Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
technologies
Training Session
June 2017
© Zetec Inc. - Proprietary and Confidential 1
Agenda
Standard PA UT – 40 to 70 SW
• Focal Law
– Set of delays that describe how the signal from an individual probe element must be
offset to create a constructive interference along a given path and focal point.
• Elementary A-Scan
– A-Scan signal from a single pulsed element received on a single receiving element.
• Summed A-Scan
– Traditional phased array processing where elementary signals from all elements are
summed together using a focal law to generate an A-Scan.
• Sweep
– Group of summed A-Scans displayed in an organized way, e.g. Sectorial, Linear or
Compound Sweep.
• Dynamic Depth Focusing (DDF)
– Variation of a focal law; a single focal point is still used for pulsing but during reception,
delay laws are adjusted dynamically to focus at multiple depths at once.
1. Delay laws are generated, but not used during data collection
2. FMC, for each element in the probe, the instrument:
– pulses the element
– digitizes the elementary A-Scan from each pulser/receiver combination
3. FMC data can be processed in the instrument or transferred to host
computer for processing there
4. Set of FMC data is read and processed
– Using standard focal law to reconstruct standard phased array beam sweep
– Using TFM focal law to reconstruct TFM frame
– Using other innovative algorithms …
– Same set of FMC data can be processed multiple times to produce different
results, using different reconstruction parameters
Software Summation
Software – -10–to4080toLW
Summation 70 SW
TFM – Frame LW
•• Data example,
Element 16 elements
1 firing, probe
receiving on 1
• Element 2 firing, receiving on 1
through 16
• NOT to be used by human…
through 16
• Main Bang of probe on wedge
• Signal inside wedge
• Interface signal between wedge
• Signal inside component
and component
• Actual data used by TFM for image
construction
Example
• For a 16-element probe
– Probe will be pulsed 16 times
– 256 elementary A-Scans are gathered
• For a 32-element probe
– Probe will be pulsed 32 times
– 1024 elementary A-Scans are gathered
• For a 64-element probe
– Probe will be pulsed 64 times
– 4096 elementary A-Scans are gathered
© Zetec Inc. - Proprietary and Confidential 20
FMC – Data Quantity
Pulsing 1 Pulsing 19
Receiving 19 Equivalent to Receiving 1
FMC HMC
Firing element n n
Elementary A-Scan n2 (n2+ n) / 2
(Nearly half of n2)
• A single set of FMC data (elementary A-Scans) can be re-used multiple times
in TFM to construct different images
• Each application of TFM can have different parameters
– Frame location
– Frame size
– Even the path reconstruction mode !
• It is possible to reconstruct direct paths, but also indirect and mode-
converted paths, in any combination
• Different TFM frames can be “merged” together to enhance detection and
sizing capability
TT TTL
Data
Data properly improperly
located located
31
Digitizing Frequency of Signal
32
Digitizing Frequency of Signal
5 MHZ Signal
Digitized at 25 MHz
Sample positions are variable
Digitizing at Digitizing at
20 X signal 5 X signal
Frequency Frequency
33
Amplitude Error related to Digitizing Frequency
Digitized Value = 96 %
Peak Value = 100 %
34
Amplitude Error related to Digitizing Frequency
• Maximum error occurs at random occurrence, depending on signal generator location (flaw location)
• Maximum error can be computed
– Phase spread = number of degrees between two consecutive samples
– Phase error = number of degrees between a sample and peak location
– Maximum Phase error = Phase spread / 2
• Occur when samples are at same distance before and after the peak
– Amplitude error ratio in % = cos(Maximum Phase Error)
– Amplitude error in dB = 20 X log (cos(Maximum Phase Error))
38
TFM – Nyquist in TFM
Example A Example B
• V Weld, Carbon steel (LW) • Steel Bolt (LW)
• Thickness 25mm • Thickness 100mm
• Frame depth with coverage of first • Frame depth with coverage of first leg
and second leg require 50mm require 100mm
• 50mm / 256 pixel = 0.2 mm per pixel • 100mm / 256 pixel = 0.4 mm per pixel
• 5MHz probe in steel = 1.2mm • 5MHz probe in steel (LW) = 1.2mm
• Factor: 1.2 / 0.2 = 6 • Factor: 1.2 / 0.4 = 3
• Maximum phase error: 360°/ 6 / 2 = • Maximum phase error: 360° / 3 / 2 =
30 60
• Amplitude error: • Amplitude error:
– 20X log(cos(30)) = -1.2 dB – 20X log(cos(60)) = -6.0 dB
40
TFM – Nyquist Example
Tilted Notch
• Single FMC data
collection
• TFM processed twice
• Only parameter modified
is pixel size in TFM
frame
• Every other parameter is
kept constant
• Same indication
visualized!
