FLOW MEASURING DEVICES

INTRODUCTION
Accurate measurement of flow rate of liquids and gases is an essential requirement for maintaining the quality
of industrial processes. In fact, most of the industrial control loops control the flow rates of incoming liquids or
gases in order to achieve the control objective. As a result, accurate measurement of flow rate is very important.
Needless to say that there could be diverse requirements of flow measurement, depending upon the situation.
It could be volumetric or mass flow rate, the medium could be gas or liquid, the measurement could be intrusive or
nonintrusive, and so on. As a result there are different types of flow measuring techniques that are used in industries.
The common types of flow meters that find industrial applications can be listed as below: In this lesson, we would
learn about the construction and principle of operation few types of flowmeters.

1. Obstruction type flow meter

Obstruction or head type flow meters are of two types: differential pressure type and variable area type.
Orifice meter, Venturimeter, Pitot tube fall under the first category, while rotameter is of the second category. In all
the cases, an obstruction is created in the flow passage and the pressure drop across the obstruction is related with
the flow rate.

1.1 Basic Principle

It is well know that flow can be of two types: viscous and turbulent. Whether a flow is viscous or turbulent
can be decided by the Reynolds’s number RD. If RD > 2000, the flow is turbulent. In the present case we will assume
that the flow is turbulent, that is the normal case for practical situations. We consider the fluid flow through a closed
channel of variable cross section, as shown in fig. 1. The channel is of varying cross section and we consider two
cross sections of the channel, 1 and 2. Let the pressure, velocity, cross sectional area and height above the datum be
expressed as p1, v1, A1 and z1 for section 1 and the corresponding values for section 2 be p 2, v2, A2 and z2
respectively. We also assume that the fluid flowing is incompressible. Now from Bernloulli’s equation:

. 2

p1 p2
v
Fig. 1.1.1
From the above expression, we can infer that if there is an obstruction in the flow path that causes
the variation of the cross sectional area inside the closed flow channel, there would be difference in static
pressures at two points and by measuring the pressure difference, one can obtain the flow rate using eqn.
(3). However, this expression is valid for incompressible fluids (i.e. liquids) only and the relationship
between the volumetric flow rate and pressure difference is nonlinear. A special signal conditioning
circuit, called square rooting circuit is to be used for getting a linear relationship.

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1.2 Orifice meter

Depending on the type of obstruction, we can have different types of flow meters. Most common
among them is the orifice type flowmeter, where an orifice plate is placed in the pipe line, as shown in fig.2.
If d1 and d2 are the diameters of the pipe line and the orifice opening, then the flow rate can be obtained
using eqn. (3) by measuring the pressure difference (p1-p2).

Flow profile
Orifice Plate Vena Contacta

Flow
d1 d2

p1 p2

Fig. 1.2.1 Orifice type flow meter

The flow expression obtained is not an accurate expression in the actual case, and some correction
factor, named as discharge co-efficient (Cd) has to be incorporated in (3), as

Cd is defined as the ratio of the actual flow and the ideal flow and is always less than one. There
are in fact two main reasons due to which the actual flow rate is less than the ideal one (obtained from
eqn. (3)). The first is that the assumption of frictionless flow is not always valid. The amount of friction
depends on the Reynolds’s number (RD). The more important point is that, the minimum flow area is not
the orifice area A2, but is somewhat less and it occurs at a distance from the orifice plate, known as the
Vena Contracta, and we are taking a pressure tapping around that point in order to obtain the maximum
pressure drop. As a result, the correction factor , has to be incorporated.

In fact Cd depends on β, as well as on RD. But it has been observed that for R D>104, the flow is
totally turbulent and Cd is independent on RD. In this range, the typical value of Cd for orifice plate varies
between 0.6 and 0.7.

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2.1 Orifice Plate, Venturimeter and Flow nozzle

The major advantages of orifice plate are that it is low cost device, simple in construction and easy
to install in the pipeline as shown in fig.3. The orifice plate is a circular plate with a hole in the center.
Pressure tappings are normally taken distances D and 0.5D upstream and downstream the orifice
respectively (D is the internal diameter of the pipe). But there are many more types of pressure tappings
those are in use.

