Displacement Technology to Ensure a Clean Wellbore

William E Foxenberg and Clay D. Lockett

Once a well is drilled to TD, completion operations commence. The first step in
the completion process is typically a displacement of the drilling mud to clear
brine. This process is necessary to maintain the functionality of downhole tools
and the integrity of the productive interval. The universal goal for a displacement
program is to remove all drilling mud residues from the wellbore. Although
operators, chemical suppliers and service companies share this common goal,
there are many different approaches implemented to accomplish the task. The
number of different displacement techniques and varied approaches to wellbore
clean up often lead to confusion about which procedure is best suited for a
particular situation. This article describes some of the more common techniques
in use today and provides a guideline for implementation of field procedures that
have proven effective by many different operators and service companies, using
various clean-up chemicals, spacer designs, and pumping programs.

DISPLACEMENT OBJECTIVES

The objectives of a displacement program include; 1.) Removal of all traces of

drilling mud from the wellbore; 2.) Preservation of the integrity of the drilling mud
and the completion fluid, if discharge is not an option; 3.) Replacement of the
drilling mud with a contaminant-free completion fluid in the wellbore; 4.)
Accomplishing these tasks with the lowest risk to personnel and the environment
and at the lowest overall cost for the operator. The best displacement design for
any particular well configuration will not only account for and be evaluated by
these objectives, but will be executed according to the rig-site and logistical
constraints that exist at the time of the operation. The primary task for the
completion engineer, then, is to consider all factors that influence the objectives
at hand and to design the displacement program accordingly.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Pre-job planning
Designing a displacement that will meet the objectives of the completion requires
input of basic information. Fundamental data include the type of drilling mud and
completion fluid, type of completion, casing and work string design, measured
depth, true vertical depth, mud line temperature, bottom hole temperature and
pressure, rig-site facilities, pump outputs, water availability and environmental
concerns. The necessity and importance of planning can not be overstated.
Designing a program in the office that can not be implemented in the field
because of poor planning or because the design was based on erroneous or
incomplete information usually results in failure to meet stated objectives.

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In addition to having a well thought out program, it is important for the rig-site
fluid engineer to properly plan the operation on location. Issues such as timing
concurrent operations, understanding surface facilities (pit management),
knowing when and how to mix and pump chemical wash spacers, modification of
the designed program according to limitations at the rig-site, coordination and
communication with rig personnel impact the displacement efficiency.

Every displacement design includes a careful evaluation of pressure differentials,

frictional pressure losses and pump rates, based on the density and viscosity of
the drilling and completion fluids, spacer design (composition, density, viscosity
and volume), and wellbore configuration.

In deep water, the temperature at the mud line may necessitate a completion
fluid with a lower crystallization temperature than might otherwise be required.
This is particularly true if the BOP is tested with completion fluid. The choice of
completion fluid influences the displacement and it must be taken into
consideration. Large diameter risers dictate very large volumes of fluid be
available to achieve successful clean up. The riser is displaced separately from
the rest of the wellbore. The cool temperature and high pressures in deep water
also brings with it increased possibility for gas hydrate formation. This concern
is based on the potential for gas to migrate during the displacement if a liner top
fails or exposure to a producing formation is possible.

The pit system is very important in the displacement design. Enough pit space
must be available to complete the displacement without having to stop pumping.
Limited pit volumes can sometimes dictate a less than ideal pump rate if the
capacity is less than one hole volume. If pill mixing on the rig is limited, the pills
and spacers are mixed at the plant and transported to the rig in tanks or trucks.
This requires a manifold system that allows a smooth transition from one pill or
spacer to another.

Many times, changing the workstring design to enhance the ability of the
displacement to meet design objectives is justified. Increasing the size of the
workstring reduces friction pressure and annular volume, thus providing the
opportunity to pump the chemical spacers in turbulent flow for a given flow rate
or pump output.

DESIGN GUIDELINES

Displacements are categorized as direct, indirect, balanced or staged. All can

be pumped in either the forward or reverse pumping direction. A forward or
conventional displacement pumps fluid down the workstring, taking returns up
the annulus. A reverse circulating displacement pumps fluid down the annulus,
taking returns up the workstring. There are advantages and limitations to both.

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A standard displacement replaces the drilling mud that is heavy enough to
control the well with a completion fluid that will also control well pressures.
However, prior to placing a full hole volume of completion fluid in the wellbore, a
series of low-density spacers is circulated. This situation requires well control
considerations if open or squeezed perforations are exposed, liner tops have not
been negatively tested, or other pressure sensitive situations are evident. The
exception to this is the balanced displacement.

