vector
daadsaThe
and then is transferred saasa
daadthen
into E. coli.
aasa hormone.The recombinant
daadsgrowth
aa
daadsas E. coli are isolated saasa
daadfrom
P a
. .P recombinant P a
. .P
E. coli starts producing P a
. .P
human P a
. .P P a
. .P
wwww ww
wmass
w ww
wcarried
w w ww
w wwww
ww the culture and ww production of hGH w isw out by fermentation ww technology. ww w
grg  A recombinant form of human growth hormone called somatropin is used as a drug to treat growth disorders in
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
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a i a i a i a i a i
saaslala saaslala saaslala saaslala saaslala
children.
a d ad a d ad a d ad a d ad a d ad
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ww
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grg . O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww ww ww wwww ww
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grg .O rgrg
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l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
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grg .O rgrg
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aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
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ww
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grg . O rgrg
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala
a
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wwww ww ww wwww ww ww wwww
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grg . O rgrg
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l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
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.P.P a a
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wwww ww ww wwww ww ww wwww
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grg . O rgrg
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l a ia i .
asal Blood-Clotting Factor l al ia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a d3.adsaHuman
a a daadsaasa VIII a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P  You would havewstudied .PP .P.Pmany factors are required .Pfor
.P normal blood clotting .P.P and
ww
ww
ww
w wwww. in your earlier w class
ww
w
wthat
w w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
wprocess
w w
the factor VIII is one of them.
grg  The .genes O rgrgfor the formation of factor
O .O rgrVIII
O g is located in the X.O rgrg
chromosome.
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l a l ia i . l al ia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasAagenetic defect in the

a daadsaasa of factor VIII results
synthesis
a da aasHaemophilia
adsin a
a daadsaasadisease characterized
A, a sex-linked
a da adsaasa
by
.P.P
ww prolonged clotting ww.P .P and internal bleeding
time .P.P VIII isolated from blood
wfactor
w ww .P.Pof normal human beingwwas .P.Pused in
w
ww
ww w ww w w w
w w w w
w
the treatment of Haemophilia A. Requirement of large quantities of blood for this purpose and the risk of
w w w
w w w
grg transmission rgrg of infectious diseases rgrgAIDS is a disadvantage.
like rgrg rgrg rgrg
sa l a l ia.Oi .O aal al ia.Oi . O
aal alia.Oi . O
aa l alia.Oi . O
aal alia.Oi . O
a
Recombinant DNA technology was used to produce Recombinant Factor VIII in the Chinese Hamster ovary and
P a daadasin the baby HamsterPkidney a daadsascells. P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P
ww
ww  More recently ww waw
cell line of human origin ww w w
has been used for the firstw ww
w
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clotting factor w
grg VIII. rgrg
. O O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
Interferons
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww  Interferons w
ww
wproteinaceous,
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww arew antiviral, w w
species specific substances w w
produced by mammalian w
cells w infected
when w
grg with viruses.
ila.O .Orgrg .O
ilaAlick.Orgrg i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
 aInterferons
l a i were discoveredaby l a i l
Isaacs and Jean Lindemannal a i in 1957. Based on l
theal a i
structure of interferons l al a i
a da
a
adsasthey are classified as a d
α,aβ
sasaγ interferons.
adand a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww w .P.P
w .P.P
wantiviral
w ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww  They stimulate ww wwthe cellular DNA to produce ww ww enzymes which ww w w
inhibit viral replication and www w
protect the w
cells.
grg .O rgtorgfactor VIII , interferons
O .O rgrg be isolated from blood,
O .O rgbut
O rg the amount of bloodi.O rgrg for isolation of i.O.O
O rgrg
 Similar
l a l ia i . l al ia i . could l alia i . l al a i .
required l al a i
a daadsaasinterferons
a is enormousa daadsaasnot
and
a practical.
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P  To overcome this
ww ww P.P
.issue .P.P by rDNA technology.
wproduced
w ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww ww ww interferons could ww wbew ww ww wwww w
 The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is more suitable for production of recombinant interferons than E.coli, since
grg .O rgrgnot possess the machinery
O .O rgrgfor glycosylation of proteins.
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
E.coli
l a l ia i .
does
l al ia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a adsaasInterferons
da
a adsaatreatment
are used fordthe
a a
sa of various diseases
a
aa
daadsaslike cancer, AIDS,Pmultiple a
aa
daadsassclerosis, hepatitisPCaand daadsas
aa
wwP
. .P P
w. .P ww P
. .P ww . .P ww. .P
ww w
ww herpes zoster.ww ww ww ww
ww ww ww ww w
 In spite of the therapeutic applications interferons are not within the reach of the common man due to high cost
grg for its . O rgrg
production.
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa4. Attenuated recombinant a
.P.Pa vaccines a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww  This includesw w genetically modified pathogenic w w organisms (bacteria or w w viruses) that are made nonpathogenicw w and w
grg are usedrgasgvaccines. rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
O
.now r
i.Opossible . O . O . O . O . O . O . O . O
 aItla islia
a l
ala ia i l a ia i l a ia i l a ia i
sal l l
to genetically engineer the organisms (bacteria or viruses) and use them as live vaccines and
a daadsassuch vaccines are referred a daadsatoasas attenuated a da
recombinantadsaavaccines. a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l a l ia i . l al ia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P
ww ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P
ww
ww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aa l a l ia i . aal al ia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww. .P ww . .P ww . .P ww. .P
ww
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa5. Totipotency (Toti-total) a
.P.Pa is the ability of a w a
.P.Pacell to divide and produce a a of the differentiated.P
.P.Pall a
.Pa in an
wwww w ww
w w w w
single w ww
w w wwcells
w
ww organism. w w w w w w w w w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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l a l ia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
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.P.P a .P.Pa a
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a laal a laal a l
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..
ww P ww .. P ww .. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
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grg . O rgrg
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O . O rgrg
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l
asal a ia i . l alia i . l a ia i .
l potential to differentiate l alia i . l a ia i .