41
TFM – Nyquist Example
Tilted Notch
• Same notch
• Same parameters
• Probe position is moved 0.5 mm
• Amplitude pattern changes
drastically when under sampling
42
TFM – Amplitude and Interface/Dead zone
• As opposed to STF, where all beams transit through a small area and
cause saturation interference, TFM has a relatively smooth interface
signal
• In TFM, even when the frame is located below the probe, the
contribution to the top row of pixels is performed in such way that the
energy is distributed, and usually prevents saturation
• In fact, top rows of a frame dedicated to corrosion mapping will have an
interface signal that is less disturbing than with an equivalent phased
array approach
• This effectively reduces the dead-zone in the top section of the frame
compared to regular phased array
43
Codes and Applications
46
Application – Weld examination
Strengths
• Each pixel of the image is a focal point (as long as near-field rule is satisfied)
• Definition of a focal law is easier in calculator (no focalization parameters, no beam steering parameters)
• Multiple frame reconstructions can be overlaid to cover multiple mode conversions and may improve detection
Weaknesses
• Number of acoustic paths to perform the acquisition is dependent on the number of elements, not the number of laws; a
Typical 40 to 70 SW sweep with 1 degree resolution requires 31 travel times with standard PA, and 64 with a TFM frame for
a 64-element probe; this results in a slower inspection speed
• For small TFM frames (256 x 256), size and resolution can limit the weld thickness that can be examined due to the Nyquist
rule for a maximum amplitude drop of 2 dB (x5)
– for SW in steel, Wavelength is 0.65 mm at 5 MHz; so pixel size must be 0.13 mm and maximum frame dimension is 33 mm x 33
mm, therefore insufficient to cover weld thicknesses greater than 16.5 mm with full skip coverage.
– for Longitudinal wave in Steel, with proportional effect on wavelength, pixel size and frame size, maximum frame dimension is 60
mm x 60 mm; . Coverage of weld thicknesses up to 30 mm thick can be achieved with full skip coverage.
• Inaccurate pixel location at very high angles
• Live TFM does not store FMC data, which prevents data re-use and adds additional risk to qualification effort
• Post-processing TFM has FMC data, but is typically too slow for a production-environment inspection
• TFM does not provide A-Scan data, which may impact flaw characterization and qualification effort
Strengths
• Each pixel of the image is a focal point (as long as near-field rule is satisfied)
• Definition of focal law is easier in calculator (no focalization parameters, no beam steering parameters)
• Number of acoustic paths to perform the acquisition is dependent on the number of elements, not number of laws. The net
effect is the opposite of the weld. A typical 0LW, 64-element probe requires 58 ( 64 – aperture) travel times with standard PA
or 116 travel times when using improved resolution. A typical TFM frame with a 64-element probe will require 64 travel times,
independent of the final resolution. This may result in a faster inspection speed depending on TFM processing speed
• Coverage is performed at 0 degrees in standard PA, but TFM frames cover a wide range of angles, which may improve
detection of corrosion and image quality
• Averaging effect helps produce a crisp image
• Even with small TFM frame (256 x 256), size and resolution is within a typical inspection range and is not an issue
– Using Longitudinal Wave in Steel, with proportional effect on wavelength, pixel size and frame size, maximum frame dimension
of 60mm X 60mm is attained (for a 256 X 256 frame). Able to cover component up to 60 mm thick with direct path.
Weaknesses
• With typical frame resolution, lateral resolution is better than standard PA, but depth resolution is typically worse
• Live TFM does not store FMC data, which prevents data re-use
• Post-processing TFM has FMC data, but is typically too slow for a production-environment inspection
• TFM does not provide A-Scan data, which may impact thickness measurement accuracy
49
Plate Weld Inspection
LOF, Incomplete Penetration, Toe-Crack, Porosity
Std PA UT, Merged data from Sector 40 to 70SW, focusing HP 50 mm
50
Plate Weld Inspection
LOF, Incomplete Penetration, Toe-Crack, Porosity
Reconstructed FMC data, Merge from Sector STF 40 to 70SW
51
Plate Weld Inspection
LOF, Incomplete Penetration, Toe-Crack, Porosity
Reconstructed FMC data, Merge TFM Frames SW
52
Plate Weld Inspection
LOF, Incomplete Penetration, Toe-Crack, Porosity
Reconstructed FMC data, Merge from TFM Frames SW
Rebounds included
53
Thick Vessel Weld
54
Thick Vessel Weld
F: Crack
Realistic Welding Defects: NS5: Cluster of shrinkages
55
Thick Vessel Weld
Flaws F & NS5
Standard PA, Merge Sector 40 to 70SW, focusing HP 50 mm
56
Thick Vessel Weld
Flaws F & NS5
Reconstructed FMC data, Merge STF Sector 40 to 70SW
(STF = Sectorial Total Focusing)
57
Thick Vessel Weld
Flaws F & NS5
Reconstructed FMC data, Merge TFM Frame SW
(TFM = Total Focusing Method)
58
Closing words