Theories of Crime Causation

SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLIC SAFETY (SCJPS)
INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION WITH CRIME

PREVENTION
COMPILED AND EDITED BY: MARK P. CIANO, MSCRIM
I: INTRODUCTION
There is a growing body of evidence about the factors that place individuals
at risk of criminal offending. The theoretical approaches discussed below attempt
to explain the relationship between those risk factors and criminal behavior. There
is no consensus on the relative merit of these theories and it may be the causal
mechanisms proposed below are more or less significant for different individuals.
Most crime prevention programmes are based, sometimes implicitly, on more of
the theoretical understandings of crime. Therefore, even when focusing on
practical response, there is value
Correspondingly, this endeavor focuses on the information about theories
and causation crimes. Different theories about the criminology are described. Main
focus will be on the criminology and its two theories. Criminology is the study of
factors about the crimes that lead to its phenomena. This crime may be of
individual or social nature. It includes making laws, breaking laws and attempts to
break the laws. Criminology focuses on the social, cultural and individual causes of
the illegal behavior. Criminology is directly related to sociology and psychology in
all disciplines that deal with a group or individual behavior. However an act that is
immoral or indecent can be criminal act unless it is not outlawed by the state.
Criminology consists of our organized ways of thinking and talking about crime,
criminals and crime control (Garland and Sparks, 2000, 192). Personal and
neighborhood income are the strongest predictors of violent crime” (cited in
“Wasting America’s Future (Arloc Sherman, 1994, p88). Demonstrates that glaring
social and economic inequalities in our society impose correspondingly high costs
in the form of street crime. (John Hagan & Ruth D. Peterson, Crime and Inequality,
1995, Stanford U, p4)
One common definition of CRIMINOLOGY - Is – the study of crimes,
criminals and their treatment. This is understanding the provisions of law regarding
acts or behavior which are defined by law as crime. The criminal justice system
declares who the criminal is, and provides him/her with treatment commensurate
to the gravity of the illegal act committed. Furthermore, CRIMINOLOGY - Is
interdisciplinary which means, it upon either academic discipline including political
science, economics, psychology, law, biology, and sociology (Fulter, 2012).
Moreover, CRIMINOLOGY - Can also be defined as the scientific study of causes of
crime in relation to man and society who set and define rules and regulations for
himself and others to govern. The study of criminology involves man and social
forces through the passage and enactment of laws, maintenance of peace and
order, and the imposition of the punishment by government whose law has been
violated.
Thus, in most complete definition of criminology is – “A BODY OF
KNOWLEDGE REGARDING CRIME AS A SOCIAL PHENOMENON. IT INCLUDES
WITHIN ITS SCOPE, THE PROCESS OF MAKING OF LAWS, THE BREAKING
OF LAWS AND THE REACTION TOWARDS THE BREAKING OF LAWS”
(Sutherland, 19_).
II: BODY
THEORIES AND CAUSATION OF CRIME
CAUSES OF CRIMES
Causes of crime may be environmental, hereditary or psychological.
Environmental causes are ruled out as independent causes of crimes. But
psychological conditions are said to be determinant of an individual’s reaction to
persuasive environmental influence. Criminologist says that certain offenders are
born to create crimes in the environment. Other cause may be the poverty. Due to
low condition of their living, they are enforced to commit crimes. Discrimination
BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 1
against minorities may become the cause of crimes. Emotional disorders are also
cause of crimes.
CRIME PREVENTION
Ultimate aim of crime prevention is to reduce the risk of victims. Here we
find the ways to prevent crimes. Do not provide the opportunity to the thief to take
advantages of your property. Fewer opportunities may become the cause of
reduction in the crime rates. States should enhance the way of living of poor of
that country. Poverty alleviation programs on sound basis can reduce the crime
rates. Law and enforcement agencies are key role player in prevention of crimes.
Delay in justice must be avoided.
ISSUES IN CRIMINOLOGY
Several issues arise which are serious causes to put the crimes rate not
reducing. These issues vary from the level of crime. Due to difference in the legal
and criminal justice system the crime rate is not reducing. Contrast in the police
reporting and actual crime report is another issue. Proper prosecution is not
observed when a crime is committed. Due to differences in data quality a crime
rate cannot be feasible work to reduce the rate of crime.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MICRO-AND MACRO THEORIES

Differences between micro and macro level theories exist. To identify a
theory whether it is macro or micro level is to check what the theory predicts.
Focus of the MICRO-LEVEL THEORY is on the individual interaction. Individual
characteristics can be explained by the interactions of people within an
environment. These are described as EPIDEMIOLOGY. EPIDEMIOLOGY here is
concerned with the overall crime rates. Example of this kind of theory is the
relationship between adult children and their parents. MACRO-LEVEL THEORY is
most extended and focuses on the social problems, social conditions and social
processes. For example; how the old people’s status is affected by
industrialization. MICRO LEVEL THEORIES are called role theories while macro
level theories include age stratification theory. MACRO THEORY shows the
criminal behavior of the crimes across the world.
DEFINITION OF THEORY
WHAT IS A “THEORY?”
A theory is a set of logically interconnected propositions explaining how
phenomena are related and from which a number of hypotheses can be derived
and tested. Theories should provide coherent explanations of the phenomena they
address, they should correspond with the RELEVANT EMPIRICAL FACTS, and
they should provide practical guidance for researchers looking for further facts.
This guidance takes the form of a series of statements that can be logically
deduced from the assertions of the theory. We called these STATEMENTS
HYPOTHESES, which are statements about relationships between and among
factors we expect to find based on the logic of our theories. HYPOTHESES AND
THEORIES support one another in the sense that theories provided the raw
material (the ideas) for generating hypotheses, and hypotheses support or fail to
support theories by exposing them to empirical testing. Theories are devised to
explain how a number of different correlates may actually be causally related to
crime and criminality rather than simply associated with them. We emphasize that
when we talk of causes we do not mean that when X is present Y will occur in a
completely prescribed way. We mean that when X is present Y has a certain
probability of occurring, and perhaps only then if X is present along with factors A,
B, and C. In many ways, crime is like illness because there may be as many routes
to becoming criminal as there are to becoming ill. In other words, criminologists
have never uncovered a necessary cause (a factor that must be present for
criminal behavior to occur and in the absence of which criminal behavior has never
occurred) or a sufficient cause (a factor that is able to produce criminal behavior

without being augmented by some other factor). There is a lot of confusion among
laypersons about the term theory.
We often hear statements such as, “THAT’S JUST THEORY” OR HEAR IT
NEGATIVELY CONTRASTED WITH PRACTICE: “That’s all right in theory, but it
won’t work in the real world.” Such statements imply that a theory is a poor
relative of a fact, something impractical we grasp at in the absence of solid,
practical evidence. Nothing could be further from the truth. Theories help us to
make sense of a diversity of seemingly unrelated facts and propositions, and they
even tell us where to look for more facts, which make theories very practical things
indeed. We all use theory every day to fit facts together. A detective confronted
with a number of facts about a mysterious murder must fit them together, even
though their meaning and relationship to one another is ambiguous and perhaps
even contradictory. Using years of experience, training, and good common sense,
and the detective constructs a theory linking those facts together so that they
begin to make some sense and begin to tell their story. An initial theory derived
from the available facts then guides the detective in the search for additional facts
in a series of “if this is true, then this should be true” statements. There may be
many false starts as our detective misinterprets some facts, fails to uncover
others, and considers some to be relevant when they are not. Good detectives, like
good scientists, will adjust their theory as new facts warrant; poor detectives and
poor scientists will stand by their favored theory by not looking for more facts or by
ignoring, downplaying, or hiding contrary facts that come to their attention. When
detectives do this, innocent people suffer and guilty people remain undiscovered;
when scientists do this, the progress of science suffers. The physical and natural
sciences enjoy a great deal of agreement about what constitutes the core body of
knowledge within their disciplines; thus, they have few competing theories. Within
criminology there is little agreement about the nature of the phenomena we study,
and so we suffer an embarrassment of theoretical riches. Given the number of
criminological theories, students may be forgiven for asking which one is true.
Scientists never use the term “truth “in scientific discourse; rather, they tend to
ask which theory is most useful. CRITERIA FOR JUDGING THE MERITS OF A
THEORY ARE SUMMARIZED BELOW:
1. PREDICTIVE ACCURACY - A theory has merit and is useful to the extent that it
accurately predicts what is observed. That is, the theory has generated a large
number of research hypotheses that have supported it. This is the most important
criterion.
2. PREDICTIVE SCOPE - Predictive scope is the scope or range of the theory and
thus the scope or range of the hypotheses that can be derived from it. That is, how
much of the empirical world falls under the explanatory umbrella of theory A
compared to how much falls under theory
3. SIMPLICITY - If two competing theories are essentially equal in terms of the
first two criteria, then the less complicated one is considered more “elegant.”
4. FALSIFIABILITY - A theory is never proven true, but it must have the quality of
being falsifiable or disprovable. If a theory is formulated in such a way that no
amount of evidence could possibly falsify it, then the theory is of little use (Ellis,
1994, pp.202–205).
THEORY – Also define the imaginative contemplation of reality, direct intellectual
apprehension, insight or body of generalizations and principles developed in
association with the practice in a certain field of activity.
A statement of set of statements about the relationships between 2 or more
events
Are sets of propositions that explain phenomena.
In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.
IN THE SCIENCE OF CRIMINOLOGY
A. Theories of crime
B. Theories of how the criminal justice system operates
C. A theory predicts what will happen, not how the world should be
KEY CONCEPTS OF THEORIES

1. Theories are useful tools that help us to understand and explain the world
around us. In criminology, they help us to understand the workings of the criminal
justice system and the actors in the system.
2. Theories suggest the way things are, not the way things ought to be. They are
not inherently good or bad; however, they can be used for good or bad purposes.
3. A theory can try to explain crime for a large social unit or area (macro), or it can
attempt to explain crime at the individual or smaller unit level (micro).
4. Because we are dealing with human behavior, the social sciences will never be
like the hard sciences. In the hard sciences, the theory of relativity will not
change. In the social sciences, however, we deal with probabilities. The social
scientist will say things such as, “A severely neglected child will probably commit,
or tend to commit, delinquent acts.”
5. To be used for maximum effectiveness, theories must make sense (logical
consistency), explain as much crime as possible (scope), and be as concise as
possible (parsimony). Most important, the theory must be true or correct (validity).
Having met these basic goals, the theory must then have some real world
applications and policy implications.
6. Many theories have common traits, but differences among them still exist.
Understanding these differences is keys to understanding the often contradictory
views of crime and deviance they purport to explain. THEORY - Means different
things to different contemporary criminologists, depending on their philosophies
about the nature of criminology, what it is attempting to accomplish, and how they
think criminology ought to be done. Diversity is evident from the presence of at
least seven differing “philosophies of the enterprise,” expressed in distinct
“models” for doing criminology. THE SEVEN (7) APPROACHES INCLUDE:
1. Theoretical science;
2. Problem solving;
3. Verstehen” analysis;
4. Descriptive approaches;
5. Critical work;
6. Nihilistic thinking; and
7. Amelioration. Yet, there does appear to be a dominant paradigm.
1. THEORETICAL SCIENCE
Theoretical accounts within a scientific model are intellectual structures
designed to help explain things within given domains of interest (for more detailed
descriptions of theoretical science see Reynolds, 1971; Tittle, 1995; Turner, 2003:
Chapter 1). That is, scientific theories, and explanations try to provide answers to
questions of “why” and “how” that are deemed satisfactory by critical audiences
made up of s scientists who expect such a theory to provide intellectual
satisfaction as well as the means for predicting aspects of the phenomena of
interest.
2. PROBLEM SOLVING
A substantial number of criminologists, perhaps even a majority (though
theoretical science seems to be the dominant approach, there are no hard data to
establish that judgment), aim their work toward finding solutions to crime or crime‐
related p roblems (for examples, see any issue of journal Criminology and Public
Policy, or Kleiman, 2009). Such problems range all the way from international
threats of terrorism to very focused concerns with how best to prevent littering on
public streets in particular towns or cities, and may even involve efforts to assess
all manner of collateral damage for crime‐linked activities. Problem‐solving
criminology includes ad hoc explanatory efforts as well as evaluations of existing
programs designed to achieve specific purposes.
3. VERSTEHEN” ANALYSIS
This approach to criminology features efforts to “understand” the actions
and thoughts of participants. (Verstehen is the German word for “to understand”;
its use as the name for this process became popularized in sociology and
criminology by the writings of Max Weber.) The verstehen researcher usually tries
to put himself psychically in the positions of the research subjects in order to see
and interpret the world as the subjects see it and interpret it. This emphatic
process is often assisted by careful ethnographic research and sometimes it is
aided by comparative analyses designed to isolate differences between subjects
exhibiting different outcomes or exposures. In recent times there has been a
strong emphasis in criminology on exploring the active part that individuals play in
their crime‐relevant behavior or in escaping from criminal pasts (sometimes called
human agency), and the verstehen approach is especially useful in pursuing that
theme (see for example: Giordano, Cernkovich, & Rudolph, 2002; Maruna, 2001).
4. DESCRIPTIVE APPROACHES
A fourth style of work in contemporary criminology attempts to describe crime
relevant phenomena, situations, and relationships among variables, or to offer
conceptual distinctions with which to classify, think about, or analyze crime
relevant aspects of social life. The objective is to identify the relevant variables
empirically, and show how they actually mesh together in various circumstances.
Once accurate description has been achieved, many descriptive criminologists are
ready to move on to other research issues. In other words, the bulk of descriptive
work is a theoretical – neither inspired by nor answerable to theory (see, for
example: Farrington, 1997; Loeber, Slot, & Stouthamer‐Loeber, 2006).
5. CRITICAL WORK
A substantial number of criminologists define their work roughly as spelling
out social conditions that they believe are responsible for human suffering,
injustice, or inequality, which, in turn, are thought by many to be linked with
criminal behavior and crime‐relevant phenomena (cf. Bonger, 1916 (1969); Daly &
Chesney‐Lind, 1988; Gove, 1980; Quinney, 1970, 1974). Within this camp, any
argument that l ogically or meaningfully connects a social situation or condition
with a negative outcome that is assumed to be associated with crime or crime‐
relevant outcomes is called “theory.” Often the identified culprits are capitalism,
mal‐distribution of economic resources, patriarchy, racism, or other large structural
arrangements. Scholars working in this vein share with theoretical science the
goals of showing why and how the particular problem‐generators operate.
However, critical work differs from theoretical science in several crucial ways.
6. NIHILISTIC THINKING
A relatively small, yet vocal, segment of criminologists embrace the notion that it
is impossible to build theories or explanations, and they are highly critical of
science as a model for crime studies (cf. Arrigo, 2003; Einstadter & Henry, 1995;
Taylor, Walton, & Young, 1973). Such scholars essentially contend that nothing can
be known except that nothing can be known. For them, theory is simply the
collection of arguments, many of which are based on obvious biases evident in
mainstream criminology, purportedly showing that humans are incapable of
general understanding of human behavior or social structure and are utterly
unable to study social life objectively. So, the idea of theory as a set of explanatory
principles setting out the causes of things relevant to crime is far‐fetched. To the
nihilist, one can only d document human attempts to understand each other or
situations through n narratives, or stories, shared and reacted to by members of
local communities.
7. AMELIORATION
A final style of criminology bears much in common with critical work in that it
attempts to identify sources of human suffering or injustice, but it goes a step
further and offers a prescription for overcoming those forces (cf. Pepinsky &
Quinney, 1991). Theory for such criminologists, then, consists of the arguments
specifying or asserting particular forces leading to human distress, which are
thought to be connected with the probability of criminal behavior or the
construction of legal rules artificially constraining various segments of the
population, along with the remedies to be f followed in overcoming those forces.
Such scholars often reject legal notions of crime, redefining it in terms of behaviors
or social structures producing suffering or injustice. Such theory differs from that
central to theoretical science in that it is not subject to test except through
practical application and its aim is action not explanation.
HOW DO YOU KNOW A “GOOD THEORY” WHEN YOU SEE ONE?

AKERS’ SIX (6) CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING A THEORY
1. Logical Consistency
2. Scope
3. Parsimony
4. Testability
5. Fit with Empirical Evidence
6. Usefulness of Policy Implications
1. LOGICAL CONSISTENCY
A. Clearly Defined Concepts
A. Concept = symbol/label that we apply to an abstract image
B. Examples?
B. Concepts must fit in a logical manner
A. BAD LOGIC: All crime is caused by imprisonment
2. SCOPE (NOT THE MOUTHWASH)
A. DEPENDENT variable
B. How “general” is your explanation?
A. Specific forms of crime/deviance?
B. All crime?
C. All crime, deviance, sin, and recklessness?
C. All else being equal, “Wider is better”
3. PARSIMONY
A. INDEPENDENT (predictor) variables
B. How complex is your explanation?
A. Parsimony: Low self-control is single cause of crime
B. Not: Crime caused by a combination of poverty, inequality, average
daily temperature, intelligence, hair color, weight, daily stress…
C. All else being equal, more parsimony is better!
4. TESTABILITY
A. A valid theory can be falsified
B. Non-falsifiable theories?
A. Tautological arguments (crime causes crime)
B. Vague and open-ended statements (Freud)
C. Must be observe/measure concepts (little green men)
5. IS THE THEORY CORRECT?
A. Survive empirical scrutiny
B. Few theories are entirely correct or false
A. To what degree is the theory supported?
B. Preponderance of evidence support?
C. Incorrect theories must be modified or discarded
6. POLICY IMPLICATION
A. All crime theories attempt to identify the “causes” of crime.
A. Can the causes be reversed?
B. Does the theory translate into practice?
C. Example: Marxist theory of crime
THE 10 MOST WIDELY ACCEPTED CONCLUSIONS THAT EACH THEORY

NEEDS TO BE ABLE TO EXPLAIN INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING (Farrrington):
1. The prevalence of offending peaks in the late teenage years (between ages 15
and 19).
2. The peak age of onset of offending is between 8 and 14, and the peak age of
desistance is between 20 and 29.
3. An early age of onset predicts relatively long criminal career duration and the
commitment of multiple offenses.
4. A marked continuity is seen in offending and antisocial behavior from childhood
to adolescence to adulthood.