d6.as
d aPluripotency adsaasarefers to a stem cellathat
(Pluri-several)
d d
asathe
adsahas d adsaasa into any of the three d saasal
adgerm
a a
.P.P layers-ectoderm,wendoderm a a
.P.P and mesoderm. ww .P.P a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww w w w w w w ww
w w ww
w
ww w w w w w w
7. Multipotency (multi-Many) refers to the stem cells that can differentiate into various types of cells that are w w w
grg related. For
. O rgrgexample blood stemicells
O . O rgcan
O rg differentiate into lymphocytes,
. O rgrg monocytes , neutrophils
O . O rgrg etc.,
O .O rgrg
O
asal alia i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
adsaasa into B and T cells saasa adsaasa adsaasa
8. sOligopotency (Oligo-Few) refers to stem cells that can differentiate into few cell types. For example lymphoid or
a daadamyeloid stem cells a
can da
differentiate a da adbut not RBC. a da a da
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww 9. Unipotencyw (www
Uni- Single) refers to the abilityww ww of the stem cells to differentiatewwww into only one cellwtype. ww
w w
grg O
10. PCRi.(Polymerasergrg
O Chain Reaction) .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a adsaasThe
da
a polymerase chain reaction
a
aa
daadsas (PCR) is an invitro a adsaasa
daamplification technique usedda
a a
for
d saasynthesising
sa multiple da
a a d saasa
P
. .P P
. .P of DNA of interest.ww P
. P P
. .P P
. .P
ww
ww
ww identical copies
w ww
w
w w
(billions)
w www . w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
w
 The technique was developed by Kary Mullis (Nobel laureate, 1993) in the year 1983.
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala
a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww ww ww wwww ww ww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww ww ww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww wwww ww ww wwww wwww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aa l alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . aa l alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P 11. denaturation ww . P . .P . .P . .P
ww
ww
ww
 The double w ww . DNA of interest isw
w
stranded wwwww
denatured to separate into two ww
ww
windividual
w ww
strands by highwtemperature
w
ww
. w
grg . rgrg denaturation. i.O.O
This is called
O O rgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i a i i . a i i . a i i .
d d a slala strand is alloweddtoadhybridize
saEach
a saaslala with a primer (renaturation
d adsaaslala or primer annealing). d ad
lala primer template is used
saasThe d ad saaslala
a
.P.Pa to synthesize DNA a
.Pby a Taq – DNA polymerase.
.Pusing a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww ww ww wwww ww ww wwww
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12. Applications of PCR
grg . O rgrg in the genomes iof
O . O rgrgdifferent organisms ican
O . O Ogrg
rbe . O Ogrg
rvery . O rgrg
O
 The l a ia i .
differences
asal of evolutions, moreaspecifically l a a i .two l a a i . studied by PCR. PCR
l a ia i .
is important in thel a ia i .
d adsastudy d d saasal phylogenetics. d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
wwww  As a technique ww
wwhich
w can amplify even w wwww
minute quantities of DNA from ww w w
any source, like hair, mummified wwww tissues,
ww ww w ww ww w
bones or any fossilized materials.
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrgin the field of forensic
O .O rgrg .
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l a
lia i . PCR technique can also l ali
be
a i .
used l alia i .
medicine l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaasa A single molecule a da
saasDNA
adof a from blood stains,ahair,
a da dsaasasemen of an individual
a daadissaasadequate
a
a d
for amplification
aadsabyasa
.P.P
ww ww .P.P ww .P.P ww.P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww PCR.www
w ww ww wwww wwww w
 The amplified DNA is used to develop DNA fingerprint which is used as an important tool in forensic
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg for identification ofi.criminals.
O O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
aa l alia i . science.Thus, PCR is very
l
asa alia i .
useful
l al a i . l alia i . l alia i .
a daadsas  PCR is also Pused a ins
daad aamplification of specific
a adsaasasegment to be usedaindaagene
daDNA d saasatherapy.
a daadsas
aa
wwP
. .P ww . .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww w w
w w w ww w w w
w w
13. The various steps involved in the production of transgenic organisms are Identification and separation of desired w w
w w w
grg gene. rgrg
. O O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a
 Selection i i . a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala of a vector
d ad saaslala
(generally a virus) or direct
d adsaaslala
transmission.
d ad saaslala d ad saaslala
a  a a a a
.P.Pa
ww
Combining the
ww .P.Pa
desired gene with the vector.
ww .P.Pa ww.P.Pa ww .P.Pa
ww
ww  Introductionw wtransferred
ofw w vector into cells, ww wtissues,
w embryo or mature www w
individual. wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
a
.P.P a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a a
.P.P a
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a l
a al a laal a l
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..
ww P ww .. P ww.. P ww .. P ww.. P
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grg . O rgrg
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l
asal a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
as aDemonstration adsaasand
of integration al expression of foreign asal in transgenic tissue or
adsagene asal Transgenic animals
adsaanimals. adsaasa
l
a da d a da a da a da a da
.P.P such as mice, rat,wrabbit, .PP pig, cow, goat, sheepww .PPfish have been produced .P.P .P.P
www. ww .
ww and ww ww
ww
ww 14. Uses Of Transgenesis ww ww wwww wwww w
grg  Transgenesis rgrg is a powerful tool toi.O study
rgrggene expression andi.developmental rgrg processes in higher rgrgorganisms. rgrg
 l a ia. O
i
Transgenesis . O helps in the l a
improvement a i . O of genetic characters l a ainO
i . O
animals.Transgenic l a
animalsia. O
i . O
serve as good models l a ia.Oi . O
l l l l l
for
a d adsaasa
understanding
a human diseases a da aasa help in the investigation
adswhich a daadsaasof a daadsaasa
a new treatments for diseases.Transgenic models
a da adsaasa
exist
.Pfor
ww .P many human diseases .P.Pas cancer, Alzheimer’s,
wsuch
w ww P.P fibrosis, rheumatoidww
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 Transgenic animals are used to produce proteins which are important for medical and pharmaceutical applications
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grg O
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l
asa alia i . aal alia i . aal alia i . l alia i .
a daadsaOffers benefits for clinical
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aslala and human activists a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .

d adsaAnimal d ad slalita as a threat to biodiversity
saasee d ad
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that this alters evolution
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l a ia i .
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recombinant DNA technology is that unique microorganisms either inadvertently or deliberately for the purpose of
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grg Organisms and Population
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l al a i
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d a dsavan’t d d saasathe increase of everyd10ºC, adsaasathe rate of metabolicada adsaasadoubles or the reaction
activity d adsaasa
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 This rule is referred as the van’t Hoff’s rule. The effect of temperature on the rate of reaction is expressed inw w w w w
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10 value.