Permanent
Pressure drop

Fig. 2.1.1 Orifice plate and permanent pressure drop

The major disadvantage of using orifice plate is the permanent pressure drop that is normally
experienced in the orifice plate as shown in fig.3. The pressure drops significantly after the orifice and can
be recovered only partially. The magnitude of the permanent pressure drop is around 40%, which is
sometimes objectionable. It requires more pressure to pump the liquid. This problem can be overcome by
improving the design of the restrictions. Venturimeters and flow nozzles are two such devices.

The construction of a venturimeter is shown in fig.4. Here it is so designed that the change in the
flow path is gradual. As a result, there is no permanent pressure drop in the flow path. The discharge
coefficient Cd varies between 0.95 and 0.98. The construction also provides high mechanical strength for
the meter. However, the major disadvantage is the high cost of the meter.

Flow nozzle is a compromise between orifice plate and venturimeter. The typical construction is shown in
fig. 5.

p2
p1

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Fig. 2.1.2 Venturimeter

In general, few guidelines are to be followed for installation of obstruction type flowmeters. Most
important among them is that, no other obstruction or bending of the pipe line is not allowed near the
meter.

Though this type of flowmeters are most popular in industries, their accuracy is low for low flow rates. As
a result, they are not recommended for low flow rate measurement.

p
Fig. 2.1.3 Flow Nozzle

3.1 Flow measurement of compressible fluids

So far we have discussed about the flow measurement of incompressible fluids (liquids). For of
compressible fluids, i.e. gases, the flow rates are normally expressed in terms of mass flow rates. The same
obstruction type flowmeters can be used, but an additional correction factor needs to be introduced to take in
to account the compressibility of the gas used. The mass flow rate gases can be expressed as :

3.2 Pitot Tube

Pitot tube is widely used for velocity measurement in aircraft. Its basic principle can be understood
from fig. 6(a). If a blunt object is placed in the flow channel, the velocity of fluid at the point just before
it, will be zero. Then considering the fluid to be incompressible, from eqn.
However, as mentioned earlier corrections are to be incorporated for compressible fluids. The typical
construction of a Pitot tube is shown in fig. 6(b).

PL V1

V2 = 0 p2
p1

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Fig.3.2.1 (a) Pitot Tube: Basic Principle Fig. 3.2.2(b) Pitot Tube: Construction

3.3 Rotameter

The orifice meter, Venturimeter and flow nozzle work on the principle of constant area variable
pressure drop. Here the area of obstruction is constant, and the pressure drop changes with flow rate. On
the other hand Rotameter works as a constant pressure drop variable area meter. It can be only be used in
a vertical pipeline. Its accuracy is also less (2%) compared to other types of flow meters. But the major
advantages of rotameter are, it is simple in construction, ready to install and the flow rate can be directly
seen on a calibrated scale, without the help of any other device, e.g. differential pressure sensor etc.
Moreover, it is useful for a wide range of variation of flow rates (10:1).
The basic construction of a rotameter is shown in fig. 7. It consists of a vertical pipe, tapered
downward. The flow passes from the bottom to the top. There is cylindrical type metallic float inside the
tube. The fluid flows upward through the gap between the tube and the float. As the float moves up or
down there is a change in the gap, as a result changing the area of the orifice. In fact, the float settles
down at a position, where the pressure drop across the orifice will create an upward thrust that will
balance the downward force due to the gravity. The position of the float is calibrated with the flow rate.

Float p2 Tapered pipe

p1

Fig. 3.3.1 Basic construction of a rotameter.

3.4 Construction of the float

The construction of the float decides heavily, the performance of the rotameter. In general, a float should
be designed such that:
(a) it must be held vertical
(b) it should create uniform turbulence so as to make it insensitive to viscosity (c) it should
make the rotameter least sensitive to the variation of the fluid density.

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The basic construction of a rotameter is shown in fig. 7. It consists of a vertical pipe, tapered downward.
The flow passes from the bottom to the top. There is cylindrical type metallic float inside the tube. The fluid
flows upward through the gap between the tube and the float. As the float moves up or down there is a
change in the gap, as a result changing the area of the orifice.

A typical construction of the float is shown in fig. 9. The top section of the float has a sharp edge and
several angular grooves. The fluid passing through these grooves, causes the rotation of the float. The
turbulence created in this process reduces the viscous force considerably.