5. A small fraction of the population commits a large fraction of all crimes.
6. Offending is versatile rather than specialized.
7. The types of acts defined as offenses are elements of a larger syndrome of
antisocial behaviors (e.g., heavy drinking, reckless driving, sexual promiscuity,
bullying, and/or truancy).
8. Most offenses up to the late teenage years are committed with others, whereas
most offenses from age 20 onward are committed alone.
9. The reasons given for offending up to the late teenage years are quite variable
(e.g., excitement, enjoyment, or anger).
10. Different types of first-time offenses tend to be committed at distinctively
different ages.
SUMMARY OF THEORY AND CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY

Theory takes many forms in contemporary criminology because
criminological scholars endorse and follow various philosophies of the enterprise,
each involving specific notions about the value of theory and/or the form it should
take. The dominant philosophy appears to be that of theoretical science in which
theory to explain (answer questions of why and how about phenomena within its
domain) is the ultimate goal. Desirable theory within that philosophical camp
follows a deductive framework, is subject to empirical test, admits the possibility of
negative evidence, and reflects demanding characteristics. Problem‐solving
criminology, probably the second‐most popular style of criminology may or may
not draw on theory and usually produces at best ad hoc causal explanations
applying to specific problems or situations. Verstehen analysis aims to permit
scholars and consumers of verstehen work to see the world through the eyes of
the subjects of investigation, to vicariously experience the things the subject’s
experience, and to appreciate, from the point of view of the subjects, why they did
or do various things linked to crime or crime‐related phenomena. Descriptive
scholars frequently eschew theory altogether, focusing instead on accurate
portrayal of patterns of behavior, though sometimes they produce conceptual
schemes that organize recurrent patterns of crime‐relevant factors. Critical
scholars try to identify the social conditions producing human injustice or suffering,
often asserting favorite villains and attempting to persuade audiences of the
validity of their arguments rather than testing their ideas. Accounts of how those
structures or forces seem to operate is the essence of critical theory. Nihilistic
criminologists question the whole project of other styles of work, claiming that
nothing can be known, particularly scientifically, except that nothing can be
known. To them, “theory” consists of such arguments, often complicated and
insightful, along with admonitions to key into folk narratives to appreciate how
people interpret their own worlds. Finally, amelioration usually combines critical
analysis with prescriptions for remedying structures or situations that produce
injustice or destructive criminal behavior.
THE ROLE OF THEORY IN CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIME CAUSATION

When an FBI agent asked the depression-era bank robber Willie Sutton why
he robbed banks, Sutton replied, “Because that’s where the money is.” In his own
way, Sutton was offering a theory explaining the behavior of bank robbers. Behind
his witty answer is a model of a kind of person who has learned how to take
advantage of opportunities provided by convenient targets flush with a valued
commodity. Thus, if we put a certain kind of personality and learning together with
opportunity and coveted resources, we get bank robbery. This is what theory
making is all about: trying to grasp how all the known correlates of a phenomenon
are linked together in no coincidental ways to produce an effect.
Just as medical scientists want to find out what causes disease,
criminologists are interested in finding factors that cause crime and criminality. As
is the case with disease, there are a variety of risk factors to be considered when
searching for causes of criminal behavior. The first step in detected causes is to
discover correlates, which are factors that are related to the phenomenon of
interest. To discover whether two factors are related, we must see whether they
vary together; that is, if one variable goes up or down, the other goes up or down
as well. Establishing causality requires much more than simply establishing a
correlation. Take gender, the most thoroughly documented correlate of criminal
behavior ever identified. Literally thousands of studies throughout the world,
including European studies going back five or six centuries, have consistently
reported strong gender differences in all sorts of antisocial behavior, including
crime, and the more serious the crime the stronger that difference is. All studies
are unanimous in indicating that males are more criminal than females.
Establishing why gender is such a strong correlate of crime is the real challenge, as
it is with any other correlate. Trying to establish causes is the business of theory.
PRINCIPLE DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY

1. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY – which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the
causes of crime.
2. SOCIOLOGY OF LAW – which is an attempt at scientific analysis of the
conditions under which penal or criminal laws develop as a
process of formal social controls.
3. PENOLOGY – which is concerned with the controls and prevention of
crime and the treatment of youthful offenders.
4. VICTIMOLOGY – Is a discipline/study which deals of the nature, causes of
victimization, as well as the programs for aiding and
preventing victimization.
ANATOMY OF CRIME
1. INTENT (MOTIVE/ REASON) – Refers to a state of mind, deliberately

functioning to reach a goal-that is, to perpetrate a crime. EXAMPLES ARE:
A. Intent to rob a bank E. Intent to sabotage
B. Intent to commit murder F. Intent to commit homicide
C. Intent to carnap G. Intent to hi-jack a plane
D. Intent to kidnap H. Intent to rape
INTENT OR INTENTIONALLY – In perpetrating a crime by a person is often
synchronized or harmonized with MOTIVATION. MOTIVATION – Shall mean the
reason, ground or cause why a person perpetrates a crime, thus, creating on
his/her mind the INTENT to perform it. DESIRE is a WHISHFUL thinking
differentiated from INTENT because intent is willingness to do. MOTIVATION is
also differentiated from DESIRE because MOTIVATION is giving or reason to do
the act. Crime is more identified with INTENT rather than MOTIVATION OR
DESIRE. His/her motivation could be:
A. Economic gain D. Thrill
B. Jealousy E. Political gain,
C. Revenge F. Etc.
2. INSTRUMENTALITY (TOOLS) – Is the means or implemented used in the

commission of the crime. It could be a: (Coronel, 1996).
A. Bolo F. Battery-operated hand drill for carnapping
B. Fan knife G. Motor vehicle
C. An icepick H. Gun,
D. Poison or obnoxious substance I. Etc.
E. Crow bar
Both the INTENT and INSTRUMENTALITY are harbored and wielded by the
perpetrator. The OPPORTUNITY consists of the acts of omission and/or
commission by a person (the victim) which enables another person’s or groups of
persons (the criminal/s) to perpetrate the crime. EXAMPLE FOR THIS ARE:
A. Leaving one’s home or car unattended for a long time
B. Walking alone in a well-known crime prone alley
C. Wearing expensive jewelries in a slum area, and
D. Readily admitting a stranger into one’s residence
3. OPPORTUNITY (CHANCE) – Is synonymous with carelessness, acts of

indiscretion and lack of crime-prevention-consciousness on the part of the victim.
(Coronel, 1996).
Whether a crime incident would happen or not, it will depend on the
presence and merging of INTENT, INTRUMENTALITY and OPPORTUNITY at the same
time and in the same place. The absence of any one ingredient will mean that
there shall be no crime.
The most that could happen is an accident arising out of reckless
imprudence, where there is no intent. A freak crime incident occurs with all the
three elements present and simultaneously occurring at the same time and place,
though the victim is not the intended one.
THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF CRIME

There are various methods of classifying crimes. According to LUIS B.
REYES, (1998), in his book CRIMINAL LAW, crimes are CLASSIFIED AS:
1. Crimes against persons 6. Crimes against honor
2. Crimes against property 7. Crimes committed by public officers
3. Crimes against personal liberty and security 8. Crimes against public morals
4. Crimes against chastity 9. Crimes against public interest
5. Crimes against the civil status of persons 10. Crimes against public order
and crimes against the fundamental laws of the state
Frequently, crimes in the context of the study of criminology are classified in

respect to gravity of the act, motives of the offender, for statistical purposes and
for theoretical purpose.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES:
1. ATROCITY OR GRAVITY – Crimes are committed at different degrees of
seriousness. It can be observed on the harm or damage that resulted from a
criminal act.
Atrocity or gravity of the offense may be categorized as felony or
misdemeanor. The more serious are called FELONIES and are punishable by
death or by confinement in a state prison; the less serious are MISDEMEANORS
and are usually punishable by confinement in a local jail or by paying fines.
The classification of crimes as FELONIES and MISDEMEANORS is also used
as a classification of criminals. The individual who commits a felony is a FELON,
and the individual who commits a misdemeanor is a MISDEMEANANT.
2. MOTIVES OF THE OFFENDER (Bonger). – The reason or reasons of the

offender for doing something or behaving in a specific way is his/her motive in
committing the act and it can be categorized INTO:
I. ECONOMIC MOTIVE – The reason for the act is for economic gain. FOR
EXAMPLE:
A. Kidnap for ransom (KFR) (which can be sometimes be political in motive);
E. Corruption
B. Illegal importation; F. Robbery
C. Sabotage; G. Burglary;
D. Counterfeiting H. Smuggling.
II. SEXUAL MOTIVE – A direction towards sexual gratification. Or, monetary gain
in exchange of sexual gratification on the part of the client. FOR EXAMPLE:
A. Rape
B. Prostitution;
C. Acts of lasciviousness
III. POLITICAL MOTIVE – (Encarta, 2009) – Defines political motive as “motive
carried for reasons that best serve a desired outcome rather than for other reasons
such as being morally justifiable.” FOR EXAMPLE:
A. Graft and corruption C. Rebellion
B. Tyranny – Powerful/harsh in used of power and authority D. Sedition
3. STATISTICAL PURPOSES – It is imperative to gain awareness on the statistics

of crime incidence and this is one purpose why there is a need to classify crimes.
Classifying crimes for statistical purpose would enable us to be aware of the
FREQUENCY of the commission of such CRIMES AS:
A. How many crimes against person were committed in a quarter of a year?
B. How many crimes against property were committed annually?
C. How many crimes against dishonesty were committed semi-annually? And
D. How many crimes against public decency, public order or public morality are
committed in a certain period of time?
4. THEORETICAL PURPOSES. – For theoretical purposes, each class should be a

sociological entity, differentiated from the other classes by variations in social
processes, SUCH AS:
A. PROFESSIONAL CRIMES – Differentiated from other crimes by the regularity
of behavior, development of skills and techniques, association among offender,
consequent development of a group culture. Usually, crimes committed by
organized/syndicated criminals. FOR EXAMPLE: A. Drug trafficking
B. Racketeering
C. Syndicated crimes
B. HABITUAL CRIMES – Offenses that are either habits in the literal sense of the
word, which have been made illegal or these are crimes in the common
acceptance of the term, REPEATEDLY BUT NOT SKILLFULLY PERFORMED.
FOR EXAMPLE:
-Those that are committed by disorderly drunkards; drug addicts, vagrants,
petty thieves, dope peddlers, and prostitutes.
C. RECIDIVISM – It refers to the act of committing the same type of crime at a

certain period of time. FOR EXAMPLE:
- A person was arrested, convicted and served imprisonment for a crime of
robbery. After being freed from imprisonment for not more than two years, he
again committed robbery. This person is considered a recidivist.
D. OCCASIONAL – Commits crime perhaps only once, perhaps separated by long

intervals of time. The offender commits a crime only when occasion paves
opportunity.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. CAUSALITY - A concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the
appearance of X cause effect Y? In a perfect relationship, the appearance of X
would always cause the effect Y. each and every time the relationship is seen.
2. EMPIRICAL VALIDITY - This is the most important factor in evaluating a
theory, and means that the theory has been supported by research evidence.
3. IDEOLOGY - A belief system and a set of core values or philosophy. In a pure
sense, an ideology states or explains how things should be, and a theory explains
how things actually are.
4. INTERNAL LOGICAL CONSISTENCY - A theory needs to be presented in a
logical manner and to have clearly stated propositions that agree with or do not
contradict one another. Restated, does the theory make logical and consistent
sense?
5. MACRO - Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big picture” of crime
—crime across the world or across a society. They attempt to answer why there
are variations in group rates of crime. Other authors have used the terms
“epidemiology” or social structural theories.
6. MICRO - Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a small group of offenders
or on an individual crime. They attempt to answer why some individuals are more
likely than others to commit crime. Other authors have used the terms “individual
conduct” or processual theories.
7. NECESSARY CONDITION - This means that X must be present to produce
effect Y. If X is not present, Y will not occur.
8. PARSIMONY - This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements are
involved. How simple is the theory?
9. POLICY IMPLICATIONS - If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions are
suggested.
10. PROBABILISTIC CAUSALITY -A concept more applicable to the social
sciences. X is more or less likely to cause effect Y. Restated, X tends to cause Y.
11. SCOPE -Refers to how much or how many types of crime or deviance the
theory covers.
12. SOFT DETERMINISM - The view that human behavior is not wholly caused,
determined, or predictable by any set of biological, psychological, or sociological
forces but that these interact with exercise of choice and will by individuals.
Therefore, explaining or predicting human behavior is difficult.
13. SUFFICIENT CONDITION. Each time X is present, effect Y will always occur.
14. TAUTOLOGY - Circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes people
to commit crime, and then says we know Jon is greedy because he committed a
crime, it becomes impossible to subject the theory to the scientific process. In this
case, you would find that greed has been defined as someone who commits
criminal acts. The circle of the reasoning never stops.
15. TESTABILITY - To be valid and ultimately useful, a theory must be able to be
subjected to scientific research. Theories may be untestable if they are
tautological, propose causes that are not measurable, or are so open-ended that
empirical findings can always be re-interpreted to support the theory.
16. THEORY - In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.
17. THEORIES OF CRIMINAL AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR - Theories in this
category attempt to explain why an individual commits criminal or delinquent acts.
18. THEORIES OF LAW AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE - Theories in this category
attempt to explain how laws are made, and how the criminal justice system
operates as a whole.
19. USEFULNESS - This refers to the real world applications that the theory
proposes or suggests, and the ability to implement those applications.
20. THEORY - Is the imaginative contemplation of reality, direct intellectual
apprehension, insight or body of generalizations and principles developed in
association with the practice in a certain field of activity.
II. BODY: THEORIES OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIME AND CRIME

PREVENTION –
UNDERSTANDING AND EXPLANATION OF SOME MAJOR THEORIES AND
CAUSATION OF CRIME AND ITS INSIGHTS
1. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Biological theories focus on aspects of the physical body, such as inherited
genes, evolutionary factors, brain structures, or the role of hormones in influencing
behavior. Biological theories about the causes of crime on the idea that the
physical body, through inherited genes, evolutionary factors, brain structures, or
the role of hormones, has influence on an individual’s involvement in criminal
behavior.
Growing understanding of these mechanisms suggests that certain biological

factors, such as particular genes, neurological deficits, low serotonin activity,
malnutrition and environmental pollutants may all affect a person’s biological
propensity of criminal or antisocial behavior. The challenge for biological theories
of crime is to adequately represent the complex interplay between inherited
characteristics and environment.
RESPONSES OFFERED BY BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE INCLUDE MEASURES

SUCH AS:
A. Maternal health initiatives to reduce the incidence of smoking and drinking
amongst pregnant women, thereby reducing neurological damage to the
developing fetus; and
B. Public health initiatives and policy responses to reduce alcohol consumption and
binge drinking by teenager, as heavy alcohol use in adolescence is associated with
serious neurological damage and long-term cognitive deficits.
2. DEVELOPMENTAL LIFE-COURSE THEORY

Developmental life-course theories focus on human development and how
individual and social factors interact in different ways and at different
developmental stages to influence individual propensity for criminal behavior.
Developmental life-course explanations see crime as the result of a development
process that starts before birth and continues throughout a person’s life. It seeks
to understand the interaction between individual factors such as genetics and
personality, and social factors such as family and community wellbeing. The theory
argues that while biological factors tend to be more significant early in the
individual’s life, the relative effect of social influences grows over time. A key
aspect of the development-life course approach is the identification of key
developmental junctures that can be used as points to intervene to promote
positive development.
RESPONSES FROM THE DEVELOPMENTAL-LIFE COURSE THEORY INCLUDE:

A. A focus on pre- and post-natal care to ensure that babies are well cared for
during this developmentally important period; and
B. Analyzing data about the change in offending over offenders’ loves to plan
government responses
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
Psychological theories focus on human cognition and its development, and
how this relates to criminal behavior. Psychology presents a number of
perspectives on the causes of crime. Of particular importance are theories
exploring the relationship between crime and individual personality, social factors,
cognition and developmental factors. These psychological theories have different
degrees of focus on individual, family, group and societal psychology.
Psychological literature shows that a key variable identified in the
development of individual characteristics, and any criminal propensities, is the role
played by parents, in terms of factors such as child-rearing practices, attachment,
neglected, abuse, supervision, and the parents own anti-social or criminal
behavior.
RESPONSES BASED BROADLY IN PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY SPAN A WIDE

RANGE BUT INCLUDE:
1. Early intervention programmes in health and education that support the healthy
development of children; and
2. Supporting positive parenting practices, which research shows have a
correlation with reductions in risk-taking, anti-social behavior, and alcohol and
other drug abuse by adolescents.
4. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Sociological theories focus on the influence of the organization of society and
social conditions. Sociology encompasses a very wide range of theoretical
perspective, but generally regards crime as a social phenomenon, and emphasizes
the cultural and social elements of criminal behavior. Some sociological theories
emphasize the relationship between social structures, such as language, ethnicity
and class, and criminal behavior. Other theories emphasize the effect of social
conditions on an individual’s propensity to become involved in crime. Theories of
this type often focus on the relationship between crime and factors such as social
inequality; the influence of peers; social disorganization in a community; the
consequences for an individual of being unable to achieve social success; and the
role of criminal sub-cultures, including gangs. Sociological theories are often
criticized for not being able to provide strong evidence for the causal relationships
they posit. Nevertheless, they are important because they complement the more
individually focused biological and psychological theories.
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES RESPONSES INCLUDE:

1. Programmes to address multi-generational unemployment for particular group
or in a particular areas;
2. Programmes that build cultural identity and positive community values to lift
self-esteem, and strengthen social connectedness; and
3. Anti-family violence programmes that try to change norms and behaviors in
relation to family violence.
5. GEOGRAPHIC THEORIES
Geographic theories focus on the location of crime and how physical
environments promote or discourage criminal behavior. Geographical theories of
crime focus on analyzing data about the geographic distribution of crime,
modifying the physical environment to reduce the likelihood of crime and targeting
initiatives to geographic areas with high rates of offending. Using data about the
geographic distribution of crime, it is possible to find patterns that can be used to
inform crime prevention projects. Geographic theories of crime prevention that
focus on the physical environment tend to focus on such things as how urban
planning, building design and the design of public spaces affect crime, and also on
how physical environments can be modified to make businesses and residences
more resistant to crime (sometimes called “situational crime prevention”).
RESPONSES OF GEOGRAPHIC THEORIES TO CRIME INCLUDE:

1. Using lighting and better design of pedestrian flow to minimizes crime in an
area at night or planning licensed premises so that patrons do not come in conflict
as they leave; and
2. Using information about the distribution of crime in a neighborhood to develop a
area-specific crime prevention plan with the local community.
6. ECONOMIC THEORIES
Economic theories focus on how offending is influenced by incentives. The
economic theory is based on the notion that individuals respond rationally to the
costs and benefits of criminal opportunities. Thus, factors that increase the
expected costs of crime (such as increasing the likelihood of apprehension or
severity of punishment) or reduce the expected benefits (such as improved
educational or job opportunities) can reduce the incidence of crime. The economic
framework can also encompass other theories of crime that provide a richer
understanding of rationality and decision-making (such as the biological basis of
impulsivity), the costs of crime (such the social capital in anti-social peer networks)
and the benefits of crime (such as local economic conditions).
ECONOMIC RESPONSE TO CRIME INCLUDES:

1. Improving engagement in education or employment so that the relative benefits
of crime are reduced vi-a-vis legitimate economic activities; and
2. Increasing or decreasing criminal sanctions to change the relative disincentive
associated with particular criminal activities.
III: THE THEORIES COVERED CAN BE CATEGORIZED INTO TWO (2) MAIN
APPROACHES:
1) Biological theories

2) Sociological theories
LOMBROSO AND BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM

In the 19th Century, Italian prison psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso drew on the
ideas of Charles Darwin and suggested that criminals were atavistic: essentially
‘evolutionary throwbacks’. He suggested that their brains were mal-developed or
not fully developed. In his review of prisoners, he found that they shared a number
of common physical attributes, such as sloping foreheads and receding chins. In so
doing, Lombroso suggested that involvement in crime was a product of biology and
biological characteristics: criminals were born that way. Lombroso’s theory is
essentially a theory of biological positivism.
POSITIVISM -Influenced by the scientific discoveries of the 18th and 19th
centuries, positivism is a research tradition that seeks to establish objective causes
of individual behavior.
Lombroso’s work has long since fallen out of favor. However, biological theories
have continued to develop. Rather than measuring physical features of the body,
contemporary approaches FOCUS ON:
1. Biochemical conditions (e.g. linked to poor diet or hormone imbalance)
2. Neurophysiological conditions (e.g. learning disabilities caused by brain
damage)
3. Genetic inheritance and/or abnormality
4. Intelligence
These attempts, to locate the causes of crime within the individual, suggest
that there are identifiable differences between offenders and non-offenders. In
other words, the criminal is ‘other’: in some way different or abnormal to everyone
else.
2) SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Sociological approaches suggest that crime is shaped by factors external to the
individual: their experiences within the neighborhood, the peer group, and the
family.
THE CHICAGO SCHOOL/SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY

Social disorganization theory grew out of research conducted by sociologists
at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s. It key proponents were
Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay (1942), who used spatial mapping to examine
the residential locations of juveniles referred to court. Shaw and McKay found that
patterns of delinquency were higher in areas characterized by poor housing, poor
health, socio-economic disadvantage and transient populations. This led them to
suggest that crime was a function of neighborhood dynamics and not due to
individual actors and their actions. Shaw and McKay explained these patterns by
reference to the problems that accompanied immigration to Chicago at this time.
They claimed that areas settled by newly arrived immigrants experienced a
breakdown of social norms due to ethnic diversity and competing cultural
traditions. Conventional institutions of social control were therefore weakened and
unable to regulate the behavior of local youths.
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF CRIME, PLACE AND SPACE INCLUDE:
1. Defensible space theory, which examines how the design of physical space is
related to crime;
2. Broken windows theory, which looks the relationship between low level disorder
and crime; and
3. Routine activities theory, which considers how opportunities to commit crime
are shaped by between people’s everyday movements through space and time.
ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY
Anomie is a concept developed by one of the founding fathers of sociology,
EMILE DURKHEIM, to explain the breakdown of social norms that often
accompanies rapid social change. AMERICAN SOCIOLOGIST ROBERT MERTON
(1957) drew on this idea to explain criminality and deviance in the USA. His theory
argues that crime occurs when there is a gap between the cultural goals of a
society (e.g. material wealth, status) and the structural means to achieve these
(e.g. education, employment). This strain between means and goals results in
frustration and resentment, and encourages some people to use illegitimate or
illegal means to secure success. In short, strain theory posits that the cultural
values and social structures of society put pressure on individual citizens to
commit crime.
JOCK YOUNG DRAWS ON MERTON’S ANOMIE/STRAIN THEORY IN HIS
RECENT BOOK, THE EXCLUSIVE SOCIETY (1999) - was locating crime in
relation to both structural and cultural processes. Structurally speaking, Young
argues that the dismantling of the welfare state, alongside increasing disparities
between the rich and the poor, have served to further exclude disadvantaged
groups. This has occurred alongside high levels of cultural inclusion. Contemporary
consumer capitalism places greater emphasis on conspicuous consumption and
material success, intensifying feelings of deprivation experienced by the less
successful.
SUBCULTURAL THEORY
Linked to anomie and strain are concepts of status frustration and
differential opportunity, which North American subcultural theorists used to explain
the delinquent activities of disadvantaged groups in the 1950s and 60s.
STATUS FRUSTRATION - Is associated with the work of Albert Cohen (1955), who
conducted research into group offending by young, lower-class men. Cohen argued
that lower-class youths could not aspire to middle-class cultural goals and so,
frustrated, they rejected them to create their own subcultural system of values. In
school, for example, they gain status and respect by meeting the expectations of
peers not teachers, engaging in delinquent activities such as smoking, truanting,
and acting up in class.
RICHARD CLOWARD AND LLOYD OHLIN (1960) - Built on these ideas, pointing
to the differential opportunity structures available to lower-class young people in
different neighborhoods: criminal (making a living from crime), conflict (territorial
violence and gang fighting) and retreatist (drugs and alcohol).
SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY