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a
P a daadsaIns the living systemPthe a daQad10savalue is about 2.0. IfPthe a daQad10savalue is 2.0, it means P a daadsaincrease
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1. ecology’
grg 2. the word . O rg‘ecology’
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d 3.asaThus,
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lalaorganisms in it and allsthe
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grg 4. Groups of
i . O . rgrspecies
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i . O . rgrgand niche dimensions
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i . O . rgrg
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that
l al a i
occupy the same niche in l al a i
different geographical regions,l al a i
are termed ‘ecological l al a i
equivalents’ l al a i
a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a da adsaasa a da adsaasa
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 In certain environments, the size and colouration of animals are influenced by temperature.
grg  Birds and rgrgmammals attain greater rgrg size in colder regions
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than rgrg rule). rgrg
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asa
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6. Phototaxis: The movement of organism in response to light, either towards the source of light as in Moths
grg .O
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a da7.adsaPhototropism: The growth
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grg 8. Photokinesis: grg A change in the speed of locomotion (or frequency of turning) in a motile organism or cell which is
i . O . rresponse
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a a i random a i
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ww ww .P.P in the atmosphere and ww P.Pouter layers of the lithosphere
.the ww.P.P and is uneven in distribution ww .P.P on
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l alia l alia i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i .
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variable levels.
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.P.Pa water body evenw has high surface a tension.
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d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
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adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
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l alia i . l alia i . l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i .
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l alia i . l alia i . l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adaasahas four major functions-
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a da adsaasa medium for plantadagrowth adsaasameans for water storage a da adsaasand
a purification modifier
a da adsaaof
sa
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.P.P which in turn modify the .P.P
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3. Permeability
a d adsaaslala of soil that determines d ad
alamovement of waterathrough
saaslthe d d saaslala pore spaces is known d ad slala
saaas
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4. Soil Temperature-Soil gets its heat energy
grg
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a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa a da adsaasa
ww.P5..PSoil water- In soil, water ww .Pis.Pnot only important as w aw.P.P and transporting agent,
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grg Acclimatization O
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l alia i . l alia i . l a lia i . l alia i . l alia i .
adsaasasaAcclimatization adaadsaasa adsaasa adsaasa adsaasa
Animals are to modify their response to environmental changes (stress) in reasonably short time spans. This is
a
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grg . O rgrag biome
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grg Boundaries between
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and forest
d sal
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d
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asal
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adsaasclimate d
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adsaare

.P.P a a aquatic biome.P.P a
is ahome .P.P a a like .P.P
fishes. a a
The of coastal.P.Pa a
zones
wwww wwww ww ww ww ww wwww
ww influenced by aquatic ww bodies. ww ww ww w
Aquatic biomes g
grg
i . O . r ofrgearth
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l al
1. Freshwater a i (Lakes, ponds, l
rivers)al a i l a l a i l al a i l al a i
d saasa
adBrackish d saasa
adWetlands) d adsaasa d adsaasa d adsaasa
.P.P a a2. water (Estuaries
.P.P a a / .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.Pa a
wwww ww
wpelagic
w ww ww ww ww wwww
ww 3. Marine (Coral reefs, ww zones and abyssalwzones) w ww ww w
grg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
TUNDRA l alia .
BIOME
i
asa is the almost treelessaplain aal alia i . l a lia i .
asa Europe and North America. aa l alia i . aal alia i .
P a daadsaThis P a dadsas in the northern parts P a adsaAsia,
daof P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P  Winters are longwwith . P .are.Pshort, with long daylight .P
. hours. . .P
ww
ww
ww
w www. little daylight, Summers
w w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
w ww
w
ww
w
 Precipitation is less than 250 mm per year. It is a zone of permafrost.
grg  DwarfOwillows,
. rgrg birches, mosses,i.grasses,
O O rgrg sedges are the florai.here.
O O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i .
aslala arctic hare, musk ala i . a i . a i i . a i i .
d as
d aReindeer,
d ad
aslalemmings
saox, are important
d adsaa slala herbivores. Some
Tundra
d ad saaslala carnivores are the
important
d ad saaslala
a
.P.Pa arctic fox, arctic w a
.PPbobcata and snowy owl. Polar a
.P.Pabears live along coastal a
.Pa
.Pareas. a
.P.Pa
www.
ww wolf, ww ww ww
ww
ww ww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY HR SEC SCHOOL. d
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.P a a .P.Pa a
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r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
ww.. P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P ww .. P
ww
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grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i .
asal of the severe winters, l alia i . l
asala ia i . l a ia i .
asal shore birds and asaasal l a ia i .
a da
as
d aBecause a daadsaasamany of the animalsadaare adsamigratory. For example, the
a daadsamany adad
w.wP.P waterfowl such asww .P.P and geese, nest in the
ducks w .wP.P during the summerwand
Tundra .wP.Pmigrate south for the winter. w .wP.P
ww
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GRASSLAND
grg
 Grasslands i . O . rgrgBIOME
O in temperate andlainlia O
.the. rgtropical
O rg regions. i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O
l al a i occur i l al a i l al a i l al a i
adThey
a adsaashave
a hot summers, coldawinters,
a da d saasa and irregular rainfall.
a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P Often they are characterized ww .P.P by high winds. ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww w www w ww
w w www w ww
w w
 The low irregular rainfall is the factor which makes the difference between a temperate deciduous forest and a
grg temperate grassland.
.O rgrg
O O rgrg
O
.horse, .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
 Herbivores l alia i . like antelope, bison, l
wildalia i . jack rabbit, ground l alia i .
squirrel and prairie dogs l
arealia i .
abundant. l alia i .
ad a adsaasa include coyotes,afoxes,
Predators
aa
daadsashawks and snakes.Padaadsas
aa
a
aa
daadsas a
aa
daadsas
ww P
. .P ww P
. .P ww . .P ww P
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww w www w ww
w w www w ww
w w
 In India, fauna of grasslands includes Elephant, Gaur, Rhino, Antelope. Flora of grasslands include purple needle
grg grass, wild . O rgrgfoxtail, ryegrass andi.buffalo
oats,
O O rgrg grass
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i . a i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.Pa
.PTAIGA BIOME a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww  The Taiga is 1300-1450 wwww w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww ww km wide zone southwof w the Tundra. w w w w w
 This area has long and cold winters.
grg  Summer . O rgrg
O . O rgtorg21⁰ C.