Pumping Direction
Conventional circulation allows easy rotation and reciprocation of the workstring
when the annular blowout preventer and pipe rams remain open. Pipe
movement is particularly important in a deviated wellbore. Forward circulation
usually permits higher pump rates and generally allows for less frictional
pressure losses over the course of the displacement. Conventional
displacements also allow greater control over differential pressure across
pressure sensitive areas such as liner tops and squeezed perforations. This can
be accomplished with backpressure. If the wellbore requires back pressure on
the annulus, as when well control concerns are indicated, rotation and
reciprocation of the workstring is less likely. Another significant advantage in this
pump direction procedure is the pump pressure is contained in the workstring
rather than transmitted to the annulus, i.e., when the annulus is open at the
surface, it sees only the hydrostatic pressure differential between the fluids.

Reverse circulation limits the interface contamination between high-density mud

and lower density spacers or completion fluid. It is often used as the first stage
in an indirect displacement in which the mud is reversed out of the hole with
water and then the annulus and workstring clean up is pumped conventionally.
In some cases, pumping in the reverse direction produces less hydrostatic
differential pressures because the lower density spacers generate less linear
coverage in the annulus than in the workstring. This feature can be
advantageous when pump output is limited. Because reverse circulation is
carried out with the annular pressure control equipment closed, the possibility for
pipe movement is limited or eliminated. This is a disadvantage that must be
considered.

Figure 1 shows the difference in pump pressure required for a forward and
reverse circulating displacement in a typical casing / workstring at 8 bpm.

Direct Displacement
A direct displacement is one in which the chemical spacers are directly followed
by the completion fluid. These spacers are the only intermediaries between the
drilling mud and the brine and must perform all of the separation and cleaning
functions. A direct displacement is used when discharge or disposal of the mud
or returns is restricted due to environmental or other concerns, when an
inexpensive water supply is unavailable, or when a balanced displacement or
back pressure is required. Circumstances such as suspect liner tops, open or

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squeezed perforations or other well control issues usually require a direct
displacement.

A direct, balanced displacement is used when there are pressure differential and
/ or well control concerns. It is typically pumped in the forward circulating
direction.

Indirect Displacement
Indirect displacements refer to the circulation of the entire wellbore with available
water prior to introduction of the completion fluid. This technique is typically
used when there is an inexpensive supply of water and the environmental impact
of discharge is acceptable and when the pressure differential caused by the
difference in density between the water and drilling fluid can be tolerated. One
advantage over the direct method is that the completion fluid is not introduced
into the wellbore until the tubulars are relatively clean.

Staged Displacement
A staged displacement refers to working down the wellbore with the workstring
while displacing mud with water or completion fluid, i.e., staging in. For example,
a 10,000 foot well may be displaced in two stages in which the top 5,000 feet is
displaced and then the bottom 5000 feet displaced. This procedure is used
when the differential pressures are so great that possible damage to the casing
or excessive pump pressure make a more typical displacement risky or
logistically unrealistic. Interface volumes between the stages are large and
extensive contamination of both the mud and the completion fluid usually occurs.

OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Condition of the Mud

The rheological properties of drilling mud are designed to drill the well. The
ability to suspend solids in a static mode is crucial to its success in that
application. The same rheological profile used for drilling is a detriment to a
displacement program, particularly if the mud has remained in the wellbore in a
static mode for any significant period of time. This problem is exacerbated as
the density of the mud and temperature and angle of the wellbore increase. The
chance for success of any displacement procedure is greatly enhanced by
circulating and conditioning the mud prior to pumping the spacers. Proper
foresight and planning are necessary to identify an opportunity to adjust the
viscosity of the mud at some point prior to pumping the displacement. The
plastic viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP) should be reduced to minimum levels
for high pump rates and solids transport. All displacement designers emphasize
the importance of circulating well-conditioned mud at the highest flow rate
possible and with as much mechanical aid as possible. A bit and scraper run,
pipe rotation and reciprocation are invaluable mechanical means used to aid in
the removal of mud cake while circulating and conditioning the mud.

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Pump Rate
Pump rate determines the flow regime of the mud, spacers and completion fluid.
It is generally accepted practice to design a displacement to achieve turbulent
flow for any chemical cleaning spacer. A turbulent flow pattern for surfactants
and solvents ensures a uniform flow profile, reduces interface fingering and
ensures good contact of the chemical cleaner with the surface of the mud cake
under eccentric pipe. Where some service companies and operators differ is in
the recommended flow regime for viscous spacers that are designed to separate
the mud and completion fluid from the chemical spacers and from each other.
The prevailing opinion is to pump viscous spacers in plug flow, however, if
viscous spacers and low-density, non-viscous chemical spacers are pumped as
part of the spacer design, the flow regime target is turbulence for the chemical
cleaning spacer. This means that the flow regime for viscous pills must be
controlled by rheology rather than pump rate.

Hydraulic and Pump Pressures

Pressures determine which pumping direction is used. Hydrostatic and frictional
pressure losses are calculated for both pumping directions and the method that
best meets the design considerations is selected. The pressures determine the
required pump horsepower to obtain the flow rate that will put the chemical
cleaner spacers in turbulent flow when they are in the widest annulus. If the
pressures are excessive or the pump output is less than required for turbulent
flow, larger spacers are designed to extend contact time.