Strictly speaking control theory does not address the causes of crime, but
rather focuses on why people obey the law. In other words, it explains conformity
rather than deviance. It is primarily associated with the work of TRAVIS HIRSCHI
(1969), an America social scientist who proposed that people general conform to
social norms due to strong social bonds. Conversely, they engage in delinquent
acts when these bonds are broken or weak. THE KEY COMPONENTS OF SOCIAL
BONDS ARE:
1. ATTACHMENT: How strong or weak is an individual’s relationship with others?
Do these others expect certain kinds of behavior (such as obeying the law) from
this individual? The stronger the attachment and the stronger the expectations,
the more likely it is that the individual will conform.
2. COMMITMENT: The more an individual commits his/herself to a particular
lifestyle (for example, being married, being a parent, having a job), the more
he/she has to lose if he/she becomes involved in crime (and so deviate from the
lifestyle).
3. INVOLVEMENT: This component comes down to time – the more time the
individual spends engaging in law abiding behavior, the less time he/she has to
engage in law breaking behavior.
4. BELIEF: this relates to upbringing. If an individual has been brought up to be
law abiding, they are less likely to become involved in crime. Control theory is one
of the most frequently used and tested criminological theories.
RIGHT REALISM/RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

This branch of criminology sees individuals as rational actors: individuals are
capable of making their own choices, which includes choosing to commit crime. In
any course of action, individuals weigh up the likely benefits and disadvantages of
each action.
Right realism emerged in the USA and the UK around the 1980s, in response to
rising crime rates and a perceived failure of sociological approaches to adequately
address the real causes of crime. Prominent right realists such as James Q. Wilson
(1975) and Charles Murray (1990) come from political backgrounds and claim that
criminological theory should inform criminal justice policy.
One of the key theories to emerge from this branch of criminology is rational
choice theory, associated with the work of Cornish and Clarke (1986). According to
this theory, individuals not only decide to commit crime, but decide when and
where to commit crime.
As Walklate observes, this theory lends itself to the range of policy initiatives
known as situational crime prevention, sometimes referred to as designing out
crime. This is the umbrella term for a range of strategies that are used to reduce
the opportunities to commit crime.
REALISM - Realist criminology tends to be written from a particular ideological

position, i.e. it is politically right or left. Both approaches attempt to get ‘real’
about the problem of crime: treating it as a serious social issue.
EXAMPLES OF THIS STRATEGY INCLUDE:
1. Increasing formal surveillance measures such as CCTV and alarms, and the
Neighborhood Watch scheme
2. Increasing natural surveillance such as improving street lighting
3. Concealing or removing ‘targets’ e.g. ‘High value’ goods such as mobile
phones, cash and jewelry
LEFT REALISM/RELATIVE DEPRIVATION

Left realism is a branch of critical criminology (see SCCJR what is crime?) that
developed in the UK and the USA in the 1980s. It suggests that crime
disproportionately affects the lives of the poor and disadvantaged. Key proponents
include Lea and Young (1984) and Elliot Currie (1985).
One of the key concepts of left realism is relative deprivation. Closely
associated with anomie theory, relative deprivation suggests that crime happens
when individuals or groups see themselves as being unfairly disadvantaged
compared to other individuals or groups who they see as being similar to
themselves. Since the disadvantage is perceived and determined by an individual,
it is a subjective assessment.
LEFT REALISTS ALSO SUPPORT TWO (2) OTHER KEY THEORIES TO EXPLAIN
CRIME:
1. MARGINALIZATION - Some groups experience marginalization and at different levels
(social, political and economic). These groups are on the periphery of society. Lacking
political representation, these groups represent themselves and their ways of taking
political action include the commission of crime and violence.
2. SUB-CULTURES: Marginalized individuals and groups may come into contact with
others who share these experiences, and who then may form their own sub cultures in
which crime and violence may feature.
FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES/GENDER
Feminist perspectives share a concern with gender inequality, pointing to the
fact that crime is disproportionately committed by men. Feminist criminologists
such as ELIZABETH STANKO (1985) have paid particular attention to male
violence against women, explaining its occurrence by reference to wider structures
of oppression – as well as gendered norms regarding ‘appropriate’ masculine and
feminine behavior.
One concept used by feminist perspectives to explain the maleness of crime
is hegemonic masculinity: the set of ideas, values, representations and practices
associated with ‘being male’ which is commonly accepted as the dominant position
in gender relations in a society at a particular historical moment (JEFFERSON,
2006, SAGE DICTIONARY OF CRIMINOLOGY). In contemporary Western
society, the dominant or hegemonic masculinity is expressed through paid
employment (perhaps being the ‘bread winner’ in the household); being
heterosexual; and subordinating women. Criminologist JAMES W.
MESSERSCHMIDT (1993) argues that for some men, in certain groups, men do
masculinity (that is, express their masculinity) through the engagement and
commission of crime.

DETERRENCE AND RATIONAL CHOICE THEORIES (TERMINOLOGY)
1. DETERRENCE THEORY - A core principle of classical school and rational choice
theories, this theory states that crime can be controlled through the use of
punishments that combine the proper degrees of certainty, severity, and celerity.
Deterrence is a key element in the U.S. justice system.
A. ABSOLUTE DETERRENCE - This refers to the amount of crime that has been
prevented simply due to the fact that a formal system is in place so that an
individual could be legally punished for committing a criminal act.
B. GENERAL DETERRENCE - General deterrence is the doctrine that a community
or a society of people can be deterred from committing a criminal act after having
witnessed the punishment of an individual or individuals for having committed that
act.
C. SPECIFIC DETERRENCE - This style of deterrence is used with a specific
offender in mind. The belief is that if an individual is punished for a criminal act,
then that individual will be less likely to violate the law in the future.
D. PERCEPTUAL DETERRENCE - This concept applies to an individual offender,
and refers to what he or she believes the likelihood of arrest to be, and how severe
he or she believes the punishment for a crime will be if caught. The perceptions of
the individual are often very different from the actual reality experienced.
E. RETRIBUTION - Making the punishment fit the crime. It also referred to as “an
eye for an eye.”
THREE (3) ELEMENTS OF DETTERENCE THEORY

A. CELERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Celerity refers to how
quickly an individual is punished after committing a crime.
B. CERTAINTY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Certainty refers to how
likely it is that an individual will be caught and punished for a crime that he or she
has committed. Certainty is the most important of the three elements.
C. SEVERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Severity refers to how
harsh the punishment for a crime will be. In classical criminology, it is important to
remember that a punishment must fit the crime. If a punishment is not severe
enough, it will not deter crime. If it is too severe, it is unjust and can lead to more
crime.
2. CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY - A school of thought based upon utilitarian notions
of free will and the greatest good for the greatest number. At its core, classical
criminology refers to a belief that a crime is committed after an individual weighs
the pros and cons. The decision to commit a crime is a rational decision, and is
best countered through a deterrence-based system.
3. CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN (CPTED) - This
refers to a set of practices designed to make potential criminal targets less
attractive. The belief that crime is a rational act is used to make a potential target
less attractive to a criminal, and thus not a “rational” target.
4. EXPECTED UTILITY PRINCIPLE - Economic theory which states that people
will act in a manner that increases their benefits and reduces their losses. This ties
in closely with classical criminology and, by definition, rational choice theory,
where people seek to increase their pleasure and reduce their pain.
5. FREE WILL - The belief that humans are rational, and have the ability to make
decisions according to each individual’s own will and purposes. Under this
perspective, people can understand the difference between right and wrong, and
can choose to commit criminal acts or to follow the law.
6. PROPORTIONALITY - Punishment should fit the crime without regard to
individual differences.
7. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY -This is the 1980s formulation of classical

criminology. While the beliefs of rational choice theory can be traced back to
eighteenth-century philosopher Cesare Beccaria, this version adds a new
dimension that emphasizes the expanding role of the economist in criminological
thought. The emphasis is placed on the expected reward for committing a crime,
and other associated costs and benefits surrounding criminal activity.

8. ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY - This theory states that for crime to be
committed, three elements must be present: an available target, a motivated
offender, and a lack of guardians.
9. SCARED STRAIGHT - This program began in the 1970s with the belief that
taking young offenders or potential offenders to a prison environment, and
exposing them to the realities of prison life, could prove beneficial in reducing
delinquency. Like boot camps, however, Scared Straight did not produce the
expected results.
10. SHOCK INCARCERATION. This approach generally uses a combination of a

brief prison sentence followed by probation. The hope is that a brief exposure to
the realities of incarceration will deter the offender from further criminality.
11. BOOT CAMPS - Programs used in place of incarceration, and based upon a
military model of discipline and order. These programs are designed to have a
deterrent effect on young offenders, but they have generally failed to yield long-
term reductions in recidivism.
NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE

STUDY OF CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY (SET 01)
1. BECCARIA, CESARE: (1738-1794) - Italian nobleman, prominent in the
eighteenth century, wrote On Crimes and Punishment (1764).
2. BENTHAM, JEREMY: (1748-1832) - Jurist and philosopher, prominent in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, advocated abolishing the death penalty.
3. COHEN, LAWRENCE E.: - Collaborated with Marcus Felson in developing the
routine activities theory.
4. FELSON, MARCUS: - Collaborated with Lawrence Cohen in developing the
routine activities theory.
5. LOMBROSO, CESARE: (1836-1909) - first to use scientific method in
criminology, wrote the criminal man (1876).
6. EYSENCK, HANS J.: - Proposed the biosocial “arousal” theory.
7. FERRERO, WILLIAM: - Co-authored Female Offender (1958 [1897]) with
Lombroso.
8. GORING, CHARLES: (1870-1919) - BRITISH criminologist, proposed the idea
that criminals are shorter, weigh less, and “mentally defective,” wrote The English
Convict: A Statistical Study (1913).
9. FREUD, SIGMUND: (1856-1939) - Psychologist, pioneer of psychoanalysis and
psychological theory; theorized the Oedipus complex, and the Electra complex;
and coined the terms id, superego, ego, sex drive, and libido.
10. FRIEDLANDER, KATE: - Wrote The Psychoanalytic Approach to Juvenile
Delinquency (1947).
11. HOOTEN, E.A.: (1887-1954) - Anthropologist and neo-Lombrosian, proposed
the idea that crime is caused by physical inferiority, wrote Crime and the Man
(1939).
12. MEDNICK, SARNOFF: - Developed the best-known and most systematically
stated and tested modern biosocial theory.

1. AKERS, RONALD: - Sociologist and criminologist, who, along with Robert
Burgess, developed the differential reinforcement theory, wrote Deviant Behavior:
A Social Learning Approach (1973, 1977).
2. BANDURA, ALBERT: - Psychologist and child development expert, examined
stages of development and concluded conduct develop at particular stages when
certain interaction stimuli are present.
3. BURGESS, ROBERT L.: - Behavior sociologist collaborated with Ronald Akers
to develop a “differential association-reinforcement” theory of criminal behavior.
4. ELLIOT, DELBERT: - Developed an integrated theory, wrote Explaining
Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
5. SUTHERLAND, EDWIN: (1883-1950) - Developed the differential association
theory, wrote The Professional Thief (1937) and Principles of Criminology (1947).

6. GOTTFREDSON, MICHAEL: - Co-authored A General Theory of Crime (1990)
with Travis Hirschi.
7. HIRSCHI, TRAVIS: - Criminologist, developed the social bond theory, wrote
The Causes of Delinquency (1969) and co-authored A General Theory of Crime
(1990) with Travis Hirschi.
8. MATZA, DAVID: - Collaborated with Gresham Sykes in 1957 and proposed
“techniques of neutralization,” developed drift theory of delinquency in 1964,
wrote Delinquency and Drift (1964).
9. NYE, F. IVAN: - Wrote Family Relationships and Delinquent Behavior (1958),
expanding on Reiss’ definitions of social controls.
10. RECKLESS, WALTER: - Proposed the containment theory of delinquency and
crime.
11. REISS, ALBERT J.: - In 1951, identified delinquency as resulting from the
failure of “personal” and “social” controls.
12. SYKES, GRESHAM: - Collaborated with David Matza in 1957 and proposed
“techniques of neutralization.”
1. BECKER, HOWARD -Criminologist and social psychologist, primary theorist in
labeling, wrote Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance (1963).
2. BRAITHWAITE, JOHN - Wrote Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation
(2002). His concept of reintrogrative shamming remains at the core of restorative
justice.
3. COOLEY, CHARLES HORTON - (1875-1940) Sociologist who developed the
concept of “looking- lass self.”
4. LEMERT, EDWIN M. - Sociologist, collaborated with Howard Becker to extend
the labeling theory to include both primary and secondary deviance, wrote Social
Pathology (1951) and Human Deviance, Social Problems, and Social Control
(1967).
5. TANNENBAUM, FRANK - Criminologist, coined the phrase “dramatization of
evil,” wrote Crime and the Community (1938).
Notable Individuals
6. AGNEW, ROBERT. - Sociologist who proposed the general strain theory to
account for criminal behavior.
7. BURGESS, ERNEST - (1886-1966) Helped form the “Chicago School,”
collaborated with Sutherland and Park.
8. CLOWARD, RICHARD - Collaborated with Lloyd Ohlin to form a theory of
differential opportunity, co-authored Delinquency and Opportunity (1960) with
Ohlin.
9. COHEN, ALBERT K. - Criminologist who developed the perspective of
delinquent subculture.
10. DURKHEIM, EMILE - (1858-1917) French sociologist, wrote Suicide (1893).
11. MCKAY, HENRY D. - Sociologist who collaborated with Shaw on the social
disorganization theory.
12. MERTON, ROBERT K. - Focused on anomie and strain theory, wrote Social
Theory and Social Structure (1957).
13. MESSNER, STEVEN F. - Collaborated with Rosenfeld on the ideology of the
“American Dream” and institutional anomie theory.
14. MILLER, WALTER. - Criminologist who focused on gang delinquency as a
result of lower-class values.
15. OHLIN, LLOYD. - Collaborated with Cloward to form a theory of opportunity
and co-authored Delinquency and Opportunity (1960) with Cloward.
16. PARK, ROBERT EZRA - (1864-1944) Associated with the “Chicago School,”
collaborated with Sutherland and Burgess.
17. ROSENFELD, RICHARD. - Collaborated with Messner on the ideology of the
“American Dream” and institutional anomie theory.
18. SHAW, CLIFFORD R. - Sociologist who collaborated with McKay on the social
disorganization theory.
Notable Individuals
19. CHAMBLISS, WILLIAM J. - Criminological and sociological theorist, co-
authored Law, Order, and Power (1971) with Robert Seidman.
20. DURKHEIM, EMILE: - (1858-1917) French sociologist wrote Suicide (1893).
21. MARX, KARL: - European theorist whose view of the history of society as
class struggle and capitalism as a two-class system of the ruling elite and the
proletariat inspired many scholars and revolutionaries (see Chapter 10).
22. QUINNEY, RICHARD: - Sociologist known early on as a conflict theorist and
later as a Marxist theorist. More recently he has been known for viewing
criminology for its peacemaking potential, wrote The Social Reality of Crime (1970)
and Class, State, and Crime (1980)
23. SUMNER, WILLIAM GRAHAM: - Pioneering sociologist who proposed the
classic statement of consensus theory. Developed the terms “folkways” and
“mores,” wrote Folkways (1906).
24. TURK, AUSTIN T. - Sociologist and criminologist who has written extensively
on the conflict perspective, wrote Criminality and the Legal Order (1969).
25. VOLD, GEORGE B. - Conflict theorist, wrote Theoretical Criminology (1958).
26. WEBER, MAX: - German sociologist who pioneered work on bureaucracy, law,
and economy.

1. BONGER, WILLEM: - (1876-1940) Dutch theorist, who endorsed the Marxist
view of class conflict, wrote Criminality and Economic Conditions (1916).
2. CHAMBLISS, WILLIAM J. - Criminological theorist, wrote Law, Order, and
Power (1982).
3. KIRCHHEIMER, OTTO: - European theorist, co-authored Punishment and Social
Structure (1968) with Rusche.
4. MARX, KARL: - (1818-1883) European theorist, wrote The Communist
Manifesto (1848).
5. QUINNEY, RICHARD: - Sociologist, wrote The Social Reality of Crime (1970)
and Class, State, and Crime (1980).
6. RUSCHE, GEORG: - European theorist, co-authored Punishment and Social
Structure (1968) with Kirchheimer.
7. ADLER, FREDA: - Wrote Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female Criminal
(1975).
8. CHESNEY-LIND, MEDA: - Feminist criminologist who attempt to balance
coverage of both males and females in criminological research, wrote The Female
Offender: Girls, Women, and Crime (1997).
9. MESSERSCHMIDT, JAMES W. - Wrote Crime as Structured Action: Gender,
Race, Class, and Crime in the Making (1997).
10. SIMON, RITA: - Wrote Women and Crime (1975).

1. AKERS, RONALD L. - Proposed the absorption of concepts from other theories
by social learning concepts, wrote Criminological Theories: Introduction,
Evaluation, and Application (1994; 1997; 2000; and with Christine S. Sellers, 2004).
2. BERNARD, THOMAS: - Proposed an integration of conflict and social learning
theories to account for both criminal behavior and criminal law.
3. COLVIN, MARK: - Proposed that coercion may be a unifying concept in
criminology.
4. CULLEN, FRANCIS T. - Proposed that social support can be used as a central
concept around which all of criminology can be unified.
5. ELLIOTT, DELBERT S. - One of the first to integrate strain, control, and social
learning theories, wrote Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use (1985).
6. KAPLAN, HOWARD B. - Proposed a self-esteem/derogation theory of
adolescent deviance.
7. KROHN, MARVIN D. - Proposed the social network theory.
8. LAUB, JOHN H. - Collaborated with Robert Sampson to propose and test life-
course perspectives. Wrote Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points
Through Life (1993).
9. SAMPSON, ROBERT. - Collaborated with John Laub to propose and test life-
course perspectives coauthored Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points
through Life (1993) with Sampson.

10. THORNBERRY, TERENCE P. - Proposed an interactional theory of
delinquency. Tittle, Charles R.: Proposed the control balance theory, wrote Control
Balance: Toward a General Theory of Deviance (1995).
MAJOR THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION AND DEFINITION OF

TERMINOLOGIES
A. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
THREE (3) PSYCHE OF PERSONALITY

A. ID - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The id
contains basic instincts and drives, such as the need for food, water, sex, and
pleasure.
B. EGO - One of the three components of Freudian personality development. The
ego is referred to as the executive or rational part of the personality and it acts to
keep the id in check.
C. SUPEREGO - One of the three components of Freudian personality
development. This part of the personality contains the conscience of the
individual.
1. ELECTRA COMPLEX - This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around
ages 3 to 6) in which a girl develops a desire to possess her father and a hatred
and fear of her mother.
2. FREUDIAN - This view of behavior focuses on early childhood development. It
claims that criminal activity is the result of a conflict between the id, ego, and
superego, which can be traced back to a conflict in early childhood.
3. OEDIPUS COMPLEX - This occurs at the beginning of the phallic stage (around
ages 3 to 6) in which a boy develops a desire to possess his mother and a hatred
and fear of his father.
4. PERSONALITY THEORY - This theory believes that criminal activity is the
result of a defective, deviant, or inadequate personality. Examples of deviant
personality traits include hostility, impulsiveness, aggression, and sensation-
seeking.
5. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY - A general perspective stating that the causes of
criminal behavior can be found in the mind of the individual.
6. PSYCHOLOGICAL COUNSELING - The process by which an underlying mental
issue can be addressed. The assumptions are that only by treating an individual
who has committed a criminal act as someone who is sick and in need of
treatment can the problem truly be addressed; punishing the criminal act without
addressing the root mental cause is of little or no value; and counseling is the only
way in which the root mental cause can be dealt with adequately.
7. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY - A general perspective that looks to the
psychological functioning, development, and adjustment of an individual in
explaining criminal or deviant acts. Under this approach, the criminal act itself is
only important in that it highlights an underlying mental issue.
PSYCHOPATHIC THEORY
PSYCHOPATHIC - A general term referring to a variety of antisocial personality
disorders.
PSYCHOPATHY CHECKLIST (PCL-R) - Developed by HARE, this is a tool

comprised of a check list that is designed to measure the feeling and relationships
of an individual, along with the social deviance of an individual. This tool is the
main one used in the measurement of a psychopathic personality.
KEY CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOPHIC THEORY

1. Psychoanalytic theorists believe that criminal behavior is the result of a mental
disturbance. From a Freudian perspective, this may have been caused by a
conflict between the id, ego, and superego, or it may be the result of an improper
fixation during a stage of emotional development.