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia .
temperature
i ranges from 10⁰
l alia i .C
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a a adsaasa
 dPrecipitation
a aadsaasa mm annually. adaadsaasa
ranges about 380-1000
d a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.P.P The Taiga is a forestwofw .P.P
coniferous trees such as spruce,ww .P.P fir and pine. This is awmajor w.P.P source for the logging ww P.P
.industry.
ww
ww w ww w w w
w w
 Important migratory herbivores include moose, elk, deer and reindeer. Moose and reindeer migrate to the Taiga for w ww w w w
w w w
grg winter and torgthe g Tundra for summers. rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
 Theacommon i . O
i . O rsmaller i .Oi . O i .Oi . O i .Oi . O i .Oi . O
l al a mammals are l al a
herbivorous squirrels, snowshoel al a l al a l al a
a da adsasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.PAlpine
.P biome ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww w www w ww
w w www w ww
w w
 The alpine zone (zone between timber line and snow zone) includes in the descending order, a sub-snow zone
grg immediately
.O rg
O rg the snow zone, ai.meadow
below O rgrg zone in the centre iand
O .O ragrshrub
O g zone which gradually .O rgrmerges
O g into the
.O rgrg
O
l alia i . l al a i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i .
 a adsaasnow
timber
daThe sa zone.
a
saasa
daadlies a
asa
daadsasea a adsaasaat a height of 3600m.
daexists a
aa
daadsas
ww P
. .P zone of
ww P
Himalayas
. .P over 5100m above
ww P mean
. .P level and alpine
ww P
zone
. .P ww P
. .P
ww
ww  From an ecological ww wview
w point, the zone above wwwthe
w limits of tree growth (timber ww ww line) exhibits extreme www w
environmental w
conditions which greatly influence the biota of this region.
grg . O O grg
rof . O rgrby
O g sparseness of animal . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
 Alpinelazone i i . Himalayas is i
characterized
a i . a i i .groups. a i i . a i i .
la
saasainvertebrates la
saaslaare lala
sainaslakes, aslala fishes, amphibiansasaand
saAmong aslala
adManyad of alpine
a d azone
d predatory and occur a d ad streams and ponds. a d ad a d d
ww.P.Pavertebrates are totallywlacking .P.Pa and reptilian faunawisw
w .P .Pa impoverished. www
greatly .P.Pa ww .P.Pa
ww
ww w ww w w w w w w w w w w
 Flora of alpines includes alpine phacelia, bear w grass, bristlecone pine, mosswcampion, polylepis forest, w pygmy
grg bitterroot, and
. O rgrwild
O g potato. . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
al
adsaasbiomes adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
adsaasa
l
a d
Forest
a a da a da a da a da
ww.P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww  Forest is a broadwterm www used to describe areasw ww
where
w there are a large number ww wwof trees wwww w
 The forest biomes include a complex assemblage of different kinds of biotic communities. The major forest biomes
grg .O
are the Tropical rgrgforests and the Temperate
O .O rgrforests.
O g .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa
ww.PTropical
.P forest ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P ww .P.P
ww
ww  They occur nearw www
the equator (between latitudes www23.5
w ⁰ at north and 23.5⁰ at ww w w
south). wwww w
grg  The major characteristicrgrg of tropical forests rgrgis their distinct seasons. rgrg two seasons are present
Only rg
(rainy
rg and dry). rgrg
Winter l a i
isa. O
i . O
absent. The length of l a i
daylighta. O
i . O
is about 12 hours and l a ia.
varies O
i . O little. l a ia. O
i . O l a ia.Oi . O
l l l l l
ad a adsaaaverage
The sa
a
annual temperature
aa
daadsasranges between 20°PCaand
asa
daadsa25° C. a
aa
daadsas a
aa
daadsas
ww P .P
. Precipitation ww P
. .P throughout the yearww . .Pannual rainfall exceeding ww P P mm.
. .2000 ww P
. .P
ww
ww is evenlyw
wwdistributed
w wwwwwith ww ww wwww w
Soil is nutrient-poor and acidic.
grg . O rgrgis rapid and soils arei.subject
O O rgrgto heavy leaching. i.O.O
O rgrg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
 Decomposition a
lalai i . a
lala i . a
aslala i a i i . a i i .
 d adsaascanopy d ad saascontinuous, d adsalight d adsaaslala d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa Tree is multilayereda
.P.Pa and allowing a
.P.Pa
little penetration. a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww wwww ww ww wwww ww ww
ww ww ww ww ww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l a ia i .
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a
wwww wwww ww ww wwww ww ww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a laal a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww .. P ww .. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
ww ww ww ww ww ww ww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l alia i . l alia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
 Flora adsaasisa highly diverse: one adsaasakilometre may contain
square adsas al as 100 different tree
aasmany sal Trees are 25-35dam
adsaaspecies. saasal
a da a da a da a da a a d
.P.P tall, with buttressed trunks
ww ww .P.Pand shallow roots, mostly ww .P.evergreen,
P with large dark ww.Pgreen
.P leaves. Commonwvegetation w.P.P are
ww
ww orchids, bromeliads, ww ww vines (lianas), ferns, mosses, ww ww and palms. ww ww wwww w
grg  They are characterized rgrg by the greatest diversity rgrg of fauna which includes rgrgbirds, bats, small mammals, rgrg and insects. rgrg
 Based l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia.Oi . O
l
on the seasonal distribution l
of rainfall, the types of tropical l forests are l l
a da adsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa

.P.P Evergreen rainforest: .P.P
no dry season. .P.P .P.P .P.P
wwww wwww ww
wwet
w wwww wwww
ww  Seasonal rainforest: ww short dry period in a very ww tropical region. ww ww w
grg  Semi evergreen rgrg forest: longer dry season rgr(the
g upper tree storey consists rgrg of deciduous trees, iwhile rgrthe
g lower storey is .O.O rgrg
stillsa l alia.Oi .O l alia.Oi . O l alia.Oi . O l al a.Oi . O l alia i
adasa
evergreen).
daMoist/dry daad saasa aasaseason increases further
daadsdry
aa
daadsaassrainfall decreases P adsaasa
datrees
P
. .P a deciduous P
. .Pa
forest (monsoon): the length P
. .Pa
of the P a
. .P . .Pa
(all
wwww wwww ww ww wwww wwww
ww are deciduous) ww ww ww ww w
grg Temperate forest
. O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
a i i .
aslala forests occur in eastern a i i .
la America, northeastern a i i .
la and western and central a i i . a i i .
d
asThese
d a d ad saaslaNorth d ad saaslaAsia d ad saaslalaEurope. d adsaaslala
a
.P.Pa Have well-defined a
P.Pa with a distinct winter.
.seasons .P.Pa a
Moderate climate and awgrowing a
.P.Pa season of 140-200wdays a a
.P.Pduring
wwww w ww
w w ww
w w w w w w w
ww 4-6 frost-freewmonths w distinguish temperate w w forests. w w w w w
 Annual temperature varies from -30° g
grg
i . O . rgrg
O i . O . r Crgto 30° C.