Mechanical Assistance
Standard casing scrapers and casing brushes can be beneficial for many
displacements. Scrapers and brushes are placed near the bit, close to the liner
tops, and midway to the surface. Jet subs and other pressure washing tools are
gaining acceptance in the displacement field. As with pipe movement,
mechanical aids change the flow path of the fluids and provide access to low
side mud cake. They also induce turbulence as the fluid travels around and
through these devices.

Spacers
Industry wide, spacer design is one of the more disparate components in
displacement technology. Almost every displacement pumped will include a
spacer ‘system’ of some kind. The functions and objectives of the spacer
system as a whole are the same in all cases. However, preferences differ from
one operator to another and from one service company to another. Weighted
spacers, viscous pills, base fluids, surfactant type and concentration, solvents,
spacer sequence, contact time, volume and effective flow regime are among the
many questions that must be addressed by the displacement engineer.

Most completion fluids are not compatible with drilling muds. As the density of
the completion fluid increases, this incompatibility increases. High-density brine
completion fluids will dehydrate drilling mud. When mixed together in the

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wellbore, an extremely viscous ‘goo-like’ gel is formed that is eventually by-
passed by the trailing completion fluid. This residual mud-brine gel is difficult to
remove without mechanical aid. Although the chemical make-up of this type of
‘goo’ is a function of the type of mud and brine, both oil and water muds form it
with high-density brines. To avoid this occurrence, the first function of the
spacer system is to separate the two incompatible fluid systems. Most spacer
designs will start with a “compatible” spacer. In the case of water based mud
(WBM), this is a relatively simple task. A viscous water spacer, which may or
may not be weighted, is typical. Oil and synthetic based muds require a more
sophisticated formulation, usually accomplished with water as the base for a
viscous fluid and a surfactant that emulsifies the oil mud into the water phase.
The next spacer is the cleaning spacer. This is the spacer that should be in
turbulent flow (in the widest annulus). In some cases, this cleaning spacer is
water that contains a specially formulated surfactant. Some companies run their
surfactant or solvent neat (100%). If a solvent is run, a water/surfactant spacer
to water-wet the pipe follows it. Finally, another viscous pill is run to separate
the completion fluid from the cleaning spacers. The volume for each of these
spacers is a function of the wellbore parameters and surface equipment. As a
general rule, the volume of most of the spacers are designed to cover 500 –
1500 linear feet in the largest annulus.

The spacer design is a function of the type of mud in the hole and the completion
fluid to follow. Water based mud (WBM) displacements are considered by some
to be the easiest systems to design because water is an excellent thinner and
dispersant for these muds. The more water pumped between the completion
fluid and the mud, the better the chance for a clean wellbore. Depending on the
type of WBM, caustic, surfactants and/or flocculants are added to the water to
aid in dispersing the mud solids into the water. Pressure differential limitations,
particularly when a direct displacement is called for, may prevent large water
spacers. In such cases, surfactants and other cleaning aids are important to
effect the cleaning in a short period of time. Table 1 depicts a typical spacer
sequence for WBM.

When a displacement can not tolerate a low-density spacer because of the

ensuing pressure differentials and back-pressure can not be maintained, a
completely balanced spacer system is necessary. In these circumstances the
spacers are formulated to provide separation, density transition and the cleaning
process. The first viscous spacer is weighted to match the density of the drilling
mud and will generally have a higher viscosity than the mud. In some cases, this
is either followed by completion fluid containing surfactant or with another
viscous pill, depending on the nature of the mud. OBM displacements include
surfactants in the viscous pill to make the transition from oil –to- water external
emulsions and to water-wet the pipe. When the pills are pumped without a non-
viscous solvent or water/surfactant spacer, turbulence is generally not possible
and one must count on the chemicals and whatever mechanical aid is available
to provide the wellbore cleaning. Although this type of procedure is performed

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many times in the field, a careful examination of the compatibility of the spacers
with the drilling mud and completion fluid should be performed in the laboratory.
Field experience has shown that displacing a wellbore without the ability to clean
the pipe with a non-viscous, low-density, water based surfactant spacer has the
potential to cause operational problems when a sand control completion follows.

The size of the cleaning spacer is dependent on the pump rate to a much
greater extent than are the viscous pills. As mentioned, the cleaner spacer
should be in turbulent flow, if at all possible. The supplier of the cleaning
surfactant should have performance criteria for the surfactants that show how
flow rate and surfactant concentration affect the performance of the spacer.
Surfactants and solvents are capable of dispersing or dissolving a certain
amount of mud per unit of surfactant / solvent pumped. Careful laboratory
evaluation of the spacer systems are required to optimize surfactant
concentration and volume required for a given amount of mud, contact time and
flow regime. For example, a given surfactant has both a critical concentration
threshold and a critical velocity, below which it is simply ineffective for OBM.
This relationship, depicted in Figures 2 and 3, is a necessary part of the
information database required to design the best displacement possible for a
given completion.