2. Personality theorists believe that criminal behavior is the result of an improper
or defective personality or personality traits. Instead of developing a conforming
appropriate-social personality, the criminal has developed a personality based
upon conflict, impulsiveness, and aggression. The criminal does not have the
ability to feel empathy, remorse, or guilt for his or her actions, and has not
developed a sense of right and wrong.
3. Under both of these approaches, the criminal act is not important, in that it is
only one of many symptoms of the underlying psychological or personality
disorder. Both approaches recommend various forms of therapy and treatment to
fix the disorder. When the underlying psychological or personality disorder is
addressed, the criminal and deviant acts should cease.
4. Psychological theories are difficult if not impossible to test. One cannot see,
identify, or measure the id, ego, or superego. As a result, testing these theories
becomes virtually impossible. Similar difficulties are faced when trying to test
personality theories, and tautological issues remain a problem.
5. Programs that offer therapy and counseling in attempts to reduce delinquency
have not been shown to be particularly effective. While the role of psychology in
criminal justice and criminology is indeed important, we have not yet reached a
place where the key concepts of psychological and personality theories, along with
their recommended treatments, have had a measured impact on criminal activity.
B. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
DEFINITION OF BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
1. ADOPTION STUDIES - Studies that have been done with children reared by
biological parents compared to their siblings or twins reared by adoptive parents in
an attempt to demonstrate a genetic link to criminal behavior. Results have been
mixed.
2. ATAVISM - Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a

“born criminal.” Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of
human evolution, and will commit crimes against society unless specifically
restrained from doing so.
3. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) - Mednick’s theory that individuals
who inherit a slower than normal autonomic nervous system learn to control
aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly or not at all. This leads to increased
violence and criminal activity.
4. BEHAVIORAL GENETICS - This covers a range of theories in which a
combination of genetics and the environment influence behavior.
5. BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL - A view of crime also referred to as biological
positivism that claims that criminal behavior is the result of biological or inborn
defects or abnormalities. This view directly conflicts with classical criminology,
which claims that criminal activity is the result of free will. Under a biological
perspective, deterrence is of little value.
6. BIOSOCIAL THEORIES - Theories that examine the combined effects of
biology, behavior, and the environment on criminal behavior.
7. BIOSOCIAL AROUSAL THEORY - This theory states that an individual’s level
of arousal works in conjunction with the social environment. Those with low levels
of arousal are less likely to learn appropriate ways to deal with aggression and
violence and thus are more prone to commit crime.
8. BORN CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. This
type of criminal is the most dangerous, and can be identified through their
stigmata or identifying characteristics.
9. CONCORDANCE - This examines the degree to which criminal or law-abiding
behavior of siblings, identical twins, or fraternal twins is similar to one another.
10. CRIMINALOID - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The
criminaloid is motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts under the proper
circumstances.

11. DETERMINISM - In considering biological theories, determinism refers to the
view that an individual’s criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of genetic
inheritance or biological predisposition. Soft determinism, as explained by Matza,
examines the role of determinism, but also acknowledges that other factors, from
environmental to choice, may be part of the equation. This assumes that behavior
is not completely and strictly determined by the individual’s genetic or biological
makeup.
12. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A broad-based view that certain types of criminal
behavior are genetic and passed down from one generation to the next through
evolutionary processes of natural selection and survival.
13. GENE-BASED EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A general approach that suggests
that the process of natural selection has resulted in criminal genetic tendencies
that are passed down from generation to generation.
14. INSANE CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The
insane criminal type includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics, and the
mentally unstable. These criminals are unable to control their actions; however,
they do not possess the stigmata or identifying characteristics of the born criminal.
15. STIGMATA - Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used to
identify the “born criminal.” They include things such as extra fingers or toes,
large lips, receding chins, excessive skin wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears.
KEY CONCEPTS OF BIOLOGICAL THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE

CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
1. The fundamental concept behind the early biological theories was the belief that
individual difference could be scientifically measured.
2. Early biological theories view criminal behavior as the result of a defect in the
individual. This defect can be biological or genetic in nature, and serves to
separate the criminal from the law abiding citizen. Contemporary biological
theories concentrate more on variations in genetic and other biological factors in
interaction with the environment, and are less likely to refer to biological defects or
abnormalities. 3. Punishment serves a different goal in biological theories.
While punishment may be appropriate to protect society, it will not have a
deterrent effect. Because there is an inherent defect or abnormality within the
individual, deterrence or the threat of punishment will not affect behavior.
4. Although early biological theories lacked validity, they were among the first to
use the scientific method. The process of measuring body parts, shapes, and
sizes, (although flawed) represented a dramatic shift from the philosophical
approach offered by the classical school.
5. Biological theories trace back to Lombroso, and vary in the amount of
determinism built in. Atavistic man or the “born criminal” was always going to be
at odds with civilized society. More modern biological theories seek to establish a
link between things like IQ, testosterone, and criminality. While they share a
biological link, modern theories understand that the influences of choice and the
larger society also play a role in the crime dynamic.
6. If traditional biological theories are correct, then society is limited in its
responses to offenders. There are five basic responses. First, we could try to fix
the offender. This may be accomplished through medication, treatment, or
therapy. Second, we could lock the offender up and keep him or her physically
separated from larger society. Third, we could sterilize the offender. This would
keep individuals from passing along defective genes to future generations. Fourth,
we could deport or banish the offender. Finally, we could choose to kill the
offender. If crime is truly biologically determined, these options, or close
derivatives of these options, would prove more useful than any punishment
designed to remove the pleasure from a criminal act.

7. More recent biological or biosocial theories believe that even if some biological
traits are passed down that would make an individual more pre-disposed to
commit criminal acts; these traits can be dealt with through effective social
programs. Having a biological trait then, is not the end of the story. It does not
doom one to a life of crime, and can in fact be dealt with and managed.
C. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

DEFINITION OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY - In general, social learning theory proposes
that both criminal and conforming behavior are acquired, maintained, or changed
by the same process of interaction with others. The difference lies in the
conforming or deviant direction or balance of the social influences such as
reinforcement, values and attitudes, and imitation.
One of the four main concepts OF AKERS’ SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY -
The process through which an individual rationalizes, evaluates, and assigns right
and wrong. Definitions of the law may be general or specific. One may have the
general view that the law needs to be obeyed, but a specific view that a 20-year-
old who can fight in a war should be allowed to drink a beer. This person may
follow the law in general, but violate the liquor law.
1. BEHAVIOR THEORY - Burgess and Akers expanded differential association and

included elements of behavior theory and behavior modification. This expansion
allowed them to identify the learning process, and included elements such as
operant behavior, respondent conditioning, discriminative stimuli, and schedules of
reinforcement.
2. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION - A theory of crime and delinquency developed
by Sutherland. This is a social learning theory presented in nine steps. Criminality
is basically the result of engaging in inappropriate behaviors exhibited by those
with whom we interact. Also, one of the four main concepts of Akers’ social
learning theory. Akers retains the process of differential association, and expands
upon it in his theory.
3. DIFFERENTIAL IDENTIFICATION - A modification of differential association
theory. In this view, people commit criminal or delinquent acts if they believe that
it will lead to acceptance by and approval of these important people in their lives.
4. DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT - One of the four main concepts of Akers’

social learning theory. The concept refers to the potential rewards and
punishments for committing or not committing a criminal or deviant act. This
process includes a consideration of punishments and rewards that have been
received in the past, as well as present and future rewards and punishments.
5. DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULI - Internal or external factors or cues that aid an
individual in determining an appropriate response to a given situation.
6. IMITATION - One of the four main concepts of Akers’ social learning theory.
Behavior modeled by others for an individual may be copied by that individual.
Impressions of the individual doing the modeling, along with perceived risks and
rewards, will factor into the imitation decision.
7. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - This refers to an individual receiving something
of value for committing a certain act. This may include things such as money,
food, or approval.
8. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - This refers to an individual escaping something
painful such as a punishment or reprimand by committing a certain act.
9. NEUTRALIZING DEFINITIONS - This type of definition helps a person justify
committing a crime by making it seem that although the act itself might be wrong,
under certain conditions it is all right.

10. OPERANT CONDITIONING - The view that voluntary actions and decisions
made by an individual are influenced and shaped by punishments and rewards
found in the external world.
11. RETROFLEXIVE REFORMATION - This process is based upon differential
association and often takes place in a group setting working with both offenders
and non-offenders. This concept suggests that the offenders in such groups, who
join on the side of the non-offenders in attempting to get the other offenders to
change their definitions favorable to law violation, actually wind up reducing their
own definitions favorable to crime.
12. SELF-REINFORCEMENT - The exercise of self-control used by an individual to
reinforce his or her own behavior, by seeing that behavior through the eyes of
another.
13. SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT - This refers to the actual, perceived, expected,
tangible, or intangible rewards or punishments conveyed upon an individual by
society or a subset of society.
14. SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND SOCIAL LEARNING MODEL - A model proposed
by Akers in which social structural factors have an indirect effect on an individual’s
actions through the social learning process.
15. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM - The process by which two or more individuals
share a commonly understood language or set of symbols. All individuals have the
ability to incorporate other people’s reactions into their own behavior, and use
those reactions as part of their own understanding of themselves. Example: You
want to know how you look in a new outfit. Part of your understanding of how you
look is going to be based upon how others respond to you. You have the ability to
understand other people’s facial reactions, body language, and language in
understanding how they view you. You then use this information when deciding if
you look good in the outfit.
KEY CONCEPTS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE

1. As a general concept, social learning theory has been applied to the fields of
sociology, psychology, criminal justice, and criminology in an attempt to explain
how criminal values, ideas, techniques, and expressions are transmitted from one
individual to another.
2. Differential association theory, developed by Sutherland, is a learning theory
that concentrates on one’s associates and the normative definitions one learns
from them.
3. Akers identified four dimensions of the social structure that can possibly be
integrated with social learning. The four dimensions are: differential social
organization, differential location in the social structure, theoretically defined
structural variables, and differential social location.
4. Learning theorists believe that deviant behavior can be eliminated or modified
by taking away the reward of the behavior, increasing the negative consequences
of the behavior, or changing the balance of reward/punishment for the behavior.
5. Just as positive behaviors reinforce positive behaviors, deviant behaviors also
reinforce deviant behaviors. Deviant peers who reinforce one another’s
behaviors can form fast bonds of friendship. The effects of such a relationship
subjects all of the individuals involved to higher rates of future substance abuse
and criminal activity.
D. SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES
DEFINITIONS OF SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES

SOCIAL BONDING THEORY - A control theory that states that individuals
will commit criminal or delinquent acts when their ties (bonds) to society are
weakened or have broken. There are four types of bonds: attachment,
commitment, involvement, and belief. When the bonds are strong, an individual
will refrain from criminal activity.
A. SOCIAL CONTROL - Under a control theory perspective, social control refers to
those elements that keep an individual from committing a criminal or deviant act.
Examples include the family, church, and school.
B. SELF-CONCEPT - An element of containment theory thought to be responsible
for insulating an individual from criminal activity. This is Similar to self-esteem.
C. SELF-CONTROL THEORY - A specific type of control theory developed by
GOTTFREDSON and HIRSCHI in which self-control is the key factor in
understanding criminal and deviant acts.
1. CONTAINMENT THEORY - A control theory in which the inner and outer

pushes and pulls on an individual will produce delinquency unless they are
constrained or counteracted by inner and outer containment measures.
2. CONTROL THEORIES - A classification of theories that claim to ask not why do
people commit criminal acts, but why do they not commit criminal acts? These
theories assume everyone has the desire to commit criminal and deviant acts, and
seeks to answer why some people refrain from doing so.
3. DELINQUENT SUBCULTURE - A group of delinquent peers which may
influence an individual to commit criminal acts in order to receive approval from
the group. This concept works in conjunction with control theory and may pull an
individual towards delinquency.
4. DRIFT THEORY - This theory states that people can ‘drift’ or float back and
forth between obeying and breaking the law. People can use techniques of
neutralization as excuses to break the law when other forms of social control are
weak. When social control is stronger, the offender will drift or float back to law-
abiding behavior.
5. EXTERNAL CONTROL - A concept in control theory in which agents outside the
control of the individual are responsible for keeping that individual from
committing criminal or deviant acts. These agents include parents, teachers, or law
enforcement.
6. INTERNAL CONTROL - A concept in control theory which explains why a
person will not commit a criminal act by reference to the person internally
monitoring and controlling his or her own behavior. This includes such things as
feelings of guilt and not wanting to disappoint others.
7. NATURAL MOTIVATION - This refers to the belief in control theories that the
desire to commit criminal acts is uniform and spread evenly across society.
KEY CONCEPTS SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES to THE

EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
1. Social bonding and control theories are nontraditional criminological
perspectives because they seek to explain why individuals conform to societal
norms, and not why they commit crime.
2. TRAVIS HIRSCHI’S theory has many policy implications and can be used to
reduce delinquency. His theory can be seen in policies such as curfew laws, after-
school programs, parenting classes, and job placement programs.
3. HIRSCHI utilized theory construction, conceptualization, operationalization, and
empirical testing to develop a perspective that still stands as a criminological
model today.
4. The Social Development Model (SDM) has supported bonding and learning
theories and has demonstrated success in areas of commitment and attachment.
E. LABELING THEORY
DEFINITION OF LABELING THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE
LABELING THEORY - The theory that the formal and informal application of
stigmatizing and deviant “labels” or tags applied to an individual by society will not
deter, but rather instigate future deviant or criminal acts.
RESTORATIVE JUSTICE - This refers to programs which are designed to make

offenders take responsibility for their actions and restore them and their victims,
as much as possible, back to things as they existed before the offense. Often
offenders will apologize to the victims and to the community, and attempt to
financially compensate the victims for their losses.
1. DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION - The removal of juveniles from jails, detention

centers, and institutions. Removing juveniles from these facilities, and when
possible removing status and minor offenders from the juvenile justice system as a
whole, is the most basic type of diversion.
2. DISINTEGRATIVE SHAMING - The process by which an individual is punished,
labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act in a manner that
degrades and devalues the individual. This occurs without an attempt after the
offenders have been punished to reconcile them with or restore them to the larger
community.
3. DIVERSION MOVEMENT - This refers to all those efforts to divert individuals,
primarily youth but also adults who are suspected of or have been charged with
minor offenses, from the full and formal process of the juvenile or adult justice
system. The intent is to reduce the stigma of formal delinquent or criminal labels
on the individuals and to reduce or avoid the costs of formal processing of the
crime.
4. FAITH-BASED PROGRAMS - These are religiously based programs which can
be operated within the institution or the larger community. They can be run by
inmates or religious leaders, and use spiritual beliefs and values to change
offenders’ attitudes and behaviors.
5. NET WIDENING - A problem that occurs when offenders who would have been
released from the system are placed in a program simply because a program
exists. This often occurs in diversion programs. Boot camps may be a viable
option to keep kids out of institutions, but it becomes netwidening when kids, who
otherwise would have been sent home, are sent to boot camps.
6. PRIMARY DEVIANCE - Deviant acts that are committed in the absence of or
preceding the application of a deviant label for the acts. While it may or may not
be the first crime a person has committed, it is not based on a response to being
labeled as a deviant (see Secondary Deviance).
7. SECONDARY DEVIANCE - Criminal or deviant acts those are committed in
response to, or because of, a label that has been applied to an individual.
8. REINTEGRATIVE SHAMING - The process by which an individual is punished,
labeled, and made to feel shame for committing a deviant act, but done in a way
that the individual who is shamed is brought back into the larger community and
restored to a position of respectability.
KEY CONCEPTS OF LABELING THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE

1. Labeling theory focuses on formal and informal applications of stigmatizing and
deviant “labels” by society on some of its members. Many have argued however,
that these labels are often the result of the statues of the individual, ie race, social
class, and socioeconomics, as opposed to any act committed.
2. Labeling theory treats such labels as both cause and effect, as independent and
dependent variables.

3. Lemert focused on two stages of deviance: Primary deviance is the commission
of criminal acts before the individual is caught and punished for them; and
secondary deviance refers to crimes committed due to the label society has placed
upon an offender.
4. A major concept in symbolic interactionism is the “looking-glass self,” in which
our self concepts are reflections of other people’s conceptions of us, as revealed in
their interactions with us.
5. Labeling theory mirrors conflict theory in that the individuals with power create
and enforce rules at the expense of the less powerful.
F. SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION, ANOMIE, AND STRAIN THEORIES
DEFINITION OF SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION, ANOMIE, AND STRAIN

THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
ANOMIE - A state of normlessness or norm confusion within a society. The
term was coined by Durkheim to explain suicide in French society, and later
applied by Merton and others to other forms of deviance and crime in American
society.
SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION - Social disorganization refers to the breakdown in
traditional social control and organization in the society, community,
neighborhood, or family so that deviant and criminal activity results. It is most
often applied to urban crime.
INSTITUTIONAL ANOMIE - This theory was created by MESSNER AND

ROSENFELD. The premise of the theory is that American society is set up in such
a way so as to give prestige and priority to economic institutions. This means that
the accumulation of wealth and individual success are people’s highest priorities.
Prioritizing economic institutions weakens the ability of other social institutions
(family, education, government) to control crime that occurs in response to the
lack of access to or failure in the economic sphere. Therefore, a high level of
criminal activity is a natural result of the setup of American society.
MERTON’S ANOMIE THEORY - This version of anomie theory looks at American
society, and what happens when an individual realizes that not everyone can
achieve the American dream of equal opportunity for economic success. When this
happens, one of five adaptations will occur. The conformist accepts the goals of
society, and the means for achieving them: the college student. The innovator
accepts the goals of society, but rejects the means of achieving them: the drug
dealer. The mode of rebellion refers to one who rejects both the goals and means
of society, and wants to replace them with new goals and means: the militia
member. The retreatist gives up on both the goals and means, and withdraws from
society: the alcoholic. Finally, the ritualist rejects the goals, and accepts the
means: this person has given up on the promotion, nice car, etc., and simply
punches the time clock to keep what they have.
1. DIFFERENTIAL OPPORTUNITY - A theory which draws from anomie and the

work of MERTON AND COHEN; the SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY of
SHAW and MCKAY; and the DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY of
SUTHERLAND. This view says that although one may be denied legitimate
opportunity that does not mean that one has access to illegitimate opportunity.
Although deprivation and strain can and do play a role, one learns a good or bad
response to that strain depending on the available opportunities and role models,
legitimate or illegitimate.
THREE (3) GROUPS EXIST UNDER THIS PERSPECTIVE OF DIFFERENTIAL

OPPORTUNITY THEORY
1. THE FIRST IS CRIMINAL - In criminal groups, juveniles are organized, and the
primary goal of the activity is to make money. A lack of legitimate means has
been replaced by illegitimate ones, such as theft or extortion.
2. THE SECOND GROUP IS THE CONFLICT GROUP - In this group, there are few
legitimate or illegitimate opportunities. These groups are found primarily in poor

socially disorganized neighborhoods. As a result, toughness and fighting are the
primary goals.
3. THE FINAL GROUP IS THE RETREATIST - This group cannot fight well, or
profit from their crimes. They are the double-losers.
2. FOCAL CONCERNS OF THE LOWER-CLASS CULTURE - The list of focal

concerns or values believed to be prevalent among lower-class males was
developed by MILLER to describe the behavior of street corner groups or gangs.
According to MILLER, the behavior of these juveniles was an adaptation to lower-
class culture. This culture valued THINGS SUCH AS:
A. Trouble, D. Excitement
B. Toughness, E. Fatalism
C. Smartness F. and autonomy.
3. GENERAL STRAIN THEORY OF CRIME AND DELINQUENCY - A micro-level

social psychological revision of Agnew’s strain theory. According to this theory,
criminal and deviant acts are one possible adaptation to stress.
THE THREE (3) MAJOR TYPES OF DEVIANCE-PRODUCING STRAIN ARE:
1. Failure to achieve positively valued goals
2. Removal of positively valued stimuli, and
3. Confrontation with negative stimuli.
Deviance is most likely to occur when the response of the individual to any of
these stressors is anger. Factors such as peer associations, beliefs, and attributions
of causes, self-control, and self-efficacy will affect each individual’s reaction to
stress.
COHEN is in agreement with MERTON that blocked goals produce STRAIN;

his theory looks at status as opposed to material gain. Under this perspective,
juveniles are measured against the standard of the middle class. Lower-class kids,
who cannot meet the middle-class standards of dress, talk, and manners are, in a
sense, deprived. This ‘status deprivation’ leads to ‘status frustration,’ which in turn
causes deviant and criminal acts. Instead of five groups like Merton proposes,
Cohen sees only one group—a conflict group which values toughness, fighting, and
respect.
4. URBAN ECOLOGY THEORY - A theory that views a city as analogous to the

natural ecological community of plants and animals. This relationship is
understood through the use of concentric zones that spread from the center to the
outer regions of a city. This work done by PARK and BURGESS influenced the
social disorganization theory developed by SHAW and MCKAY.
5. COLLECTIVE EFFICACY - This refers to the actual or perceived ability of the
residents of a given neighborhood to maintain informal social control over the
criminal or deviant behavior of other residents. This would have the effect of
keeping crime rates lower.
6. CHICAGO AREA PROJECTS - This was the first large-scale urban delinquency
prevention program. Started by Shaw and McKay in the 1930s, it used their social
disorganization theory as a core. Cohen’s Anomie Strain. This version of anomie
theory examines juveniles.
KEY CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION, ANOMIE, AND STRAIN

THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
1. Anomie was coined by the French sociologist Durkheim, and first applied to
French society to examine rates of suicide. The concept of anomie was first used
in this country by Merton, in an effort to describe adaptations in behavior, and the
interaction between legitimate and illegitimate means.