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
 Precipitation
l
asala a i (750-1500 mm) is
l a a i
distributed evenly throughout l a a i
the year. l a a i l a a i
d adsaSoil is fertile, enrichedad with sal
adsaadecaying litter. d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
d adsaasa
l
a a
.P.P  Canopy is moderately a
.P.Pdense and allows lightwtow .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a
wwww wwww ww penetrate, wwww
resulting in well-developed wwww
and richly diversified
ww w w
understorey vegetation and stratification of animals.
w w w w w w w
grg  Flora.O is O grg
rcharacterized by 3-4 tree.species
O rgrg per km2. Trees havei.O
O rgrgleaves that are lost annually
broad
O .O rgrgsuch as oak,
O .O rgrg
O
l
asa alia i . l alia i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsahickory, a aadsaasa basswood, cottonwood,
beech, hemlock, maple,
d a daadsaaselm,
a willow, and spring-flowering
a daadsaasa herbs. a da adsaasa
.P.P  Fauna consists of .P.P
squirrels, rabbits, skunks, .P.P
birds, deer, mountain lion, .P.P
bobcat, timber wolf, fox, and .P.P
black bear.
wwww  Based on seasonal wwww ww wtypes
w ww
ware
w wwww
ww ww distribution of rainfall, ww the of temperate forests ww ww w
grg  Moist conifer rgrg and evergreen broad-leaved rgrg forests: wet winters rgand
rg dry summers. i.O rgrg rgrg
 Dry l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a i . O l a ia.Oi . O
asa l conifer forests: dominate
saasa l
higher elevation zones; low
aa l
precipitation. aa l aa l
P a daadsaMediterranean a
forests:
P daaprecipitation
d is concentrated
P a daadinsaswinter (<1000 mm P/year). a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww ww . .P . .P
whigh
w ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww  Temperate w ww
w
coniferous forests: mild winters, ww ww annual precipitation ww w(>
w 2000 mm /year). wwww w
grg  Temperate broad-leaved rainforests: mild, frost-free winters, high precipitation (> 1500 mm/year), evenly
i . O . rgrgthroughout the year. i.O.O
O rgrg i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
i
distributed
a a i a i a i a i
d adsaaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d ad saaslala d adsaaslala
a
.Pa biomes www
.PDesert a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa a
.P.Pa
wwww w w ww
w w ww
w w ww
w
ww  Deserts cover w w about one fifth of the earth'sw w surface and occur where rainfall w w is >500 mm/year. w w w
grg  Rainfall
. O risgrusually
O g . rgrg
very low and/orOconcentrated
O in short burstsObetween
. rgrg long rainless periods.
O . O rgrEvaporation
O g rates
. O rgrg
O
l
asala ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
d adsaregularly exceed rainfall rates.
d saasal
adshallow, d
al
adsaasgood d
al
adnosaassubsurface d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a Soils are .P.P
course-textured,a a rocky or .P.P
gravely a awith drainage and a
.P.P
have a water. .P.P
The a a
finer
wwww wwww ww w w wwww wwww
ww dust and sand ww particles are blown elsewhere, ww leaving heavier pieces behind. ww Sand dunes are common. ww w
 Mean annual temperatures range from 20-25° C. The extreme maximum ranges from 43.5 - 49° C. Minimum
grg .O rgrg sometimes drop to i-18°
O .O rgC.
O rgBased on the temperature .O rgrrange,
O g deserts can be Hot .O O grg and Cold
rdeserts .O rgrg
O
l
asa li
temperatures
a a i . l al a i . l alia i . l alia i . l alia i .
a da adsadeserts. a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a daadsaasa a da adsaasa
.P.P  Hot deserts suchwasw
ww .P .PSahara of North Africa
the ww P.Pthe deserts of the southwestern
.and ww.P.P U.S., Mexico, Australia ww .P.Pand
ww
ww w w
w w
India (Thar desert) occur at low latitudes. w w
w w w ww w w w
w w w
grg  Hot deserts rgrghave a considerablei.amount rgrg of specialized vegetation rgr(xerophytes),
g aloe, agave,rg rg
Opuntia species, rgrg
l a ia. O
i . O l a a O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a ia.Oi . O
aa l
Euphorbia royleana as well as
aa l
specialized vertebrate and aa l
invertebrate animals. aa l aa l
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
. .P
ww w . .P
w ww . .P ww. .P ww . .P
ww
ww  Soils often have ww wwabundant nutrients because ww ww they need only water to w ww
become
w very productive andwhave ww
w little or no w
organic matter.
grg  O
Onlyi.animals rgrg which can tap available
O . O rgrwater
O g or capable of storing . O rgsufficient
O rg water and withstand . O rgrgthe heat can
O . O rgrg
O
a i .
la desert. The animals include a i i . a i i . a i i . a i i .
survive
d a aslathe
sain d a saaslala small nocturnal (active d a
a carnivores. The sdominant
saaslatalnight) d a aaslala animals are asaaslala
. a
Pa
.Pburrowers d and have cursorial, a a d
.P.Pfossorial a
.P.Pa
and saltatorialwadaptations. d a
.P.Pa d .P.Padad
ww
ww  w w
wwinactive in protected hideaways w
ww during the hot day w www w www w
ww The animalsw w
stay ww w
and come out to forage at dusk, ww dawn or at w
night, when the desert
grg
i . O . rgrg is cooler.
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O i . O . rgrg
O
l al a i l a a i
asal LECTURER IN ZOOLOGY l a a i l a a i l a a i
d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
al
adsaasPUDUCHERRY-10 d adsaasa
l
.P.P a a .P.Pa a .P.Pa a a
.P.P a .P.Pa a
wwww wwww ww ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww ww ww w
r ia.Oi .Or www.Padasalai.Net ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or www.TrbTnpsc.com ia.Oi .Or ia.Oi .Or
a laal a laal a laal a l
a al a laal
P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas P a daadsas
..
ww P ww.. P ww .. P ww.. P ww .. P
ww
ww ww ww wwww wwww wwww w
grg . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
l a ia i .
asaldominant animals ofawarm l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i . l a ia i .
 as
d d aThe d d saasaldeserts are reptiles and d
asal mammals. The Indian
adsasmall d
asal
adsaSpiny-tailed lizard, the as
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d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
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l alia i . l a ia i .
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d adsaasa MR. R. AYYANAR MSC,. d adsaB.ED, d sal
adsaaPRESIDENCY d
HR SEC SCHOOL.
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CHAPTER 11.
g . O r
O g r g . O r
O gr g . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
s aslaalia i .
s aslaalia i .