Angular grooves
Sharp edge

Fig. 3.4.1 Construction of a float

4.1 Electromagnetic Flowmeter

Electromagnetic flowmeter is different from all other flowmeters due to its uniqueness on several
accounts. The advantages of this type of flowmeter can be summarized as:
1. It causes no obstruction to flow path.
2. It gives complete linear output in form of voltage.
3. The output is unaffected by changes in pressure, temperature and viscosity of the fluid.
4. Reverse flow can also be measured.
5. Flow velocity as low as 10-6m/sec can be measured.

Electrodes 0

B
e0

Fig. 4.1.1 Electromagnetic Flowmeter

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Electromagnetic flowmeters are suitable for measurement of velocity of conducting (Mercury) and
weakly conducting (water) liquid. The basic principle of operation can be understood from fig. 10. It
works on the principle of basic electromagnetic induction; i.e. when a conductor moves along a magnetic
field perpendicular to the direction of flow, a voltage would be induced perpendicular to the direction of
movement as also to the magnetic filed. The flowing liquid acts like a conductor. External magnetic field
is applied perpendicular to the direction of the flow and two electrodes are flushed on the wall of the
pipeline as shown. The expression for the voltage induced is given by:

length of the conductor (diameter d in this case) and v is the velocity of the liquid. The above
expression shows the complete relationship between the voltage induced and the velocity. However, the
magnetic field applied is not d.c. if the liquid medium is water or any other polarizable liquid. This is
because, if the magnetic field is d.d. the voltage induced will also be d.c. and a small amount of d.c.
current will flow if a measuring circuit is connected to the terminals. This small d.c. current will cause
electrolysis; oxygen and hydrogen bubbles will be formed and they will stick to the electrodes surfaces for
some time. This will provide an insulating layer on the electrodes surfaces that will disrupt the voltage
generation process. As a result, the magnetic field applied for these cases is a.c., or pulsed d.c. excitation.
The meter can only be used for liquids having moderate conductivities (more than 10μmho/cm). As a
result, it is not suitable for gases or liquid hydrocarbons. The accuracy is around±1%.

4.2 Turbine type Flowmeter

Turbine type flowmeter is a simple way for measuring flow velocity. A rotating shaft with turbine
type angular blades is placed inside the flow pipe. The fluid flowing through the pipeline will cause
rotation of the turbine whose speed of rotation can be a measure of the flowrate.

ωr

ω rR
α

Fig. 4.2.1 Turbine type flow meter

The speed of rotation of the turbine can be measured using several ways, such as, optical method,
inductive pick up etc. Turbine type flow meter is a simple way for measuring flow velocity. A rotating
shaft with turbine type angular blades is placed inside the flow pipe. The fluid flowing through the
pipeline will cause rotation of the turbine whose speed of rotation can be a measure of the flowrate. Type

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flow meter is a simple way for measuring flow velocity. A rotating shaft with turbine type angular blades
is placed inside the flow pipe. The fluid flowing through the pipeline will cause rotation of the turbine
whose speed of rotation can be a measure of the flow rate.

4.3 Vortex type Flowmeter

Formation of vortex on a flowing stream by an obstruction like straw or stone is a common
observation. But what is probably not commonly known is the fact that, the frequency of vortex formation
is proportional to flow velocity.

Transmitter

d
Flow

Blunt object Receiver

Karman Votex
Fig. 4.3.1 Vortex type flowmeter

Fig.12 shows the basic principle of vortex type flowmeter. It is based on the principle of vertex
shading. When a blunt object is placed on the passage of a flowing stream, vortices are formed. A vortes
of this sort is called Karman Vortex. If the flow is turbulent and the Reynold’s number is RD >104, then the
frequency of vortex formation is given by:

The fig. 12 shows a typical arrangement of measurement of frequency of vorticex formation using
ultrasonic technique. Formation of a vortex will modulate the intensity of ultrasound received by the
receiver, and the frequency of modulation can be measured easily.

4.4 Flow Regimes

At low velocities and high viscosities the fluid flows in layers, meaning that the fluid particles move in well
ordered adjacent sliding layers. This is known as laminar flow in which the layers do not mix with one another.