2. Anomie may apply when there are not enough legitimate means to reach
legitimate societal goals. This can occur when society is in a state of disorder and
disintegration, as opposed to stability and integration.
3. Depending on the theorist, anomie has been applied to the acquisition of
wealth, the attainment of status, or the expression of cultural or class values.
4. Agnew’s revision of anomie strain theory examines several possible sources of
strain that may result in criminal activity. These sources include: failure to achieve
positively valued goals, removal of positively valued stimuli, and confrontation with
negative stimuli.
5. With mixed support, anomie strain theories have been used to develop projects
designed to bring stability and order to disorganized communities. The hope has
been that increasing the stability of the community, the schools, and the family
would reduce criminal and delinquent acts.
G. CONFLICT THEORY
DEFINITION OF CONFLICT THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE
CONFLICT THEORY - The view that society is divided into two or more
groups with competing ideas and values. The group(s) with the most power makes
the laws and controls society. Groups lacking the formal power to make the rules
still maintain their own group norms, and continue in their behavior which is now
viewed as criminal by the larger society. This perspective explains both law and
criminal justice (why some acts are legally defined as criminal), as well as criminal
and deviant behavior (why some individuals commit acts defined as criminal).
1. CONSENSUS THEORY - In general, this theory states that laws are a result of,
and a reflection of, general agreement in society. Views of right and wrong, which
can be reflected through folkways and mores, influence the laws and rules which
govern a society.
2. FUNCTIONALIST THEORY - Similar to consensus theory, but this theory also
looks at how the law acts to resolve everyday disputes in society; and how it acts
to serve everyone, not just the powerful. The law also serves a symbolic function
and discourages deviant behavior.
3. INTEREST GROUPS - These groups form and act in such a manner so as to
influence the political system in ways that will provide the greatest benefits to
members of the group. They are also referred to as pressure groups.
4. LAW - Rules and regulations backed with the coercive power of the state.
Depending upon one’s view, law is either formed with the agreement of the
majority of society and designed to promote order, or formed by the powerful in
society to keep control of the masses. 5. PLURALISTIC CONFLICT - A type of
conflict perspective which emphasizes that instead of one centralized, all-powerful
group making the rules, there are several power groups, both formal and informal
and often with overlapping interests, which wrestle for control and power.
6. POLITICAL CRIMES - Crimes committed by radical groups to overthrow a
government or overturn a government action; or crimes committed by government
officials to control groups seen as a threat. Which side in any given conflict is
labeled radical, depends upon which side one supports and which side wins the
dispute.
7. RACIAL PROFILING - Actions taken by the police based solely on the race of
an individual.
8. SOCIAL CONTROL - A normative system with rules concerning the way people
should and should not behave. This is combined with a formal and informal
system to encourage and promote conformity, while at the same time discouraging

and punishing deviance. Informal social control is exhibited by the family, church,
and school, while formal social control is exhibited by the police and the courts.
9. SOCIAL THREAT HYPOTHESIS - This hypothesis states that criminal and
deviant acts will increase as the number of people opposed to the interests of the
powerful increases.
KEY CONCEPTS OF CONFLICT THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE

CAUSATION OF CRIME
1. Conflict theory proposes that the law and the criminal justice system primarily
embody the interests and norms of the most powerful groups in society, rather
than those of society as a whole.
2. Consensus theory explains the content and operation of the law by referring to
a broad-based agreement in society on social and moral norms within the society,
and the common interests of all elements of society.
3. Conflict and consensus theories imply support for fair representation of differing
interests and values and non-discrimination in the law and criminal justice system.
4. There are two forms of social control. Informal social control exists in families,
peer groups, churches, and in communities. When there is a breakdown of informal
social control, formal social control increases. Law is formal social control.
5. Empirical evidence on consensus and conflict theory is based on studies of the
enactment of laws and studies of public opinion; on crime; and on disparities in
arrests, convictions, and penalties based on race, sex, and socioeconomic status.
H. MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES

MARXIST THEORY - This theory explains both law and criminal justice, and
focuses upon the division between the ruling-class elite and the laborers. In a
capitalist society, the ruling-class elite (bourgeoisie) control the means of
production which allows them to control the political state as well. They use this
control to manipulate the laborers (proletariat) and keep them in a position of
powerlessness. The masses are thus controlled both economically and legally.
STRUCTURALIST MARXISM - While close to the view of Instrumental
Marxism, this perspective states that the political state is not under the total
control of the ruling elite; that from time to time, laws may be passed that harm
the ruling elite; and that their members, on occasion, may be subject to state
control.
1. BOURGEOIS - The ruling-class elite in a capitalist system; those with the

power.
2. PROLETARIAT - The working class or laborers in a capitalist society; those with
no power.
3. CAPITALISM - A system of economic organization in which the means of
production are held privately in the hands of a few.
4. SOCIALISM - A system of economic organization in which the means of
production are held by the state for the benefit of all.
5. CONSTITUTIVE CRIMINOLOGY - A variation of critical criminology, which
recommends that we the search for the cause of criminal activity. Instead, it
examines how the relationships between criminals, victims, and agents of control
act and react to form our understanding of crime.
6. CRIMES OF ACCOMMODATION AND RESISTANCE - Crimes committed by
the lower class against the upper class, or the capitalist system.
7. CRIMES OF DOMINATION AND REPRESSION - Crimes committed by the
ruling class against the lower class.

8. CRITICAL CRIMINOLOGY - An extension of Marxist theory that goes beyond
the examination of the effects of capitalism on crime. It takes a critical stance
against mainstream criminology.
9. LEFT REALISM - A variation of critical criminology. While this perspective
examines the role capitalism plays in society, it also recognizes the impact,
damage, and fear caused by traditional street crime. It proposes reforms to the
system that would deal with these crimes, assist the victims, reduce the use of
prisons, and reduce crime as a whole. This perspective rejects both the
conservative and choice perspective of the right, and the tendency of the left to
overlook or disregard the true damage caused by crime.
10. INSTRUMENTAL MARXISM - The political state (including the law and the
criminal justice system) is always and only a tool of the capitalist class to oppress
the working class.
11. PEACEMAKING CRIMINOLOGY - This perspective is often viewed as a
philosophy as opposed to a theoretical perspective, and it may or may not contain
a religious core. In essence, it is an attempt to get all players in society (victims,
offenders, and criminal justice agents) to recognize and reduce the violence that is
at the heart of the society and the system. The violence can then be replaced with
non-violent solutions.
12. POSTMODERNISM - Closely related to critical criminology, his perspective
seeks to discover and eliminate the power of language and text which is used to
give power and privilege to specific groups, while denying it to others. This
perspective also seeks to eliminate reliance on testable scientific explanations of
criminology, and replace it with a language-based perspective that recognizes and
advances the cause of disadvantaged individuals.
KEY CONCEPTS MARXIST AND CRITICAL THEORIES

1. Marxist theorists believe that capitalism is the cause of crime and delinquency.
2. The instrumental Marxist theorist believes that the entire system of capitalism
serves to benefit the ruling elite; while the structural Marxist believes that, at least
in the short term, the political state maintains some degree of independence from
the ruling elite.
3. The Marxist view states that crime is either committed by the ruling class to
keep the working class in place, or by the working class to strike out against the
ruling class.
4. Marxist theory is unable to explain the level of power and control held by an
elite few in the former Soviet Union, as well as the rise and popularity of groups
like the Taliban in Afghanistan. The collapse of the government and the use of the
law as a weapon against the oppressed have been more evident in those societies
than in the United States.
5. Constitutive criminology recommends that we abandon traditional searches for
the cause of criminal activity. It examines how all the actors in the system
collectively influence our understanding of crime.
6. Critical criminology is similar to Marxist theory in the belief that crime and
delinquency are defined by those who have the power in society. The law and
criminal justice system are then used to keep the powerless under control. After
this has been acknowledged, critical criminology works to find ways to empower
the powerless.
I. FEMINIST THEORIES
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO FEMINIST THEORIES
FEMINIST THEORY - This theory attempts to define criminology and
criminal justice based upon the experiences, understanding, and view of the world
as perceived by women. It tries to counter most theories of criminology that have

been developed, tested, and applied by men to men, which have only incorporated
women as an afterthought.
MASCULINITIES - A trait shared by all men, but one that changes and
evolves depending upon the race, economic status, and sexual orientation of any
particular man. Crime may be viewed as an attempt to claim, re-claim, or prove
the very qualities that make one a man.
MASCULINITY THESIS - The view that as women become more equal in
society with men, their crime rates will increase.
1. EGALITARIAN FAMILY - Part of Hagan’s power-control theory. A family in

which the mother and father occupy similar roles in the workplace and share
power and control in the family.
2. PATRIARCHAL FAMILY - Part of Hagan’s power-control theory. In a patriarchal
family, the father is typically in a command position in the workplace and runs the
family. Mothers are more likely to supervise daughters more closely than sons and
encourage risk-taking in sons, more than in daughters.
3. POWER-CONTROL THEORY - A theory proposed by Hagan in which patriarchal
and egalitarian families are examined. In patriarchal families, sons are more likely
than daughters to be delinquent because sons receive less supervision than
daughters. In egalitarian families, the delinquent behavior of sons and daughters
becomes more similar.
4. ECONOMIC MARGINALIZATION HYPOTHESIS - The belief that economic
pressures put on women to support themselves and their dependent children,
along with the stepping back of men from their roles of financial support of women
and children has pushed women into criminal activity for economic gain.
5. LIBERATION HYPOTHESIS - This view states that as men and women become
more equal in society in terms of family, politics, and education, their crime rates
will begin to equalize as well.
6. OPPORTUNITY HYPOTHESIS - The view that as women increase their
numbers in corporate America, their rates of white collar and corporate crime will
increase along with this increased opportunity.
7. PATERNALISM - This view claims that men act in a manner designed to keep
women and girls in a subservient position in society. While women and girls may
be treated less severely as indicated under the chivalry hypothesis, they may also
be treated more harshly in an attempt to keep them from achieving equality with
men.
8. SELECTIVITY HYPOTHESIS - The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice, ie
lenient sentencing, is extended primarily to white, middle class, privileged women.
9. TYPICALITY HYPOTHESIS - The belief that chivalry in the criminal justice, ie
lenient sentencing, is extended primarily to women who commit crimes consistent
with the stereotypical view of women, and to women who can still be viewed as
“feminine”
10. CHIVALRY HYPOTHESIS - The view that male police officers, prosecutors,
and judges tend to have traditional views of women and girls. As a result, the
officials are more lenient on the females for committing criminal acts than on their
male counterparts.
KEY CONCEPTS OF FEMINIST THEORIES IN RELATION TO THE

EXPLANATION OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIMINALITY
1. While there is no one feminist theory, all variations focus on patriarchy and the
role it plays in society.
2. According to feminist theory, women can be treated less severely than men for
committing a crime or more severely than men in an attempt to keep them
subservient to men. Feminist theory focuses on the patriarchal system as the root
division in society between the dominant and subordinate groups.

3. Feminist theory questions whether or not theories of crime developed by men
and for men adequately explain female crime. In addition, they seek to
understand why men traditionally commit so many more crimes than women.
4. Power-control theorists contend that traditional families encourage male
delinquency, while they inhibit female delinquency. In addition, many feminist
scholars contend that as females achieve more power and equality in society,
female crime rates will rise.
5. In order to correct the inequities facing women, feminist theorists contend that
major societal changes must occur. In addition, many feminist theorists believe
that when dealing with female offenders, prevention and treatment are preferable
to punishment.
6. Gendered Pathways and Gendered Contexts have offered news ways to
examine feminist theories and beliefs, while at the same time remaining connected
to broader criminological concepts. Gendered pathways focuses on the courses
women and girls have taken which lead to criminal activity, while gendered
contexts examines how the opportunities, contexts, and meanings of criminal
activity may vary among the genders.
J. INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES
THEORETICAL INTEGRATION - This occurs when two or more theories are
combined in such a manner so as to make the new theory explain criminal activity
in a more comprehensive manner. It can also be used to combine two competing
theories which, upon reflection, were not as incompatible as once thought.
THEORETICAL ELABORATION - A term coined by Thornberry in which he states

that one begins with a particular theory and extends it as far as one can.
THEORY COMPETITION - Logical, conceptual, or empirical comparison of two or
more theories to determine which offers the better or best explanation.
1. CONCEPTUAL ABSORPTION - Concepts from one theory are subsumed as

special cases of the phenomena defined by the concepts of another theory.
2. CONCEPTUAL INTEGRATION - Concepts from one theory are shown to overlap
in meaning with concepts from another theory.
3. CONTROL BALANCE THEORY - The ratio of how much the individual is liable
to control to how much he or she is able to control. It operates in the context of
four main variables: predisposition, provocation, opportunity, and constraint.
4. LIFE-COURSE THEORIES - These theories attempt to explain better the
stability and changes in criminal and deviant behavior through time and at
different life stages.
5. NETWORK ANALYSIS - An explanation of delinquency that draws on social
learning and social bond theories. It connects the structural characteristics of
social networks and interactional processes.
6. PROPOSITIONAL INTEGRATION - This explains how two or more theories
make the same predictions about crime or make propositions that can be put
together, even though each may begin with different concepts and assumptions.
7. SELF-DEROGATION THEORY - A theory in which delinquency and drug use
are explained through the use of social learning theory, control theory, strain
theory, and labeling theory. In this perspective, delinquency is viewed as the
result of the weakening of one’s self-esteem.
8. SOCIAL SUPPORT - Social integration in a group relationship in which
emotional, material, and social assistance is provided to each group member.
KEY CONCEPTS OF INTEGRATING CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORIES IN

CONNECTION TO THE CAUSES OF CRIMES

1. Theoretical integration is the process of combining similar theories. The goal is
to produce a theory that is superior to any theory individually. It also recognizes
the fact that new theories are not created in isolation; and that they are created
with the knowledge gained from earlier theoretical exercises.
2. Theoretical integration has had minimal success. While theories may be
recognized for a while as integrative, over time they tend to be cited and tested as
separate theories.
3. There are different types of theoretical integration such as conceptual and
propositional integration.
4. Social learning theory, in one way or another, is a main component of
integrative models in criminology, along with social bonding and strain theories.
5. Theoretical development takes place through explicating, testing, and modifying
a single theory; through competition of rival theories; and through theoretical
integration.
THEORIES OF CRIME: CLASSICAL, BIOLOGICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL,

INTERACTIONIST
There are FOUR (4) BASIC THEORIES of crime and knowing and
understanding each one is imperative for one to succeed in any legal profession.
Whether one desires to become a lawyer, crime scene investigator, law
enforcement officer, they will need to understand the different theories of crime.
Understanding these theories will help with dispute resolution, crime identification,
and justice for all.
THEORY OF CHARACTERISTICS OR SOLUTIONS TO CRIME

CRIME BELIEFS OF THEORY
CLASSICAL  Crime is caused by the  Punishment is a necessary
THEORY individuals free will evil sometimes intended to
 Human beings are deter criminals and serve as an
rational and make example to those who would
decisions freely and with violate the law
understanding of  Crime prevention is possible
consequences through swift and certain
 Crime is an immoral punishment that counters
form of human behavior possible gains from criminal
 Such behavior weakens behavior
society More prisons and stiffer criminal
 Punishment is a laws with greater penalties for
necessary evil offenders are the best solutions to
sometimes intended to crime
deter criminals and
serve as an example to
those who would violate
the law
 Crime prevention
is possible through swift
and certain punishment
that counters possible
gains from criminal
behavior
 More prisons and stiffer
criminal laws with greater
penalties for offenders are
the best solutions to crime
BIOLOGICA  The basic determinants  Historically, individuals with
L THEORY of human behavior are to a genetic defects have been
considerable degree, sterilized (meaning there will be
determined by genetics no offspring)
 These basic  Research to find genes that
determinants of human encourage criminal behavior
behavior may be passed  Research into medicines
from one generations to (tranquilizers, anti-psychotic
the next drugs and other mood altering
 Human DNA, drugs to control behavior)
environmental
contaminants, nutrition,
hormones, trauma to the
brain, exposure to drugs
and alcohol during
pregnancy and body
chemistry can all
contribute to criminal
behavior.
SOCIOLOGI  Social Environment as  Positive alternatives divert
CAL the cause of criminal people’s actions away from
THEORY behavior criminal activity and create a
 Weak, broken bonds sense of belonging,
with family, school, religion competence, and
as catalyst to human empowerment
behavior  Social programs that change
 People engage in the cultural and social
criminal behavior because conditions that lead people to
they do not see the crime
benefits of adhering to Government programs with
conventional social values funding to alleviate poverty
and believe that crime is a
way to improve their
social, financial conditions
 Positive alternatives
divert people’s actions
away from criminal activity
and create a sense of
belonging, competence,
and empowerment
 Social programs that
change the cultural and
social conditions that lead
people to crime
 Government programs
with funding to alleviate
poverty
INTERACTI  Association with other  Offenders have the
ONIST criminals is the factor most responsibility and ability to
THEORY contributing to criminal change their own behaviors
behavior among Opportunities for positive
individuals. interaction with society will enable
 Failure of self-direction the criminal to choose productive
and inadequate social roles and lawful behaviors to meet
are the root causes of needs
behavior
 Individuals are looking
for acceptance, social
standing and power within
that group
 Offenders have the
responsibility and ability to

change their own
behaviors
 Opportunities for
positive interaction with
society will enable the
criminal to choose
productive and lawful
behaviors to meet needs
THREE (3) THEORIES OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR

Historically, there are THREE (3) broad theoretical models of criminal behavior:
A) PSYCHOLOGICAL
B) SOCIOLOGICAL
C) BIOLOGICAL
All infer different methods of control, but it is difficult to completely separate
the three categories as it is generally accepted that all three of the factors play a
role in the expression of behavior. Moreover, psychological science consists of
several disciplines including biological psychology and social psychology, so
psychological principles could be applied across all three domains.
However, there are some general principles associated with each of these
paradigms that would be associated with some specific crime control policies. This
results in admittedly narrow definition for each of the categories, but it does
simplify the discussion herein.
A. PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES
There a many different psychological models of criminal behavior ranging
from early Freudian notions to later cognitive and social psychological models. I
cannot review them all here. Instead, I will list the several fundamental
assumptions of psychological theories of criminality (and human behavior in
general). THESE ARE:
1. The individual is the primary unit of analysis in psychological theories.
2. Personality is the major motivational element that drives behavior within
individuals.
3. Normality is generally defined by social consensus.
4. Crimes then would result from abnormal, dysfunctional, or inappropriate mental
processes within the personality of the individual.
5. Criminal behavior may be purposeful for the individual insofar as it addresses
certain felt needs.
6. Defective, or abnormal, mental processes may have a variety of causes, i.e., a
diseased mind, inappropriate learning or improper conditioning, the emulation of
inappropriate role models, and adjustment to inner conflicts. (Mischel, 1968.)
The last assumption of the psychological model would suggest that a variety
of different causes or reasons exist for criminal behavior and that general
principles targeted at the individual would be effective for crime control. However,
the model also assumes that there is a subset of a psychological criminal type,
defined currently as antisocial personality disorder in the DSM-IV and previously
defined as the sociopath or psychopath (APA, 2002). This type of criminal exhibits
deviant behavior early in life and is associated with self-centeredness, a lack of
empathy, and a tendency to see others as tools for their ends. Controls for these
individuals would be more extreme and general public policies may not be
stringent enough to curb the behavior in this small subset of criminals.
Given these six principles to establish psychological explanations of criminal
behavior, we can suggest first that traditional imprisonment, fines, and other court
sanctions are based on operant learning models of behavior for crime control.
Operant learning models are based on the utilitarian concepts that all people wish
to maximize pleasure and minimize pain or discomfort. Skinnerian based social
psychological theories of reinforcement and punishment are influential in this
model of criminal control although the idea of punishment for crime has a much
longer history (Jeffery, 1990). Technically speaking, punishments are any sanctions
designed to decrease a specific behavior; thus, fines, jail sentences, etc., are all
forms of punishment. However, Skinner himself recognized that punishment was
generally ineffective in behavior modification and that reinforcement worked
better (e.g., Skinner, 1966).
A caveat should be applied here: Punishment is effective if applied properly,
but unfortunately it rarely is applied properly. Punishment needs to be immediate
(or as close to the time the offense as possible), inescapable, and sufficiently
unpleasant (in fact, the more it is subjectively perceived as harsh, the better).
Given the judicial system in the U.S., it would be hard to apply punishment to its
maximal effectiveness, thus it is not an effective deterrent, as reflected in the
stable homicide rates of states that carry the death penalty. Nonetheless,
punishments and sanctions for criminal behavior are based on behavioral
psychological principles.
Because harsh forms of punishment do not appear to significantly decrease
recidivism rates, other psychological principles have been applied. In terms of
cognitive behavioral psychological principles, rehabilitation and relearning,
retraining, or educational programs for offenders are forms of psychologically
based methods to control crime. These methods are based on the cognitive
behavioral methods of teaching an alternative functional response in place of a
formally dysfunctional one as opposed to simple punishment. These programs can
take place in prisons or outside of the prison and have long been demonstrated to
be successful (e.g., Mathias, 1995). So any form of retraining, reeducation, or
reentry guidance is based on psychological principles of criminality and reform.
However, rehabilitation programs are often rarely implemented in jail or prison.
Many of these programs appear to be especially beneficial for drug and alcohol
offenders. Likewise, any form education such as the DARE program and recent
efforts to curb bullying in schools are based on these methods. In line with this,
changing the environment of the offender such as providing more opportunities
would be a psychological behavioral principle designed to cut crime.
In line with other psychological methods are policies aimed at maintaining a
visible presence of law enforcement and methods to maintain self-awareness in
tempting situations. Such methods are preventative. For instance, it has been a
well-known social psychological principle that situations that diminish self-
consciousness and self-awareness lead individuals to being less restrained, less
self-regulated, and more likely to act without considering the consequences of
their actions (e.g., Diener, 1979). The simple act of placing mirrors in stores can
increase self-awareness and decrease shoplifting. Likewise, the presence of visible
law enforcement can cut down on crime. Making sanctions and the consequences
for crime well-publicized and available to the public is another psychological
method to control crime in this vein.
Various forms of criminal profiling are based heavily on psychological
principles and represent an effort to either apprehend existing criminals or to
identify persons at risk for certain behavior (Holmes & Holmes, 2008). More
recently there have been efforts to develop methods to identify individuals at risk
for certain forms of deviant behavior including criminal activities based on
personality and social variables. These psychological variables can be identified in
the school or at the home at an early age and include such disorders as learning
disabilities, ADHD, depression, and others. Since many individuals with these
problems often go on to demonstrate criminal behavior or have legal problems
later efforts to identify and treat these issues are forms of psychological crime
control policies (APA, 2002).
Thus, methods of crime control policies based on psychological principles
target the individual and attempt to reform or prevent criminal behavior from that
perspective. Any policies requiring therapeutic intervention, retraining, or
education are psychological in nature. Any policy designed at preventing crime by
targeting individuals such as raising consciousness, promoting self-awareness, or
identifying individuals at risk are also psychological. Likewise, psychologists have
long recognized that the best predictor of future behavior is the individual’s past