Biodiversity and its
s as laali
conservation
a i .
s aslaa lia i .
s aslaalia.
.wP.P adaada .wP.P adaada .wP.P adaada .wP.P adaada .wP.P adaada
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biodiversity
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 The term biodiversity was introduced by Walter Rosen (1986). Biodiversity is the assemblage of
ww ww
g different
.O rgrg
O life forms. Each speciesOis
. i.O rgadapted
rg to live in its specific
.O rgrg
O environments.
.O rgrg
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s aslaa
Thelia i .
changes in climatic s aslaalia
conditions are reflected in s
the as laalia i
distribution
.
and pattern of s aslaa lia
biodiversity
i .
on our s aslaalia.
a
adada planet. a
adada a
adada a
adada a
adada
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 The number of species per unit area declines as we move from tropics towards the poles. The Tundra and
g Taiga
i .O . rofgrnorthern
O g Canada, Alaska,
i .O . O grg
rnorthern Europe and Russia
i .O . rgpossess
O rg less than 12 species i .O . rgof
O rgtrees. .
as
a
l a
asThel a i
a temperate forests ofasthe a
l al a i
asaUnited states have 20-35 a sa
l al a i
asa of trees, while theatropical
species s
a
l a l a i
asa forests of a s
a aslaalia
.P.P adad Panama have over.P.110 adad
P .P.P adad small area. .P.P adad .P.P adad
wwww ww w w species of trees in aw
ww relatively
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g Levels ofO
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O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
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 Edward
s as
a i i .
lala Wilson popularizedsasthe a i i .
lalaterm ‘Biodiversity’ stoasladescribe a i
la i . diversity at all s as
a i .
la of biological saslaalia.
lalevels i .
. P. adaadorganization
P
a
. . adaada to biomes. There .are
from populations
P P P. P
daada levels of biodiversity
athree . P. a–daaGenetic
P da diversity, Species. P. adaada
P
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diversity and Community/Ecosystem diversityww ww wwww wwww
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g  Genetic diversity rgrg refers to the differences rgrg in genetic make-upi.(number rgrg and types of genes) rgrg distinct
between
l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O l a a O
i . O l a ia. O
i . O laalia.
species
s as a l and to the genetic
s as a l
variation within a single species;
s as a l also covers genetic variation
s as a l between distinct
s as
.wP.P adaadpopulations
a
.wP.Pad
da a
of the sameaspecies.
.wP.P adaada .wP.P adaada .wP.P adaada
w
ww  Genetic diversity w
wcan
w be measured using awvariety w
ww of molecular techniques. w
wwIndia has more than 50,000 www
ww ww w ww ww
g genetic variants rgrg of Paddy and 1000i.O variants
rgrg of Mango. rgrg rgrg
 Variationl a ia. O
i . O
of genes of a species a a
increases
l i . O with diversity in size l a ia.O
andi . Ohabitat. It results in the l a i .Oi
Alpha
a . O diversity: laalia.
s as a l s as a l s as a l s as a l s as
a
adadItais measured by counting a
adadthe a number of taxa (usually a a
adadspecies) within a particular a a community or adada
adadarea, a
ww.P.P ecosystem. w w.P.P w w.P.P w w.P.P ww .P.P
ww
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 ii. Beta diversity: It is species diversity between two adjacent ecosystems and is obtaining by comparing the
g number.O ofO grg unique to each of.Othe
rspecies rgrecosystem.
O g .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .
l alia i .
asa diversity refers to the l
asa alia i . l
asthealia i . l a lia
asa area. i . aslaalia
s
iii. aGamma
a a sadiversity of the habitats overa sa a total landscape or geographicala s
a a s
a
.P.P adad .P.P adad .P.P adad .P.P adad .P.P adad
ww
ww The reasons for the w w
wrichness
w of biodiversity w w
wthe
inw w
w Tropics are: www w www w
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g  Warmitropical . O rgrg regions between thei.tropic
O O rgrgof Cancer and Capricorn
O . O rgon
O rgeither side of equatori.O rgrg
possess
O
s a a
congenial
s
i .
lala habitats for living sorganisms. as
a
lala i .
s as
a
lalai i .
s as
a
lala i .
s aslaalia.
. P. adaadEnvironmental
P
a
. P
conditions. adaofadathe tropics are favourable
P . P. adaad
P
a
not only for speciation.Pbut . P
ada
adaalso for supporting both . P. adaada
P
wwww ww wof
worganisms. ww ww wwww wwww
ww variety and number ww ww ww ww
 The temperatures vary between 25⁰ C to 35⁰ C, a range in which most metabolic activities of living
g . O O grg with ease and efficiency.
roccur . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
organisms
s aslaalia i .
s aslaalia i .
s as laalia i .
s aslaa lia i .
s aslaalia.
.wP.P adaadThe
a average rainfall is often
.wP.P adaadmore
a than 200 mm perayear.
.wP.Pad
da a
.wP.P adaada .wP.P adaada
www Climate, seasons, w
ww temperature, humidity, w
wphotoperiods
w are more orwless w
wwstable and encourage both w
wvariety
w
ww ww ww w ww
and numbers.
g .O rgrg and nutrient availability.
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
s as
Rich
laalia i .resource
s aslaalia i .
s as laalia i .
s aslaa lia i .
s aslaalia.
adada a a
adada a
adada a
adada a
adada
ww.P.P  Tundra and the w w.P.P
Polar ice caps. This variety w w.P.P
(Biodiversity) is essential w
for w P.P
.the wellbeing of our w
planetw.P .
andP
ww
ww ww ww ww ww
sustenance ofwlife w as a whole. The importance ww of biodiversity can be viewed ww and measured as ww
g Ecosystem
i .O . rgservices
O rg b) Biological resources
i .O . rgrg c) Social benefits of
O i .O . rgrg
biodiversity
O .O . rgrg
O .
as a
l al a i
asa organization and functioning
The a sa
l al a i
asa of ecosystems world a sa
l
over al a i
asa is effected and dependent a s
a
l a li
asaon biodiversity and asaaslaalia
a i
.P.P adad its richness. The major .P.P
dad
afunctional attributes are:.P.P adad .P.P adad .P.P adad
wwww w w
ww cycles or biogeochemical w w
ww cycles (N2, C, H2O, P,wSw w w
wcycles)
w www w
ww  continuity ofw w
nutrient ww ww
g Mr. R. AYYANAR
. O rgrMSC
O g BED LECTURER IN .ZOOLOGY O rgrg PRESIDENCY HR SEC
O . O rgrg PUDUCHERRY -10i.O.O
SCHOOL
O rgrg
s as
a
lalai i .
s as
a
lalai i .
s as
a
lalai i .
s as
a
lala i
s aslaalia.