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d
v

Fig.4.4.1 Fig. 4.4.2 Velocity Profile

Laminar Flow
The velocity distribution shows that the frictional forces at the stationary pipe wall exert the highest retarding
force and that from layer to layer the velocity increases to its maximum value, which occurs in the middle of the pipe.
If the velocity increases or the viscosity decreases an additional motion is superimposed on the axially
oriented movement throughout the flow stream which moves in all directions in a random manner and affects the flow
streamlines in such a way that a uniform velocity profile results. This is known as a turbulent flow. A boundary layer
is formed in the vicinity of the wall in which the velocity must accelerate from zero to v, because of its adhesion at the
wall. Therefore, the velocity profile in the outer region is not steady.

The evaluation-criterion for the kind of flow is the value of the Reynolds Number Re, since it takes into
consideration the essential factors v and ν.
Kind of flow Re < 2300 Re > 2300

Kind of flow Laminar turbulent

Pressure drop in piping, measuring device Small appreciable
Velocity profile Parabolic approx. rectangular
Relationship of the average value of the flow 0.5 0.8...0.9
velocity to the maximum velocity at the center of
the pipe
Fig: 4.4.1 Flow Effects

Under ideal conditions the transition can occur at higher Reynolds numbers. This unstable condition changes
immediately to the stable turbulent condition at the slightest stimulus, e.g. due to a flow disturbance.
Almost all flowmeters operate at flow velocities in the turbulent range. In specific cases may transitional flow
as a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow, with e. g. turbulence in the center of the pipe, and laminar flow near the
edges appear.

5.1 Flow Separation

As already mentioned, there exists at the wall of the flow conduit a boundary layer in which the flow velocity
increases from zero to v. A projecting obstruction at the wall extends the length of the boundary layer and restrains the
fluid even more in the vicinity of the wall so that downstream of this restriction a dead zone with a slightly negative
pressure exists. The fluid flows from the region of higher velocity into this dead zone and creates vortices.

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Acceleration Restrain
ing

Vortex formation

Fig. 5.1.1 Dead Zone Vortex Formation

The flow separates from the surface of the wall. Examples are shown in Fig. 1-4 and Fig. 1-5. Vortices are
undesirable for measurements because they consume energy which is removed from the flow stream resulting in
pressure drops. Furthermore, they change the velocity profile to such a degree that many measuring methods will not
function. As already mentioned, there exists at the wall of the flow conduit a boundary layer in which the flow velocity
increases from zero to v. A projecting obstruction at the wall extends the length of the boundary layer and restrains the
fluid even more in the vicinity of the wall so that downstream of this restriction a dead zone with a slightly negative
pressure exists. The fluid flows from the region of higher velocity into this dead zone and creates vortices.

When a body is placed in the middle of a media flow, separation occurs and vortices are formed on both sides
if velocity or Re is above a certain value. It is interesting to note, that after a vortex has formed on one side a similar
vortex forms on the other side which causes the first one to be shed.

That periodic vortices are shed from each side alternately was discovered by Karman after whom the vortex street is
named. These usually undesirable vortices are utilized as the basis for the measurement in vortex flowmeters

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6.1 Oval Gear Totalizers

The measuring element of an oval gear totalizer consists of two oval gears.

Fig.6.1.1 Method Of Operation of an Oval Gear Totalizer

The driving liquid produces the required torque, which varies as a function of the gear position, to rotate the
gears. For example, the torques on the lower gear in the left side of Fig. 2-1 cancel each other while the torque on the
upper gear is one sided and actually causes the rotation. Around the upper gear a bounded crescent like volume exists
which is pushed towards the outlet of the meter. Each rotation of the pair of oval gears transports a defined liquid
volume.

The number of rotations is therefore an exact measure of the quantity of liquid which has flowed through the
meter. The precision teeth assure a good seal between the two gears. The clearance between the oval gears and the
walls of the measuring chambers is so small that the leakage flow (gap loss) is negligible.

Fig. 6.1.2 Oval Gear Tester

The rotations of the pair of oval gears are transmitted without a stuffing box to an indicator either by a
permanent magnet coupling or by a feedback-free magnetic field controlled pulse transmitter.
The gears and bearings are subject to mechanical wear. Through selection of materials for the housing, oval gears, and
bearings as well as by design consideration of expansions due to high temperatures, oval gear totalizers are suitable for
almost all operating conditions.
The error limits shown in Fig. 2-3 represent the relationship to the measuring medium, especially as a function of its
viscosity. For low viscosities and a given accuracy the span is appreciably smaller than for higher viscosities.