behavior (Mischel, 1968). So policies that are specifically designed to deal with
repeat offenders are also based on psychological principles of criminality.
B. SOCIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Sociological and psychological principles of criminality are intertwined and
technically not independent. As with psychological theories, there are numerous
sociological formulations of the cause and control of criminality. We will define
sociological notions of CRIMINALITY AS:
A. Attempting to connect the issues of the individual’s criminality with the broader
social structures and cultural values of society, familial, or peer group.
B. How the contradictions of all of these interacting groups contribute to
criminality.
C. The ways these structures cultures and contradictions have historically
developed.
D. The current processes of change that these groups are undergoing.
E. Criminality is viewed from the point of view of the social construction of
criminality and its social causes.
Traditional sociological theories proposed that crimes was a result of anomie,
a term meaning “normlessness” or a feeling of a lack of social norms, a lack of
being connected to society. The term was made popular by Émile Durkheim (1897)
who originally used the term to explain suicide. Later sociologists used the term to
describe the dissociation of the individual from the collective conscience or the
criminality resulting from a lack of opportunity to achieve aspirations or by the
learning of criminal values and behaviors. Therefore criminality results from the
failure to properly socialize individuals and by unequal opportunities between
groups. Durkheim believed that crime was an inescapable fact of society and
advocated maintaining crime within reasonable boundaries.
A feature of sociological theories is that society “constructs” criminality.
Thus, certain types of human activity are harmful and are judged so by society as
a whole. But it is also true that there are other behaviors recognized by society as
“criminal” that do not result in harm to others and are therefore criminalized
without sufficient ground, these are the so-called “victimless” crimes. These
include drug use, prostitution, etc. Therefore, according to this view (if carried to
its extreme), 100% of the members of a society are lawbreakers at some point.
One of the sociological policy methods of crime control would be to advocate for
decriminalization of these victimless crimes or at least a vast reduction in their
penalties (Schur, 1965).
An important sociological control would be to increase legitimate
opportunities for advancement and obtainment of goods and wealth in areas
where these do not exist. Sociological controls targeted at this goal could originate
in higher State and Federal levels of government as well as local levels of
government and would include programs designed to guarantee equal
opportunities to all individuals. Thus, social programs ranging from soup kitchens,
job training, educational funding, urban renewal projects and so forth would be in
line with sociological policies to control crime (Merton, 1968). Other related
sociological controls for crime would consist of organizing and empowering
neighborhood residents with projects like neighborhood crime watches, providing
law-abiding role models for children in schools and in other venues, providing
parental support for working parents, and establishing community centers in
downtrodden areas to allow people to learn and engage in positive activities.
Social programs aimed at socializing children properly and providing support for
single family homes are also examples of sociological methods to control crime.
There are a number of these programs including career academies (small learning
communities in low-income high schools, offering academic and career/technical
courses as well as workplace opportunities).
Finally, sociological policies to control crime would advocate stronger and
harsher penalties for serious crimes such as murder, rape, are more effective law
enforcement. Again, sociologists accept the realities that crime is a social
phenomenon that will not disappear no matter how many interventions are
enacted to control it. Sociologists note that of every 100 felonies committed within
the United States, only one is sent to prison. A vast number are unreported and of
those that are reported only a small portion goes to trial. If a justice system is to
work properly it must be able to rely on its law enforcement system and judicial
system to bring to justice and prosecute serious offenders. The purposes of
imprisonment include punishment, rehabilitation, deterrence, and selective
confinement. All of these should be utilized where appropriate for the individual
(Hester & Eglin, 1992).
C. BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Biological theories of criminality basically purport that criminal behavior is
the result of some flaw in the biological makeup of the individual. THIS PHYSICAL
FLAW COULD BE DUE TO...
1. Heredity
2. Neurotransmitter dysfunction
3. Brain abnormalities that were caused by either of the above, improper
development, or trauma (Raine, 2002)
Biological theorists would also endorse stricter penalties and better law
enforcement techniques for crime control, but there are several methods of crime
control that are specific to the biological theories of criminality. I will discuss these
briefly here.
PSYCHOSURGERY - Brain surgery to control behavior has rarely been applied to
criminal behavior. Certainly much more common between the 1930’s to the late
1970’s there were over 40,000 frontal lobotomies performed. Lobotomies were
used to treat a wide range of problems from depression, to schizophrenia.
However, while widely discussed as a potential treatment for criminal behavior a
perusal of the literature could not find a court ordered case for a lobotomy as a
sentence for a convicted criminal Lobotomies were also used for people who were
considered an annoyance because the demonstrated behaviors characterized as
moody or they were children who were defiant with authority figures such as
teachers. The lobotomy involves separating the prefrontal cortex from the rest of
the brain either surgically or in the case of the transorbital lobotomy with a sharp
icepick like instrument that was inserted in the eye socket between the upper
eyelid and the eye. In this method the patient was not anesthetized, not even
children. The psychiatrists hit the end of the instrument with a hammer to
disconnect the nerves in the frontal lobe of the brain. Afterwards behaviors were
changed, but at a high price as you can imagine. Today the lobotomy has fallen
out of favor due medications used to control behavior, although some view the use
of medications as equivalent to a lobotomy (e.g., see Breggin, 2008).
Psychosurgery appears to be an option that will most likely not be put into use due
to the stigma associated with it.
CHEMICAL METHODS OF CONTROL - The use of pharmacological treatments to
try to control crime has been ongoing in two major areas: chemical castration for
sex offenders and pharmacological interventions for drug or alcohol addicts.
However, addicts can stop the medication and return to use. Sex offenders are
closely monitored and there is some evidence that this policy has been efficacious.
Sometimes mentally ill people in the criminal justice system been ordered to take
medications to treat their mental illness. Other pharmacological interventions to
control crime seem plausible and are being investigated, but do not appear to
have been widely used.
OTHERS - Deep brain stimulation is used for some disorders such as Parkinson’s
disease, but has yet been investigated for criminal behavior. Biological theorists
have advocated changes in diet to deal with criminality (Burton, 2002) and better
relations between parents. There is also the famous genetic XYY combination that
was once thought to be a marker for a criminal type, but as it turned out these
individuals were found to be less intelligent or more likely to have learning
difficulties as opposed to being criminal types. While there are many studies
indicating a connection between antisocial personality disorder or criminal
behavioral and heredity, there are no policies being implemented to advocate for
selective breeding, genetic testing etc. for criminals. I do not yet envision a policy
of genetic testing for criminals as the variables are not stable enough in order to

predict with set of gene combinations are predictive of a biological criminal type
(Rutter, 2006) although this is certainly a possibility.
If the biological model of criminality has any significant effect on policy
outside the use of chemical castration for sex offenders, it would be the policy that
certain forms of criminal behavior or certain individuals may not be rehabilitated
and the advocacy for harsher and stricter imprisonments or even executions are
viable methods of control in these instances. The issue for the community is how
to recognize a significant biological contribution to criminal behavior since genetic
testing is unreliable and there are no other physical markers of criminality. It
seems that currently in the absence of very harsh crimes like murder and rape one
must be recognized as a repeat offender before we can acknowledge a possible
innate tendency towards criminality. By that time the damage, which is often
irreparable, is done. Perhaps the answer lies in stricter probation and parole
practices for first-time offenders. However, this policy is expensive and tax payers
may not support it. The policy mandating convicted sex offenders to be monitored
over their lifetime and certain restrictions placed on them is a result of the
acknowledgment of a biological predisposition to engage in this crime and
therefore traditional forms of treatment or remediation do not appear to be
effective. Similar policies might follow with habitual criminal offenders based on
the biological theories of criminality.
SOME THEORIES TO THE CAUSATION OF CRIME

OPPORTUNITY THEORY
Like COHEN, CLOWARD AND OHLIN was former students of MERTON
AND SUTHERLAND, respectively, and thus incorporated and expanded on both
differential association theory and strain theory. CLOWARD AND OHLIN (1960)
built on the work of Merton and Cohen by advancing the idea that youths in slum
areas lacked the legitimate means and opportunities to be successful and acquire
status. They also expanded on Sutherland’s work on cultural transmission and
concluded that criminal behavior depended upon access to requisite illegitimate
means. However, unlike Cohen who stated that delinquent subcultures take on
values that are oppositional to those of the main culture, Cloward and Ohlin
suggested that lower-class delinquents are proactive and goal-oriented by seizing
available opportunities even though most of them are illegitimate. According to
Cloward and Ohlin’s(1960) opportunity theory, delinquent subcultures emerge and
persist in lower-class areas where there are enough youths to band together and
support one another against their remoteness and estrangement from
conventional values, in pursuit of illegitimate opportunities that exceed the
number of legitimate opportunities for success. As illegitimate opportunities for
success are distributed through society as unevenly as the legitimate opportunities
for success, the types of delinquent subcultures are determined by the type of
neighborhood and illegitimate opportunities available (Shoemaker, 1996).
Shoemaker states that neighborhoods that are stable and share conventional and
unconventional systems are marked by criminal/theft gangs; neighborhoods
characterized by transience, instability, and an absence of criminal organizations
are marked by conflict/violent gangs; and neighborhoods that could be either type
but wherein members have not been successful in both the legitimate and
illegitimate worlds are marked by retreatist/drug-user gangs.
DEVELOPMENTAL LIFE COURSE THEORIES

Developmental life course theories are concerned with the development of
offending and antisocial behavior, risk factors at different ages, and the
Sociological Theories of Crime and Delinquency effects of life events on the course
of development (Adler et al., 2001). As opposed to the crime paradigms detailed
earlier, developmental life course theories are especially concerned with
understanding individual changes in criminal behavior throughout the life span,
especially the ways in which risk factors and life events interact with one another
to influence the onset, continuation, and desistance of crime (Farrington, 2002).
There are at least five prevailing developmental life course theories: integrated
cognitive antisocial potential theory (Farrington, 2002); social development model
(Hawkins, 1996); two qualitatively distinct categories of antisocial people (life
course persistent and adolescence-limited offenders; Moffitt, 1993); integrative
control theory (LeBlanc, 1997); and interactional theory (Thornberry & Krohns,
2001). Although each theory varies in relationship to personal, environmental, and
social constructs.
SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS REGARDING LAW AND CRIME

1. Every society is based on the coercion of some of its members by others.
2. Law is a function of political power. It is used by the more powerful to maintain
control over the less powerful. The more threatened a ruling group feels, the more
rigorously it tends to enforce the law.
3. Laws are the codification of ruling class interests. Laws become legitimate
simply because the ruling class has the power to enforce them and the ability to
create the ideology by which they are made to appear justified.
4. The police, the courts and the correctional systems are all instruments utilized
by the ruling class to insure adherence to their laws.
5. People who are socio-economically close to the power group tend to develop
normative behavioral systems that are similar to members of the power group. The
further away a person is from the power group, the more likely they will possess
different normative behavioral systems and the greater the likelihood that those
different behaviors will be defined as criminal.
6. Crime is not an inherent quality of any act. All behavior patterns in fact have the
potential to be defined as criminal. Criminality is merely a label given to certain
behaviors by the ruling authorities.
7. The ability to confer criminal status is a privilege enjoyed by the powerful
classes, to the broad detriment of the less powerful. Generally, criminal behavior is
merely behavior that threatens the interests of the powerful.
8. Law and definitions of crime may be modified from time to time, but never to
the extent that existing political and economic relationships are jeopardized. As a
rule, law changes are a reflection of changes in the needs and interests of the
powerful.
9. The freedoms that laws confer grant a great deal more freedom to some groups
than to others. The freedoms allegedly protected by law, are only protected for
those who can afford it. In the end, legal efficacy reigns supreme, not the law.
10. Rather than being an independent arbitrator of conflict, the state is in fact the
prize for which different groups compete in order to gain control.
RADICAL CRIMINOLOGICAL THEORY

1. Capitalism is the root of all crime and needs to be abandoned as an
economic system.
2. Restructure society, moving toward a classless, utopian, socialistic state.
3. The restructuring may require a revolution.
4. Tear down the prisons.
5. Abolish police forces.
6. Adopt a non-interventionist strategy
RADICAL CRIMINOLOGY PROBLEMS
1. Ignores Durkheim (after the revolution there will still be deviance, just
new definitions)
2. There is a value to deviance
3. High cost of the revolution, and it would ironically be borne by the very
people it is supposed to help.
4. Capitalism is the root of much crime, but not the root of all crime.
5. Give no insight into how deviances arise initially.
A. ACCESS TO SERVICES/CORE COMPONENTS OF VICTIM SERVICES/SOCIAL

NETWORKS
DOMESTIC VIOLENCE
CORE COMPONENTS OF VICTIM SERVICES/SOCIAL
GOVERNMENT SUPPORT
A. Substitute home care
B. Creating Women Friendly Environments in Hospitals
A FEMINISTS APPROACH TO COUNSELLING
NON-GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION
1. Provides support systems, including a service and referral centre, to help
survivors deal with their physical trauma (BCCF)
2. Provides a supportive and affirming environment (WCC)
3. Provides psycho-social support and referrals to female survivors of domestic and
intimate-relationship violence (and their children), and spreads awareness about
the realities and prevalence of domestic and intimate-relationship violence (save
our women)
A. RAPE CASES
CORE COMPONENTS OF VICTIM SERVICES/SOCIAL
RAPE CRISIS CENTER
1. Psychological counseling, medical and health services, including their medico-
legal examination
2. Secure free legal assistance or service
3. Assist in evidence gathering and in the investigation to hasten the arrest of
offenders and filing of cases in court
4. Ensure the privacy and safety of victims
5. Provide psychological counseling and medical services whenever necessary for
the family of victims
6. Adopt and implement programs that are survivor
7. Assist the government in raising public awareness
8. Develop a referral system
ACCESS TO SERVICES
1. Call your Local Police
2. Don’t be afraid to tell exactly the incident happened
3. Trust the agency whom you reported the incident.
4. Approach the right person or agencies to avoid further harm
B. CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

A. POLICE OFFICER:
1. Refer the case to the women’s desk of the precinct, or any other concerned
agency such as local DSWD, DOJ, and NGO handling the cases;
2. Refer the case to a prosecutor for inquest, if the accused is detained of for
preliminary investigation, if the accused is at large;
3. Provide security to the survivors of rape, witnesses and service providers; and
4. Ensure that the evidence gathered on the case are safeguarded.
B. PROSECUTOR
1. Conduct the inquest or preliminary investigation
2. Present during trial, the admission of evidence of the victim’s past sexual
conduct, opinion thereof, or reputation;
3. Ensure that the inquest of preliminary investigation and trial shall be conducted
in a language or dialect that is known or familiar to the victim;
4. Exert utmost efforts to prevent delay in the preliminary investigation and trial of
the rape case; and
5. Not to divulge to the public the name, address and any other information or
circumstances tending to establish the identity of the victim. Moreover, the public

shall be barred during the conduct of the inquest or preliminary investigation if it
will serve the best interests of the victim
C. COURT
1. Ensure the efficiency of legal services supporting the free legal assistance to
victims of rape.
2. All hearings in rape cases shall be made confidential and shall not be open to
the public unless ordered by the court.
D. CORRECTIONS
1. Restoring a good behavior on the offender to prevent him from re-victimizing
the offended party or other people around him.
E.. COMMUNITY
1. Concerned agencies especially members of the Rape crisis Center should be
responsible enough in helping the victim. The physician who is in charge of
medical treatment or examination of the victim should treat her with due care and
confidentiality. She should appear and testify in court as an expert witness on the
case.
2. DSWD should adhere on its role in ensuring social reintegration of rape
survivors in their family and community. Network with the five pillars of the justice
system to link the survivors to appropriate resources in response to identified
needs.
3. NGOs should help in advocating community-based programs supporting for
victims of rape and their families; as well as to the elimination of all forms of
violence against women and children.
B. VICTIM IMPACT STATEMENT-PROS AND CONS

WHAT IS A VICTIM IMPACT STATEMENT?
This is a victim’s written statement which is submitted to the United States
Attorney’s Office and forwarded to Probation who then submits it to the Judge to
review before sentencing the defendant. It personalizes to the Judge the
emotional, physical, and financial impact you and others have suffered as a direct
result of this crime. Since some victims are uncomfortable with completing a
formal statement for review, the Judge will also consider a personal letter. Victim
Impact Statements may be seen by the defendant and the defense attorney.
PRO’S - ADVANTAGES
FOR YOURSELF:
- The Victim Impact Statement provides you with an opportunity to describe
how you have been affected by the crime. It can be a powerful “part of the healing
process” for the victim.
FOR THE COURT:

If a charge is laid and the accused person is found guilty, your Victim Impact
Statement will be considered by the Judge at the time of sentencing. Your Victim
Impact Statement will help the Court understand how the crime has affected you
emotionally and physically, and the effect the crime has had on your life.
Helpful to the judge when he or she decides what sentence the defendant should
receive. Although the Judge will decide the defendant’s sentence based upon the
presentence report and certain sentencing guidelines, the Judge may consider your
opinion before making a decision.
Finally it includes a financial loss statement which is used to verify and
assess the financial impact of the crime upon you. This information is used by the
Judge to determine any money the defendant may have to pay you for expenses
you have paid or owe because of this crime.
CON’s – DISADVANTAGES
1. The judge has the discretion to deny this request and to edit the statement if
there are concerns about its length or content.