. P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P . P.Padaada . P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P
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s aslaalia. i. www.Padasalai.Net s as laalia. i. s as laalia. i. www.TrbTnpsc.com s aslaalia. i. s aslaalia.
. P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P
wwww ww ww ww ww
ww  soil formation,w
wwconditioning
w
or maintenance
ww ww
of soil health (fertility) by w
ww w
soil microbial diversity along
ww ww
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g the different
. O rgrgtrophic members i.O.O
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O . O rgrg
O
aslaa ia i .
l ecosystem productivity
 sincreases s as laa a i
l and provide food resources s as laalia i .
s aslaalia i .
s aslaalia.
.wP.P adaadaact as water traps, filters, .wP.P adaawater
da flow regulators .and P. ad
P aada purifiers (forest cover
water . P. P
ada
adaand vegetation) . P. adaada
P
www w
w(forests
w w
www temperature regulation, w
wwCO w2 absorption, which w w w
ww
ww  climate stability ww are essential forw w
rainfall, ww inw turn
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g .O rgrg management and isustainable
O .O rgrg development i.O.O
O rgrg .O rgrg
O
 forest
s aslaalia i .
resource
s as laal a i .
s as laal a i
s aslaalia i .
s aslaalia.
a
adadamaintaining balance.Pbetween a
adada biotic components.P.P adadaa a
adada a
adada
ww.P.P  cleaning up of w w .
pollutantsP – microbes are the w w
biggest degraders of molecules w w P.P
.including many w
anthropogenic.P.P
w
ww
ww www ww ww ww ww ww ww
ones which arewpresent in effluents, sewage, garbage and agro-chemicals
g  ecological
i .O . rgrstability
O g – the varieties and
i .O . rgrichness
O rg of species contribute
i .O . rgrgto ecological stabilityi.O
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.
a s
a
l
asa al
species.a i Biodiverse regions
a asa
are
s
a
l al a i
reservoirs of biological
a asal al
resources
s
a
a i like food resources,
a s
a
l
asa a
genel a ipool, genetic
a s
a aslaalia
.P.P adad resource, medicinal.P adad bio-prospecting .P.P
resources,
. P adad .P.P adad .P.P adad
wwww www w www w ww w w ww w w
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g  Importance . O rgrg of biodiversity – Global
O . O rgrgand India
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
as as
a
lalai
Biodiversity
i .
is the variety s
of as
life
a i i .
lalaon earth. That is, it is the s as aa i i .
la of different species
lnumber s as aa
lof i i .
laflora and fauna s aslaalia.
. P. adadaincluding microorganisms.
P . P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P
wwww wwww wwww ww ww ww ww
ww  These organisms ww can inhabit different ecosystems ww with varying conditions ww like the Rainforests, Coral ww reefs,
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g . O rgrunique
O g . O rghot
O rg spots for Ecotourism. . O rgrg with forest resources
O . O rgrgwildlife it
O
 to lprovide
s as aalia i . aesthetic value
s as laalia i
and .
s as laalia i .
Along
s aslaalia i .and
s aslaalia.
.wP.P adaadahas commercial significance
.wP.P adaada an indicator of the.P.health adaadaof the ecosystem. Endemism
P . P. adaadais a crucial indicator
P . P. adaada
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Biogeographical
g . O rgrgregions of India i.O.O
O rgrg .O rgrg
O O
.florargrg
O
As la
s as a li
pera i .
the international ‘biome’
s as laal a i
type of classification based
s as laalia i .
upon climate, fauna and
s aslaalia i . and the soil
s aslaalia.
a
dada
aconditions, India can be divided a a ten different biogeographic
adadinto a
adada zones, (Fig.11.3)namely: a
adada a
adada
ww.P.P w w. P.P w w. P.P w .
w P.P w .
w P.P
ww
ww 1. Trans Himalayan ww ww Region: An extension ww wof
w the Tibetan plateau, high-altitude ww ww cold desert in Ladakh ww ww
(J&K) and Lauhala Spiti (H.P) comprising 5.7% of the country’s landmass. The mountains of this region
g have
i .O . rgrrichest
the
O g wild sheep and.O
i goat
. rgrcommunity
O g in the world,
i .O . rgrg
renowned
O for its quality wool
i .O . rgrand
O g wool .
a s
a
l al a
asproducts.
a i Other fauna include
a s
a
l al a i
asa Chiru and Black-rocked a s
a
l al
asCrane.
a a i
a s
a
l
asa al a i
a s
a aslaalia
.P.P a2.dad Himalayas: The.entire P.Padadmountain chain running .P.P
dad north-western to north-eastern
afrom .P.P adad India, comprising.Pa.P adad
ww
ww diverse range of biotic w w
wwprovinces and biomes and www w w w
wwlandmass. The commonww w
ww of
fauna w
ww ww ww covers 7.2% of the country’s ww
the Himalayan ranges, are the wild sheep, mountain goats, shrew, snow leopard and panda, many of which are
g . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O . O rgrg
O
endangered.
s as
a
lalai i .
s as
a
lalai i .
s as
a
lalai i .
s as
a
lalai i .
s aslaalia.
P daada 3. Indian Desert:PThe
a3. aextremely
da
adadesert a aadaAravalli
arid area west ofdthe
P
ada both the salty adaada
hill range, comprising
P adaland-mass.
ww. . Pdesert of Gujarat and the
ww . .
sandP of Rajasthan. It
ww . . P
comprises 6.9% of the .
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ww . P Wild ass w .P.P
isw
ww
ww endemic to this region. w w w
w It is also the habitat for the w w w
w Indian Bustard, camel, foxes w w w
w and snakes, many of which w w w
w are
g endangered. rgrg rgrg rgrg rgrg
l a ia. Oi . O – l a ia. O
i . O l a ia. Oi . O l a ia. O
i . O laalia.
4.
s as
4.
a l Semi Arid Zones: This
s as a l
zone is between the desert
s as
and
a l the Deccan plateau,
s as a l
including the Aravalli
s as
daadrange
ahill a covering 15.6% ofad aadacountry’s landmass..P
the adaadfound
Fauna a here are nilghai, blackbuck, adaada four horned .P.P adaada
w.wP.P w . P. P w . P w . P. P w
ww antelopes, sambar,wchital
ww wwwwand spotted deer which ww ww
ware herbivores along with predators
ww www like Asiatic lion, w www
tiger,
w
leopard and jackal.
g 5. 5. Western
.O rgrg Ghats: Western Ghats,
O .O rgare
O rg mountain ranges along .O O grgwest coast of India, extending
rthe .O rgrg over
O
almosts aslaalia
1,500km
i . from Sat Pena inssouth as laalia i .