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7.1 Vortex Flowmeters

Why does the flag flap in the breeze? Why does a taut line (power line) sing in the wind? There are numerous
examples of the effects of vortex formation at bodies around which there is flow. What is actually happening?
As already mentioned in Chapter 1.2.4 a flow obstruction causes vortices. On a free standing body vortices are
formed on both sides which are alternately shed resulting in the formation of a Karman Vortex Street. The flag
mentioned above reacts to the progress of the vortex street, the taut wire vibrates at the vortex shedding frequency.

1 2
1 Bluff body
2 Piezo-sensor

Fig. Measuring Principle of vortex Flowmeter

The requirement for the bluff body is that the geometry of vortex formation does not change with the flow rate
and that the Strophe number remains constant over a wide Reynolds number range. The shape and the area ratio in the
pipe define the manner of vortex shedding and the constancy of the Strouhal number. Another system requirement is
assigned by the flow engineer: that the vortex intensity be strong. Finally, the pressure drop should not be too large.
Strouhal number [St]

Linear
flow range
d

Reynolds number [Re]

Fig. Delta Bluff Bodies and the Dependence

The optimum shape of the bluff body has been determined empirically and through calculations. ABB has
selected the delta shape.
The minimum Reynolds number value defines the lower range value, i.e. the span decreases with increasing
viscosity. The upper Re limit is so high that it is negligible for the upper range value.
There are various methods of vortex determination. The vortices generate periodic pressure and velocity
variations. These provide a corollary means for the measurement. ABB places the sensor either behind the bluff body
or in the bluff body in such a manner that it can vibrate freely (the location is determined by the nominal diameter and
the type of connection). Its tongue is forced to vibrate at the shedding frequency by the pressure differences.
Piezo-elements inside the sensor convert the resulting pressure forces into electrical measuring pulse signals
which can be amplified. An arrangement of four Piezo-sensors has been selected to cancel pipeline vibrations.

If the flow profile of the measuring medium is distorted (vortices, swirl) as it flows into the measuring section,
the vortices cannot form properly. For this reason, straight steadying sections must be provided upstream of the device,
the length of which depends on the type of the distortion.

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The model with integral mount design, FV4000-VT4 ( Fig. 2-28), integrates the sensor and transmitter in a
single unit with a local indicator for the flow rate and totalized flow value. The transmitter is based on a digital signal
processor (DSP) and generates the 4...20 mA analog output signal. As a two-wire device it requires a supply voltage of
14 V...46 V DC which is fed via the analog output two-wire line.
A binary output is available in addition to the analog output. This output can be configured as a pulse output or limit
contact (contact output). The measurement display for gases and liquids is made in direct reading engineering units.

Conclusion

In this lesson, we have learnt about various techniques of flow measurement in industrial
processes. It has been seen that most of the flow measurement techniques are based on the principle of
obstruction type flowmeter. Orifice meters and venture meters are the two most popular types of
transducers for flow measurement. However, they require, additional differential pressure transducers for
converting the differential pressure generated into appropriate electrical signals and also square rooting
devices in order to obtain a linear output proportional to flowrate. Comparatively, electromagnetic
flowmeter provides a direct method for measurement of flowrate and gives a proportional voltage output
with respect to flow. It also does not provide any obstruction to the flow path; as a result, there is no
pressure drop. But this technique is suitable for conducting fluids only and cannot be used for gases.
Moreover, often the polarization property of water creates problems and calls for an involved signal
conditioning circuit.

There are few other types of flowmeters, whose principles of operations could not be discussed
here due to paucity of space. One of them is the ultrasonic flowmeter. This type of flowmeter is also non-
intrusive type, i.e., it does not provide any obstruction to the flow passage. But it is quite costly, compared
to other flowmeters. Positive displacement flowmeter is an integral type of flowmeter, in the sense, that it
measures total flow in a given amount of time, and finds wide use in water meters, petrol pumps etc. Its
construction is normally different from other types of flowmeters, though turbine type flowmeter with a
counter to count the number of revolutions can also be used for this purpose.
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REFERENCES
1. Rajput R.K.
2. Jain R.K.
3. Narang C.S.

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