2. No professional or universal guidelines exist on how judges should handle victim
impact statements; although victim-witness advocates have developed their own
recommendations for victims on how to prepare an impact statement and a good
many websites exist that offer a template for impact statements.
3. Judges often find themselves in the dual position of respecting the idea of the
victim impact statement while also understanding that their sentence will be based
perhaps more so on plea agreements and sentencing guidelines than on victim
input.
CONCLUSION
We have a lot of Victim Assistance Center both in Government and Non-
Government Organization; however, victims failed to avail their services due to
lack of information about it and inaccessibility of their location. Criminal case may
prosper even without the appearance of victim in court and CJS often focused their
attention to the offenders prompting them not to give much attention to victims.
RECOMMENDATION
1. Police Officers who received the Victim’s complaint should always inform them
about the agencies that could assist them.
2. Victim Impact Statement may be effective in our CJS if we are going to adopt it
in criminal proceedings particularly for crimes of Domestic Violence.
RELATED LAWS:
PD. 765 - In August 1975 was enacted allowing the integration of Police, Jail and
Fire into Integrated National Police.
Republic Act 6975 known the DILG act of 1990, paved the way of the
establishment of PNP, BJMP, and BFP as separate entities.
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9263 - ON MARCH 2004, amending certain provisions of
Republic act no. 6975(DILG) Act of 1990 was enacted to provide for the
professionalism and restructuring of the Bureau of fire Protection (BFP), upgrading
the level of qualification, making it a part of the PNP and AFP. The impending
attrition of some BFP uniform personnel for failure to comply with the upgrading
qualification standard was prevented with the passage of Republic act 9592 in
2009, an act extending for five (5) years the reglementary period for complying
with the minimum educational qualification and appropriate eligibility in the
Bureau of Fire Protection.
REPUBLIC ACT NUMBER 8551 OR THE PNP REFORM AND REORGANIZATION

ACT OF 1998, FEBRUARY 25, 1998, UNDER PRESIDENT FIDEL V. RAMOS –
Amended some provisions of R.A. 6975 which reorganized the PNP for the purpose
of reforming and professionalizing it.
RANK CLASSIFICATION - For purposes of efficient administration, supervision
and control, the rank classification of the members of PNP shall be as follows:
Under R.A Number 8551
PNP RANKS AFP RANKS

Director General General (4 star)
Deputy Director General Lt. General (3-star)
Director Major General (2-star)
Chief Superintendent Brig, General (1star)
Senior Superintendent Colonel
Superintendent Lt. Colonel
Chief Inspector Major
Senior Inspector Captain
Inspector Lieutenant
Senior Police Officer IV Master Sergeant
Senior Police Officer III Technical Sergeant
Senior Police Officer II Staff Sergeant
Senior Police Officer I Sergeant
Police Officer III Corporal
Police Officer II Private First Class
Police Officer I Private
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 11200 – An act providing for the Rank classification in the
Philippine National Police (PNP), amending for the purpose section 28 of Republic
Act No. 6975, as amended, Otherwise known as the “Department of the Interior
and Local Government (DILG) Act of 1990”. Approved: February 08, 2019
SECTION 1. SECTION 28 OF REPUBLIC ACT NO. 697 - Otherwise known as the
“Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG) Act of 1990”, is hereby
amended to read as FOLLOWS:
SECTION 28. RANK CLASSIFICATION – For purpose of clarity of command and
responsibility, and for the effective and efficient administration, supervision, and
control, the rank classification of the uniformed personnel of the PNP shall be AS
FOLLOWS:
NEW RANK CLASSIFICATION OF PHILIPPINE NATIONAL

POLICE (PNP) UNDER RA NO. 11200 SEC. 28 OF RA
NO. 6975 - 8551
RA NO. 6975 AND 8551 RA NO. 11200
Director General POLICE GENERAL
Deputy Director General POLICE LIEUTENANT GENERAL
Director POLICE MAJOR GENERAL
Chief Superintendent POLICE BRIGADIER GENERAL
Senior Superintendent POLICE COLONEL
Superintendent POLICE LIEUTENANT COLONEL
Chief Inspector POLICE MAJOR
Senior Inspector POLICE CAPTAIN
Inspector POLICE LIEUTENANT
Senior Police Officer IV POLICE EXECUTIVE MASTER
SERGEANT
Senior Police Officer III POLICE CHIEF MASTER
SERGEANT
Senior Police Officer II POLICE SENIOR MASTER
SERGEANT
Senior Police Officer I POLICE MASTER SERGEANT
Police Officer III POLICE STAFF SERGEANT
Police Officer II POLICE CORPORAL
Police Officer I PATROLMAN/PATROLWOMAN
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 11131 - An act regulating the practice of criminology

profession in the Philippines, and appropriating funds therefor, repealing for the
purpose republic act no. 6506, otherwise known as “an act creating the board of
examiners for criminologists in the Philippines”. Approved: November 08, 2018.
SECTION 1. TITLE. – This Act shall be known as “THE PHILIPPINE

CRIMINOLOGY PROFESSION ACT OF 2018”.
PRIVILEGES OF A REGISTERED CRIMINOLOGIST

RA NO. 11131 SECTION 34 – All registered criminologist shall be exempt from
taking any other entrance or qualifying Government or civil examinations and shall
be considered civil service eligible to the FOLLOWING GOVERNMENT
POSITIONS:
1. Dactylographer 14. Traffic Operation Officer
2. Ballisticians 15. Associate Graft Investigation Officer
3. Questioned Document Examiner 16. Special Police Officer
4. Forensic Photographer 17. Safekeeping Officer
5. Polygraph Examiner 18. Sheriff
6. Probation Officer 19. Security Officer
7. Parole Officer 20. Criminal Investigator
8. Special Investigator 21. Warden
9. Special Agent 22. Reformation Officer
10. Investigative Agent 23. Fire Fighter
11. Intelligence Agent 24. Fire Marshall
12. Law Enforcement Evaluation Officer 25. Jail Officer up to the rank of Jail
Superintendent
13. NAPOLCOM Inspector 26. Police Officer up to the rank of Police
Superintendent and other law enforcement
agencies and agencies under the Criminal Justice System.
RA NO. 11131, ARTICLE V (5), SECTION 35 – Registered Criminologist shall

enjoy the priority of appointment and not shall be required to take any qualifying
or entrance examinations in the Armed Forces of the Philippines.
**********************Glossary 01*****************************
1. CRIME - It is an act or omission in violation of a public law commanding or

prohibiting it.
2. CRIMINALITY - A continuously distributed trait composed of a combination of
other continuously distributed traits that signals the willingness to use force, fraud,
or guile to deprive others of their lives, limbs, or property for personal gain.
3. CRIMINOLOGY - An interdisciplinary science that gathers and analyzes data on
crime and criminal behavior.
4. HYPOTHESES - Statements about relationships between and among factors we
expect to find based on the logic of our theories.
5. IDEOLOGY - A way of looking at the world; a general emotional picture of “how
things should be” that forms, shapes, and colors our concepts of the phenomena
we study.
6. LEVEL OF ANALYSIS - That segment of the phenomenon of interest that is
measured and analyzed, i.e., individuals, families, neighborhoods, states, etc.
7. POLICY - A course of action designed to solve some problem that has been
selected from among alternative courses of action.
8. THEORY - A set of logically interconnected propositions explaining how
phenomena are related and from which a number of hypotheses can be derived
and tested.
9. UNCONSTRAINED VISION - One of the two so-called ideological visions of the
world. The unconstrained vision denies an innate human nature, viewing it as
formed anew in each different culture.
10. FELONY – acts or omissions punishable by Revised Penal Code.
11. OFFENSE – acts or omissions punishable by special laws.
12. MISDEAMENOR/ INFRACTION – acts or omission in violation of city or
municipal ordinances.
13. CRIMES MALA INSE – are acts that are bad in themselves, forbidden
behaviors for which there is wide scale consensus in the mores for prohibition (ex.
To steal, to kill, to rape). Universally condemned crimes that are “inherently bad.”
14. CRIMES MALA PROHIBITA – are acts that are bad or punishable because
they have been prohibited by law. Acts that are viewed as inherently bad in
themselves but are violations because the law defines them such. (Ex. Traffic laws,
carrying of firearms). Crimes those are “bad” simply because they are prohibited.
15. DEVIANT BEHAVIOR – refers to a behavior which is outside the range of
normal societal toleration.
16. BEHAVIOR – the way a person behaves or acts or conducts.
17. EMPIRICAL VALIDITY - This is the most important factor in evaluating a
theory, and means that the theory has been supported by research evidence.
18. IDEOLOGY - A belief system and a set of core values or philosophy. In a pure
sense, an ideology states or explains how things should be, and a theory explains
how things actually are.
19. INTERNAL LOGICAL CONSISTENCY - A theory needs to be presented in a
logical manner and to have clearly stated propositions that agree with or do not
contradict one another. Restated, does the theory make logical and consistent
sense?
20. MACRO THEORIES- Macro theories of criminal behavior explain the “big
picture” of crime—crime across the world or across a society. They attempt to
answer why there are variations in group rates of crime. Other authors have used
the terms “epidemiology” or social structural theories.
21. MICRO THEORIES - Micro theories of criminal behavior focus on a small
group of offenders or on an individual crime. They attempt to answer why some
individuals are more likely than others to commit crime. Other authors have used
the terms “individual conduct” or processual theories.
22. NECESSARY CONDITION - This means that X must be present to produce
effect Y. If X is not present, Y will not occur.
23. PARSIMONY - This refers to how many propositions, steps, or statements are
involved. How simple is the theory?
24. POLICY IMPLICATIONS - If the theory is empirically valid, what solutions are
suggested.
25. PROBABILISTIC CAUSALITY - A concept more applicable to the social
sciences. X is more or less likely to cause effect Y. Restated, X tends to cause Y.
26. CAUSALITY - A concept more applicable to the hard sciences. Does the
appearance of X cause effect Y? In a perfect relationship, the appearance of X
would always cause the effect Y each and every time the relationship is seen.
27. SCOPE - Refers to how much or how many types of crime or deviance the
theory covers.
28. SOFT DETERMINISM - The view that human behavior is not wholly caused,
determined, or predictable by any set of biological, psychological, or sociological
forces but that these interact with exercise of choice and will by individuals.
Therefore, explaining or predicting human behavior is difficult.
28. SUFFICIENT CONDITION - Each time X is present, effect Y will always occur.
29. TAUTOLOGY - Circular reasoning. If a theory states that greed causes people
to commit crime, and then says we know Jon is greedy because he committed a
crime, it becomes impossible to subject the theory to the scientific process. In this
case, you would find that greed has been defined as someone who commits
criminal acts. The circle of the reasoning never stops.
30. TESTABILITY - To be valid and ultimately useful, a theory must be able to be
subjected to scientific research. Theories may be untestable if they are
tautological, propose causes that are not measurable, or are so open-ended that
empirical findings can always be reinterpreted to support the theory.
31. THEORY - In simple terms, theory is an explanation of something.
32. THEORIES OF CRIMINAL AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR - Theories in this
category attempt to explain why an individual commits criminal or delinquent acts.
33. THEORIES OF LAW AND CRIMINAL JUSTICE - Theories in this category
attempt to explain how laws are made, and how the criminal justice system
operates as a whole.
34. USEFULNESS - This refers to the real-world applications that the theory
proposes or suggests, and the ability to implement those applications.
35. ABSOLUTE DETERRENCE - This refers to the amount of crime that has been
prevented simply due to the fact that a formal system is in place so that an
individual could be legally punished for committing a criminal act.
36. ACUTE CONFORMISTS - One of three types of individuals coined by
POGARSKY. These individuals comply with the law because it is the right thing to
do.

37. BOOT CAMPS - Programs used in place of incarceration, and based upon a
military model of discipline and order. These programs are designed to have a
deterrent effect on young offenders, but they have generally failed to yield long-
term reductions in recidivism.
38. CELERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Celerity refers to how
quickly an individual is punished after committing a crime.
39. CERTAINTY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Certainty refers to how
likely it is that an individual will be caught and punished for a crime that he or she
has committed. Certainty is the most important of the three elements.
40. CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY - A school of thought based upon utilitarian
notions of free will and the greatest good for the greatest number. At its core,
classical criminology refers to a belief that a crime is committed after an individual
weighs the pros and cons. The decision to commit a crime is a rational decision,
and is best countered through a deterrence-based system.
41. CRIME PREVENTION THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN (CPTED) - This
refers to a set of practices designed to make potential criminal targets less
attractive. The belief that crime is a rational act is used to make a potential target
less attractive to a criminal, and thus not a “rational” target.
42. DETERRABLE OFFENDERS - One of three types of individuals coined by
POGARSKY. This is the only group that may be deterred by threat of sanctions.
43. DETERRENCE THEORY - A core principle of classical school and rational
choice theories. This theory states that crime can be controlled through the use of
punishments that combine the proper degrees of certainty, severity, and celerity.
Deterrence is a key element in the U.S. justice system.
44. EXPECTED UTILITY PRINCIPLE - Economic theory which states that people
will act in a manner that increases their benefits and reduces their losses. This ties
in closely with classical criminology and, by definition, rational choice theory,
where people seek to increase their pleasure and reduce their pain.
45. FREE WILL - The belief that humans are rational, and have the ability to make
decisions according to each individual’s own will and purposes. Under this
perspective, people can understand the difference between right and wrong, and
can choose to commit criminal acts or to follow the law. In later chapters, this view
will be contrasted with views that claim that crime is a result of biological,
psychological, or social forces beyond an individual’s control.
46. GENERAL DETERRENCE - General deterrence is the doctrine that a
community or a society of people can be deterred from committing a criminal act
after having witnessed the punishment of an individual or individuals for having
committed that act.
47. INCORRIGIBLE OFFENDERS - One of three types of individuals coined by
POGARSKY. These people are so committed to criminal activity that they cannot
be deterred.
48. PERCEPTUAL DETERRENCE - This concept applies to an individual offender,
and refers to what he or she believes the likelihood of arrest to be, and how severe
he or she believes the punishment for a crime will be if caught. The perceptions of
the individual are often very different from the actual reality experienced.
49. PROPORTIONALITY - Punishment should fit the crime without regard to
individual differences.
50. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY - This is the 1980s formulation of classical
criminology. While the beliefs of rational choice theory can be traced back to
eighteenth-century philosopher Cesare Beccaria, this version adds a new
dimension that emphasizes the expanding role of the economist in criminological
thought. The emphasis is placed on the expected reward for committing a crime,
and other associated costs and benefits surrounding criminal activity.

51. RETRIBUTION - Making the punishment fit the crime. Also referred to as “an
eye for an eye.”
51. A. ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY - This theory states that for crime to be
committed, three elements must be present: an available target, a motivated
offender, and a lack of guardians.
52. SCARED STRAIGHT - This program began in the 1970s with the belief that
taking young offenders or potential offenders to a prison environment, and
exposing them to the realities of prison life, could prove beneficial in reducing
delinquency. Like boot camps, however, Scared Straight did not produce the
expected results.
53. SEVERITY - One of the three elements of deterrence. Severity refers to how
harsh the punishment for a crime will be. In classical criminology, it is important to
remember that a punishment must fit the crime. If a punishment is not severe
enough, it will not deter crime. If it is too severe, it is unjust and can lead to more
crime.
54. SHOCK INCARCERATION - This approach generally uses a combination of a
brief prison sentence followed by probation. The hope is that a brief exposure to
the realities of incarceration will deter the offender from further criminality.
55. SPECIFIC DETERRENCE - This style of deterrence is used with a specific
offender in mind. The belief is that if an individual is punished for a criminal act,
then that individual will be less likely to violate the law in the future.
56. THOUGHTFULLY REFLECTIVE DECISION MAKING (TDRM) - This term
describes a process of good decision making where all the relevant information is
collected and analyzed, and possible solutions and alternative solutions are
thought about. Reflection on what went right and wrong is also part of the
process.
57. ADOPTION STUDIES - Studies that have been done with children reared by
biological parents compared to their siblings or twins reared by adoptive parents in
an attempt to demonstrate a genetic link to criminal behavior. Results have been
mixed.
58. ATAVISM - Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a
“born criminal.” Atavistic or primitive man is a throwback to an earlier stage of
human evolution, and will commit crimes against society unless specifically
restrained from doing so.
59. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) - MEDNICK’S THEORY that
individuals who inherit a slower than normal autonomic nervous system learn to
control aggressive or antisocial behavior slowly or not at all. This leads to
increased violence and criminal activity.
60. BEHAVIORAL GENETICS - This covers a range of theories in which a
combination of genetics and the environment influences behavior.
61. BIOLOGICAL SCHOOL - A view of crime also referred to as biological
positivism that claims that criminal behavior is the result of biological or inborn
defects or abnormalities. This view directly conflicts with classical criminology,
which claims that criminal activity is the result of free will. Under a biological
perspective, deterrence is of little value.
62. BIOSOCIAL THEORIES - Theories that examine the combined effects of
biology, behavior, and the environment on criminal behavior.
63. BIOSOCIAL AROUSAL THEORY - This theory states that an individual’s level
of arousal works in conjunction with the social environment. Those with low levels
of arousal are less likely to learn appropriate ways to deal with aggression and
violence and thus are more prone to commit crime.
64. BORN CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. This
type of criminal is the most dangerous, and can be identified through his or her
stigmata or identifying characteristics.
65. CONCORDANCE - This examines the degree to which criminal or law-abiding
behavior of siblings, identical twins, or fraternal twins is similar to one another.
66. CRIMINALOID - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The
CRIMINALOID Is motivated by passion, and will commit criminal acts under the
proper circumstances.
67. DETERMINISM - In considering biological theories, determinism refers to the
view that an individual’s criminal lifestyle or actions is the direct result of genetic
inheritance or biological predisposition. Soft Determinism, as explained by
MATZA, examines the role of determinism, but also acknowledges that other
factors, from environmental to choice, may be part of the equation. This assumes
that behavior is not completely and strictly determined by the individual’s genetic
or biological makeup.
68. EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A broad-based view that certain types of criminal
behavior are genetic and passed down from one generation to the next through
evolutionary processes of natural selection and survival.
69. GENE-BASED EVOLUTIONARY THEORY - A general approach that suggests
that the process of natural selection has resulted in criminal genetic tendencies
that are passed down from generation to generation.
70. INSANE CRIMINAL - One of three criminal types identified by Lombroso. The
insane criminal type includes idiots, imbeciles, epileptics, psychotics, and the
mentally unstable. These criminals are unable to control their actions; however,
they do not possess the stigmata or identifying characteristics of the born criminal.
71. MENTAL FUNCTIONING AND DELINQUENCY - A neurophysiology approach
that believed that delinquents were feebleminded or had some form of a learning
disability. This approach has also been used to look for a relationship between IQ
and crime. Additionally, aspects of mental functioning, verbal ability, and mental
flexibility have been examined.
72. STIGMATA - Characteristics claimed by Lombroso that could be used to
identify the “born criminal.” They include things such as extra fingers or toes, large
lips, receding chins, excessive skin wrinkles, and large monkey-like ears.
73. TESTOSTERONE AND CRIMINAL AGGRESSIVENESS - A biochemistry
approach that looks at the relationship between the male hormone testosterone
and antisocial aggressive behavior.
**********************Glossary 02****************************
RECENT LAWS DURING DUTERTE ADMINISTRATION:
1. PROCLAMATION NO. 124 – January as “National Bible Month”
2. EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 25 - Renamed Benham Rise to Philippine Rise.
3. EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 26- Ordered a nationwide smoking BAN. Implemented
in July 23
4. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10913 - Anti-Distracted Driving Act
5. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10666 - or the "Children on Motorcycle Safety Act of
2015",
6. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10931-Free tuition in state universities
7. R.A. 10932 NO - Enhanced Anti-Hospital Deposit Law
8. R.A 10928 - Extending Passport Validity to 10 years
9. R.A. 10929 - Establishing FREE INTERNET ACCESS in public places
10. R.A.10930- Extending Driver’s License Validity for Five Years
11. RA 8049 - Anti Hazing Law
12. REPUBLIC ACT NO. 10969- Or the Free Irrigation Service Act
13. RA 10742- SK REFORM
14. RA 10963 - Tax Reform for Acceleration and Inclusion Act (TRAIN) Law
IMPORTANT EVENTS:
1. JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS - a mosquito-borne illness endemic to the
Philippines
2. AVIAN INFLUENZA OUTBREAK- declared in Pampanga
3. PHILIPPINES RANKED 6TH IN THE 29TH SEA GAMES. (Malaysia: host
country) -24golds, 33 silvers, 64 bronze won by the Philippines in the
29thseagames
4. 6.4 BILLION Shipment of drugs from china, nakalusot Sa Customs under Sec.
Nicanor Faeldon
5. 2019- Philippines will host SEA Games
6. NOVEMBER 10–12 – The Philippines hosted the 31st ASEAN Summit Clark
Freeport Zone in Angeles, Pampanga.[32]
7. NOVEMBER 13–14 – The hosted the Twelfth East Asia Summit at the Clark
Freeport Zone in Angeles, Pampanga.[87]
8. DECEMBER 19- President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Tax Reform for
Acceleration and Inclusion Act (TRAIN) Act January 1, 2018 took effect- Tax Reform
for Acceleration and Inclusion Act (TRAIN)
is a legislation which made reforms on taxation in the Philippines.
9. ISNILON HAPILON of Abu Sayyaf and Omar Maute of Maute Group, leaders of
ISIL-linked militants fighting the government in the Battle of Marawi were
reportedly killed on October 16
10. OCTOBER 23 – the Battle of Marawi was declared officially over by the
military MARTIAL LAW- MAY 23- DEC. 31
11. JANUARY 22 – The Mayon Volcano’s alert status was raised to Alert Level 4
due to intensified volcanic activities.
12. The Office of the President has ordered a 90-day preventive suspension order
against Overall Deputy Ombudsman Melchor Arthur Carandang for alleged grave
misconduct and grave dishonesty for the unauthorized disclosures of the alleged
bank transactions of President Rodrigo Duterte and his family.
13. FEBRUARY 28 – President Rodrigo Duterte signed the Paris Agreement on
Climate Change
14. MAY 23, 2017 – Martial Law was declared on the islands of Mindanao –
15. DEC 31. 2017 – Expiration of validity of the martial law
16. JULY 2, 2017- Pacquiao’s Fight against Jeff Horn
17. JULY 24, 2017 – 2nd SONA of Duterte
18. AUGUST 8, 2017 - Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
Celebrates 50th Golden Anniversary Celebration in PICC.
19. SEPT 21- Proclamation No. 319 Duterte declared “National Day of Protest”
September- National Peace Consciousness Month
20. JANUARY 31- A total lunar eclipse coinciding with a super moon and blue
moon phenomenon was witnessed by many astronomers and sky watchers
throughout the country.
21. DengVaxia scandal vs Aquino and butch Abad
22. 29TH OF MARCH 1969. - 49th anniversary of New People’s Army. (NPA)
23. SEPT 21, 2017- National Day of Protest
24. FEBRUARY 12 -The Philippine Government has signed the administrative
order to completely ban the deployment of all workers to Kuwait.
25. MARCH 1 – President Rodrigo Duterte has signed Republic Act No. 10973 that
restored the power of select officials of the Philippine National Police (PNP) to issue
subpoenas on cases under investigation.
26. MARCH 14 – President Rodrigo Duterte has announced that the Philippines is
withdrawing from the International Criminal Court (ICC)
IMPORTANT NAMES:
1. MARIA LOURDES SERENO – On March 8, through Votes of 38-2, the House
Committee on Justice has found probable cause in the impeachment complaint
against Chief Justice Maria Lourdes Sereno.
2. HORACIO "ATIO" CASTILLO III – Killed by Aegis Juris fraternity over the fatal
hazing of University of Santo Tomas (UST) law freshman student in September last
year.
3. BONGBONG” MARCOS, JR. AGAINST VICE PRESIDENT LENI ROBREDO -
The Supreme Court (SC), sitting as the Presidential Electoral Tribunal (PET) has for
the election protest of former Senator Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos, Jr (counting
started on Apr. 2 for Camarines Sur, Iloilo, and Negros Oriental)
4. KERWIN ESPINOSA, PETER LIM - The Department of Justice has cleared
alleged drug lords due to lack of evidence
5. MAUTE GROUP – rebel group who seized Marawi City, they are not ISIS, but
only ISIS-affiliated
6. OMAR MAUTE-Leader of maute inspired by Isis in Marawi City
7. REYNALDO PAROJINOG SR. – Mayor who was killed in the drug ops in Ozamiz
City.
8. NOVA PAROJINOG- Her daughter
9. KIAN LOYD DELOS SANTOS - A 17-year-old who was kill
IMPORTANTS PERSONALITIES AND EVENTS