Gujarat to the southernmost s as laalia i .
tip of Kerala. The annual s aslaalia i .
rainfall is about s aslaalia.
a2000a
dadamm. This zone has large ada
adapopulations ada ada animal of Tamil Nadu), a a Langur, tiger, adada
adadNilgiri a
ww.P.P w w.P.P w w P.P
of Nilgiri .tahr (State
w .P.P
w ww.P.P
ww leopard, and Indianwelephant.The
ww www grizzled squirrel ww ww and lion tailed macaquew ww
are
w endemic to this region. ww ww
6. 6. Deccan Peninsula: This covers much of the southern and south-central plateau with a predominantly
g deciduous i .O rgrg and 4.3% of the icountry’s
vegetation
. O .O . rgrg landmass. It is known
O i .O . O grgdeciduous forests, thorn
rfor i .O . Ogrg and
rforests .
a s
pockets
a
l al a i
asaof semi ever green forests. a s
a
l al
asFauna a i
a found here are Chital, a s
a
l al a i
asaSambhar, Nilghai, elephant, a s
a
l al a
asasloth i
a s
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.P.P a7.dad Coastal Region:.P . adad region of India with.Psandy
P
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P .P.P adareefs,
d mangroves .P.P adad
ww
ww constitutes 2.5% ofwthe w w
wwtotal geographical area.wThe w w
wwcoastline from Gujaratwtow w w
wSundarbans
w w
wbew w
ww w w is estimated w tow
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O g BED LECTURER IN .ZOOLOGY O rgrg PRESIDENCY HR SEC
O . O rgrg PUDUCHERRY -10i.O.O
SCHOOL
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s as
a
lalai i .
s as
a
lalai i .
s as
a
lalai i .
s as
a
lala i
s aslaalia.
. P. adaada
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P . P.Padaada . P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P
ww ww ww ww ww
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. P. adaada
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P . P. adaada
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ww ww ww w ww
ww
ww 5423km long. Apartw
wwfrom
w
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wwconstitute
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wwww
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g r g g r g g r g g r g g
i.Or i.Or Andaman andalaNicobar i.OrIslands in the Bayaof i.Or have
a typical reef O lagoon system, rich in biodiversity. The fauna includes native crabs, turtles and tunas
8. sa l alia.Andaman a l alia.O alia.O l alia.O a laalia.
s a
10. and Nicobar s s aIslands:The s s s s a Bengal s s
daada diverse set of biomes,
ahighly aada
adconstituting adaageographical
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a of high endemismadaada
w.wP.P w .wP.P 0.3% of the.P
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. P
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w . P. P ww .P.P
ww and contain some w
ww wIndia’s
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Narcondam hornbills of the Andamans and the South Andaman Krait.
g .O O rgrg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O
s aslaa lia i.
s aslaalia i .
s aslaalia i .
s as laalia i .
s aslaalia.
a
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aCauses a
adadaloss a
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ww.P.P w w.P.P w .P.P
w w .P.P
w w .P.P
w
ww
ww  The majorw
ww for biodiversity decline
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O
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rof i .O . rgrg
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a
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a
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a
l
aoil
s
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wwww ww w w ww w w www w www w
ww  Introduction ww of alien/exotic species ww ww ww
g  Over exploitationrgrg of resources (poaching, rgrg indiscriminate cutting rgrofg trees, over fishing, ihunting, rgrg mining)
a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a i . O
i . O a . O
i . O laalia.
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agriculture andsaquacultural
s practices s aslala s as lala s as
. P. adaada Hybridization between
P . P. adaadnative
P
a and non-native species
. P. adaadaand loss of native species
P . P. adaada
P . P. adaada
P
wwww  Natural disasters ww ww(Tsunami, forest fire, earth ww ww wwww wwww
ww ww ww quake, volcanoes) ww ww
 Industrialization, Urbanization, infrastructure development, Transport – Road and Shipping activity,
g . O Orgrg . O rgrg unregulated tourism
O . O Ogrg monoculture are common
rand . O rgrgarea of
O
s asla li i .
communication
a a towers, damla
s as a li i .
construction,
a s aslaalia i .
s as laalia i .
s aslaalia.
.wP.P adaada Co-extinction .P.P
specific threats
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P . P. adaada
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g Extinction:
.O Orgrg .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
O .O rgrg
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s aslaa lia i .
s aslaalia i .
s aslaalia i .
s as laalia i .
s aslaalia.
a
adada Natural extinction a a process of replacement
aisdaadslow a
adadaof existing species with a
dada adapted species due
abetter a
adada
ww.P.P w w.P.P w .P.P
w w .P.P
w w .P.P
w
ww
ww to changeswinw wenvironmental
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O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O i .O . rgrg
O .
a s
a
l a
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a Mass extinction: The a s
a
l al a i
asa has experienced quiteasaaasfew
earth
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a mass extinctions dueato s
a
laal a i
asenvironmental a s
a aslaalia
.P.P adad catastrophes. A mass .P.P ada d .P.P
dad
a225 .P.P
dad
athe .Pof
. adad
P
wwww ww w w extinction occurred about
ww w w million years ago during
www w Permian, where 90%
www w
ww shallow water ww marine invertebrates disappeared. ww ww ww
g . O Orgrg
iii. Anthropogenic extinctions O
. rgrgare abetted by human
These
O . O rgrg like hunting, habitat
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O . O Ogrg
rdestruction,
s as
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a
i i .
la exploitation, s as
a
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s as
a
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s as
a
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s aslaalia.
. P. adaada urbanization and.industrialization.
P P. adaada
P Some examples
. P. adaaof
P daextinctions are Dodo . P.of
P
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. O rgrMSC
O g BED LECTURER IN .ZOOLOGY O rgrg PRESIDENCY HR SEC
O . O rgrg PUDUCHERRY -10i.O.O
SCHOOL
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g Mr. R. AYYANAR
. O rgrMSC
O g BED LECTURER IN .ZOOLOGY O rgrg PRESIDENCY HR SEC
O . O rgrg PUDUCHERRY -10i.O.O
SCHOOL
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O g BED LECTURER IN .ZOOLOGY O Orgrg PRESIDENCY HR SEC . O rgrg PUDUCHERRY -10i.O.O
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