1. BRIG GEN RAFAEL CRAME - The first Filipino chief of the Philippine
Constabulary in 1917.
2. COL. LAMBERTO JAVALERA - The first chief of police of the Manila Police
Department after the Philippine Independence from the united states of America in
1946.
3. COL. ANTONIO TORRES - The first Filipino chief of police of the Manila Police
Department in 1935. And he declared Manila as an open city (DEC.8, 1941)
4. GEN. ARTHUR MCARTHUR (FATHER OF DOUGLAS MACARTHUR) - First
District Director of Metropolitan Police Force.
5. P/DIR GEN. CESAR NAZARENO - The first chief of the Philippine National
Police.
6. CAPTAIN GEORGE CURRY - First chief of Police in Manila
7. DELILAH - who was able to gain information by using her Beauty and Charm.
8. SUN TZU - Art of war- The father of Police Intelligence
9. SIR ARTHUR WELLESLY - Greatest military Spymaster at All time.
10. FREDERICK THE GREAT - father of organized military espionage
11. KARL SCHULMEISTER - "Napoleon's Eye"
12. JOSEPH PETROSINO - Pioneer in the fight against organized crime.
13. HERBERT YARDLEY -The American black chamber.
14. AKBAR - 'the great Mogul'
15. ALFRED REDL - A Homosexual double spy who while working as intelligence
direct proof Austria and Hungary, spied the Russian.
16. NATIONAL IN SCOPE - Means that the PNP is a nationwide government org.
whose jurisdiction covers the entire breadth of the Philippine archipelago.
17. CIVILIAN IN CHARACTER - Means membership in the PNP is by virtue of
one's qualification as set by the law.
CRIMINOLOGY LICENSURE EXAM
1. COINED IN THE WORD "CRIMINOLOGY" - RAFAELLE DE GAROFALO.
2. FATHER OF CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY- CESARE BECCARIA.
3. FATHER OF CRIMINALISTICS- DR. HANS GROSS
4. FATHER OF BEHAVIORAL GENETICS- FRANCIS GALTON
5. FATHER OF TRADITIONAL/OLD CRIMINOLOGY - CESARE BECCARIA
FATHER OF MODERN CRIMINOLOGY- CESARE LOMBROSO
6. FATHER OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION- ALBERT OSBORNE
7. FATHER OF FORENSIC/ MODERN BALLISTICS - COL. CALVIN HENRY
GODDARD
8. FATHER OF PROBATION- JOHN AUGUSTUS
9. FATHER OF ORGANIZED MILITARY ESPIONAGE- FREDERICK THE GREAT.
10. MOTHER OF ALL CRIMINALS- ADA JUKE/ MARGARET.
11. FIRST PROBATION OFFICER IN THE WHOLE WORLD- EDWARD SAVAGE
12. COINED IN THE WORD "PHOTOGRAPHY" - WILLIAM HERSCHEL
13. FATHER OF POLICE PROFESSIONALIZATION- AUGUST VOLLMER
14. FATHER OF POLICE ORGANIZATION- HENRY VAYOL.
15. FATHER OF UTILITARIANISM- JEREMY BENTHAM
16. FATHER OF PHILIPPINE PROBATION- TEODULO NATIVIDAD.
17. FATHER OF ENGLISH PROBATION- MATTHEW DAVEN PORTHILL.
18. FATHER OF PAROLE/MODERN PENOLOGY- ALEXANDER MACANOCHIE
19. FIRST PRISON CHAPLAIN- REV. JARRED CURTIS
20. FIRST PROBATION OFFICER- EDWARD SAVAGE
21. FATHER OF MODERN POLICING- SIR ROBERT PEEL.
22. FATHER OF TRADITIONAL POLYGRAPHY- JOHN A. LARSON.
23. FATHER OF MODERN LAW ENFORCEMENT- AUGUST VOLLMER.
24. FATHER OF PSYCHO ANALYSIS- SIGMUND FREUD
25. FATHER OF FORENSIC INVESTIGATION- DR. EDMON LOCARD
26. FATHER OF PODOSCOPY- DR. EDMON LOCARD
27. FATHER OF PERSONAL IDENTI- ALPHONSE BERTILLION
28. FATHER OF FINGERPRINT- SIR RICHARD HENRY
29. FATHER OF CRIMINALISTICS IN AUSTRIA- DR. HANS GROSS
30. FATHER OF CRIMINALISTICS IN AMERICA- DR. PAUL KIRK
31. FATHER OF AMERICAN PRISON- ZEBULON REED BROCKWAY.
32. FATHER OF VICTIMOLOGY- BENJAMIN MENDELSON VON HENTEG
32. "CRIMINOLOGY" - EDWIN SUTHERLAND "CRIMINOLOGIE" -ITALIAN
WORD BY PAUL TOPINARD" "CRIMINOLOGIA"-LATIN WORD BY RAFAELLE
DE GAROFALO
33. BENJAMIN ROBINS – FATHER OF MODERN GANNERY/FATHER OF
BALLISTICS PENDIULUM
34. FATHER OF EUGENICS- GALTON FIRST LETHAL INJECTION- LEO
ECHAGARAY./RAPE
35.JOHN AUGUSTUS-FATHER OF PROBATION
36.EDWARD SAVAGE-FIRST PROBATION OFFICER IN THE WORLD
37.TEODULO C. NATIVIDAD-FATHER OF PHILIPPINE PROBATION
38.MATHEW DAVENFORT HILL-FATHER OF ENGLISH PROBATION
39.ZEBULON R. BROCKWAY-HE WAS THE FIRST SUPERINTENDENT OF
ELMIRA REFORMATORY
40.SIR EVELYN RUGGLES BRISE-DIRECTOR OF ENGLISH PRISONS WHO
OPENED THE BORSTAL INSTITUTION
41.JOHN HOWARD-KNOWN AS THE FATHER OF PENITENTIARY
42.SIR WALTER CROFTON-HE WAS THE DIRECTOR OF THE IRISH PRISON
43.ALEXANDER MACANOCHIE-FATHER OF MODERN PENOLOGY AND
FATHER OF PAROLE
REPUBLIC ACTS - Are laws made by congress, the latter referring to House of
Representatives and senate of the Philippines duly signed by the president
PRESIDENTIAL DECREES- Are laws made and approved by then former president
Marcos; here are some of them;
1. P.D. 1414 - CREATED THE LAW ON INDIGENOUS PERSON, OR THE

KATUTUBO
2. P.D. 1619 - SOLVENT AND VOLATILE
3. P.D. 968 - PROBATION LAW
4. P.D. 603 - THE CHILD AND YOUTH WELFARE ACT CODE.EFFECTIVE JUNE
8 1975
5. P.D. 1069 - PHIL EXTERNAL/EXTRADITION LAW
6. P.D. 532 - ANTI PIRACY AND ANTI HIGHWAY LAW OF 1974
7. P.D. 533 - ANTI-CATTLE RUSTLING LAW OF 1974
8. P.D. 1602 - ILLEGAL GAMBLING
9. P.D. 1866 - AS AMENDED BY R.A. 8294, ILLEGAL POSSESSION OF
FIREARM AND EXPLOSIVES
10. P.D. 1612 -ANTI FENCING LAW
11. P.D. 684 - CREATED SK
12. P.D. 1184 - CREATED THE PPSC
13. P.D.229 -DECLARING BGY CHAIRMAN AS PERSON IN AUTHORITY
14. P.D. 557 - DECLARING ALL BARRIOS AS BARANGAY
15. P.D. 1508 - CREATION OF BARANGAY COURT
16. P.D.1829 - PENALIZING OBSTRUCTION OF APPREHENSION AND
PROSECUTION OF CRIMINAL OFFENDER
17. P.D. 46 - ACT PUNISHING THE RECEIVING AND GIVING OF GIFTS OF
PUBLIC OFFICIAL AND EMPLOYEES
18. P.D 1689 - INCREASED THE PENALTY FOR CERTAIN FORMS OF ESTAFA
19. P.D.2018 - MAKES THE ILLEGAL RECRUITMENT A CRIME OF ECONOMIC
SABOTAGE PUNISHABLE BY LIFE IMPRISONMENT
20. P.D 133 - PRESCRIBED HEAVY PENALTY FOR EMPLOYEES THEFT AND
LABORERS
21. P.D.1185 - FIRE CODE OF THE PHILS
22. P.D.1731 - PROVIDES FOR REWARDS AND INCENTIVES TO GOVT
WITNESS AND INFORMANTS
23. P.D 1732 - PROVIDES IMMUNITY FOR GOVT WITNESSES
24. P.D., 1869 - PROHIBITION OF GOVT OFFICIALS TO ENTER IN GAMBLING
HOUSE AND CASINOS
25. R.A 7160 - LOCAL GOVT CODE OF 1991
26. R.A. 4103 - INDETERMINATE SENTENCE LAW
27. R.A. 4200 - ANTI-WIRE TAPPING LAW
28. R.A. 1524 - PROVIDES FOR THE ENFORCEMENT OF THE CONDITIONS
FOR PARDON
29. R.A. 7610 - SPECIAL PROTECTION OF CHILDREN AGAINST CHILD
ABUSED EXPLOITATION AND DISCRIMINATION ACT AS AMENDED
30. R.A. 9344 - JUVENILE JUSTICE AND WELFARE SYSTEM MY 4 2006
31. R.A. 9231 - CHILD LABORING ACT
32. R.A. 6809 - LOWERING THE AGE OF MINORITY FROM 21 TO 18 YEARS
OF AGE,TOTALLY EMANCIPATED
33. R.A 7659 - DEATH PENALTY
34. R.A. 8177 - ACT DESIGNATING DEATH BY LETHAL INJECTION LAW
35. R.A. 3019 - AS AMENDED BY ANTI-GRAFT AND CORRUPTION
PRACTICES
36. R.A. 6713 - CODE OF CONDUCT AND ETHICAL STANDARDS FOR PUBLIC
OFFICIAL AND EMPLOYEES
37. R.A. 7080 - ANTI-PLUNDER ACT
38. R.A. 7877 - ANTI-SEXUAL HARASSMENT ACT OF 1995
39. R.A. 8049 - ANTI-HAZING LAW
40. R.A. 6539 - ANTI-CARNAPPING
41. PD. 532 - ANTI PIRACY AND ANTI-HIGHWAY ROBBERY LAW
42. PD. 533 - ANTI CATTLE RUSTLING LAW
43. RA. 6235 - AN ACT PROHIBITING CERTAIN ACTS INIMICAL TO CIVIL
AVIATION
44. RA.6539 - ANTI CARNAPPING LAW
45. PD. 1612 - ANTI FENCING LAW
46. PD. 1613 - ANTI ARSON LAW (SIMPLE ARSON)
47. RA. 7832 - ANTI ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION LINES
48. RA. 8484 - ACCESS DEVICES REGULATION ACT OF 1998
49. RA. 9160 - ANTI MONEY LAUNDERING ACT OF (2001)
50. RA. 9372 - HUMAN SECURITY ACT OF (2007)
51. RA. 9745 - ANTI TORTURE ACT (2009)
52. RA. 9775 - ANTI CHILD PORNOGRAPHY (2009)
53. RA. 9208 -ANTI TRAFFICKING IN PERSON (2003)
54. RA.8049 - AN ACCOUNT REGULATING HAZING AND OTHER FORMS OF
INITIATION RITES IN FRATERNITIES SORORITIES AND OTHER
ORGANIZATION
55. RA. 7610- SPECIAL PROTECTION OF CHILDREN AGAINST CHILD ABUSE
56. RA.9262- ANTI VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND THEIR CHILDREN ACT
57. RA.9165- COMPREHENSIVE DANGEROUS DRUG ACT OF JULY 4 2002
58. RA.9346 - AN ACT PROHIBITING THE IMPOSITION OF DEATH PENALTY
AND AMENDING OR SUCH PURPOSE RA. 7659
59. RA. 3019- ANTI GRAFT AND CORRUPTION ACT
60. RA. 1379- FORFEITURE OF QUESTIONABLE OR OTHERWISE III-GOTTEN
WEALTH
61. RA.7080- ANTI PLUNDER ACT
62. RA. 10193- ANTI DISTRACTED DRIVING ACT
63. RA. 4200- ANTI WIRETAPPING LAW
64. PD. 1829- LAW ON OBSTRUCTION OF JUSTICE
65. BP. 22- BOUNCING CHECK LAW

66. RA.10591- COMPREHENSIVE FIRE ARM LAW
67. RA.10175- ANTI CYBER-CRIME LAW
68. RA.9344- JUVENILE JUSTICE WELFARE ACT OF 2006
STANDARD OPERATION PROCEDURES (SOP)

SOP 1 - POLICE BEAT PATROL PROCEDURES
SOP 2 - BANTAY KALYE
SOP 3 - SIYASAT
SOP 4 - REACT 166
SOP 5 - LIGTAS (ANTI-KIDNAPPING)
SOP 6 - ANTI CARNAPPING
SOP 7 - ANTI TERRORISM
SOP 8 - JOINT ANTI BANK ROBBERY
SOP 9 - ANTI HIGHJACKING/HIGHWAY ROBBERY
SOP 12 - ANTI ILLEGAL GAMBLING
SOP 16 - ANTI PORNOHRAPHY
SOP 19 - ANTI ILLEGAL LOGGING
SOP 20 - ANTI ILLEGAL FISHING
SOP 21 - ANTI ILLEGAL DRUGS
10-0 - CAUTION
10-1 - UNABLE TO COPY/CHANGE LOC
10-4 - ACKNOWLEDGMENT
10-12 - STAND BY
10-50 - ACCIDENT
10-52 - AMBULANCE NEEDED
10-74 – NEGATIVE
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY
1. WITNESS --- man of the hour in court.
2. VICTIM ---- the forgotten one.
3. OFFENDER -- the principal character to the CJS
4. SUSPECT --- One who implicated to the commission of a crime (subject of
investigation)
5. RESPONDENT --- person who is a subject of Preliminary investigation or
inquest proceeding.
6. ACCUSED --- person who charged of an offense in court and facing trial.
7. APPELLANT --- one who filed an appeal.
8. CRIMINAL --- who is found guilty by final judgment
9. POLICE --- initiator or prime mover of the CJS
10. PARDONEE --- one who is given pardon.
11. PAROLEE --- one who is granted with parole.
12. PROBATIONER --- one whose application for probation was granted.
13. PETITIONER --- one who files an application for Probation, parole and pardon
14. CRIMINOLOGIA ---- (Italian word) RAFFAELLE GAROFALO 1885
15. CRIMINOLOGIE ---- (French word) PAUL TOPINARD 1887
16. R.A 6506 --- Act creating the Board of Examiners for Criminologists in the
Phil. And other purpose.(approved/effective=July 1,1972)
17. CRIMINAL ECOLOGY --- study of criminality in relation to the spatial
distribution in a community.
18. CRIMINAL EPIDEMIOLOGY ---- study of the relationship between
environment and criminality.
19. CRIMINAL PSYCHIATRY --- study of human mind in relation to criminality.
20. CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY ---- study of human behavior in relation to
criminality.
21. CRIMINAL DEMOGRAPHY --- criminality and population.
22. CRIMINAL PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY ---- study of criminality in relation to
Physical constitution of men.
23. VICTIMOLOGY ---- study of role of victim in the commission of the crime.
24. CRIMINAL ETIOLOGY --- study of the cause or the origin of crime.

25. PENOLOGY ---- control and prevention of crime and the treatment of youthful
offender.
26. SOCIOLOGY ---- study of human society, its origin, structure, functions and
directions.
27. CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH ---- study if crime correlated to with
antecedent variables, state of the crime trend.
28. DELINQUENCY ---- act not inconformity with the norms of society.
29. AUGUST COMTE --- Father of sociology
30. EMILE DURKHEIM --- father / modern sociology.
31. MALA PROHIBITUM CRIME ---- acts that are outlawed because they clash
with current norms and public opinion, such as tax, traffic and drugs law.
32. MALA IN SE CRIME --- acts that outlawed because they violate basic moral
values such as rape, murder, assault and robbery.
33. MASS MURDER --- killing a large number of persons at one time.
34. HYPOGLYCEMIA --- which the glucose in the blood falls below levels/efficient
brain functioning.
35. HYPERGLYCEMIA --- high blood sugar
36. MARITAL RAPE ---- forcible sex between legally married partners.
37. STATUTORY RAPE ---- sexual relation between a minor female and an adult
male. (11yrsold below)
38. JEREMY BETHAM --- pain and pleasure
39. CESARE BECARRIA --- Free will theory
40. EDWIN SUTHERLAND ---- who introduced the following definition of
criminology. "Dean of criminology”
41. GABRIEL TARDE ---- introduced the "Theory of imitation - suggestion”
42. ENRICO FERRI ---- "Theory of imputable and denial of Free Will.
43. ADA JUKE --- Mother of criminals.
44. HENRY GODDARD ---- He was the first person to use the term "MORON"
45. ROBERT MERTON ---- applied the theory of anomie of Durkheim to
criminology
46. AUGUST AICHORN --- "Latent delinquency”
47. EGO --- "reality principle”
48. ID ---- "pleasure principle”
49. SUPEREGO ---- resulted from incorporating within the personality the moral
standards and values of parents, community /others /tells what is right from wrong.
50. OEDIPUS COMPLEX ---- Electra complex in man.
51. ELECTRA COMPLEX ---- girls begin to have sexual feeling for their father’s.
52. ERIK ERIKSON ---- "identity crisis"
53. MONOGAMY --- one marriage (1 man and 1woman)
54. POLYGAMY --- marriage of one man with two or more wife.
55. POLYANDRY --- marriage of one woman with two or more husband.
56. 18-70 --- full responsibility
57. 18 --- Age of majority or legal age
**********************Glossary 03*****************************
SAMPLE QUESTION AND ANSWER REVIEWER ON THEORIES OF CRIME

CAUSATION
1. The field of criminology is a multi-disciplinary science. One of its aspects is the
study of crime focused on the group of people and society which is known today
as:
A. Criminal Psychology B. Criminal Sociology C. Criminal Psychiatry
D. Criminal Etiology
2. Macho means?
A. assertive B. angry C. heroic
D. stubborn
3. Bilious means
A. wealthy B. puffed out C. bad tempered
D. irritable
4. Hypothetical means
A. Temporary B. Exaggerated C. Provable
D. Assumed
5. The theory in which reformation is based upon, on the ground that the criminal
is a sick person.
A. Positivist Theory B. Classical Theory C. Neo
Classical School D. Sociological Theory
6. It is defined as a crime where a person of respectability and high social status in
the course of his or her occupation commits the criminal act.
A. Labor Crimes B. Organized Crimes C. High Collar crimes
D. White collar crime
7. The strict code of conduct that governs the behavior of the Mafia members is
called ___.
A. Omerta B. Triad C. Silencer
D. Mafioso
8. The groups of crimes categorized as violent crimes (Index crimes) and property
crimes (Non Index crimes) are called ___.
A. Conventional crimes B. Non-conventional Crimes C. Felony
D. Offense
9. What is the literal meaning of the term Cosa Nostra?
A. This thing of ours B. Omerta C. Two Things
D. 5th estate
10. The criminal activity by an enduring structure or organization developed and
devoted primarily to the pursuit of profits through illegal means commonly known
as ___.
A. Organized crime B. Professional Organization C. White
collar crime D. Blue collar crime
11. One of the following represents the earliest codification of the Roman law,
which was incorporated into the Justinian Code.
A. 12 Tables B. Burgundian Code C. Hammurabic
Code D. Code of Draco
12. The generic term that includes all government agencies, facilities, programs,
procedures, personnel, and techniques concerned with the investigation, intake,
custody, confinement, supervision, or treatment of alleged offenders refers to:
A. Correction B. Penology C. Criminal Justice
D. the base pillar
13. The Italian leader of the positivist school of criminology, who was criticized for
his methodology and his attention to the biological
characteristics of offenders, was:
A. C Lombroso B. C Beccaria C. C Darwin
D. C Goring
14.The theory in criminology, which maintains that a person commits crime or
behaves criminally mainly because he or she is being possessed by evil spirits or
something of natural force that controls his/her behavior is called:
A. Devine Will Theory B. Demonological Theory C. Classical
Theory D. All of these
15. Criminology changes as social condition changes. This means the progress of
criminology is concordant with the advancement of other sciences that has been
applied to it. This means that criminology is _____.
A. Dynamic B. Excellent C. Progressive D.
None of these
16. In as much as crime is a societal creation and that it exist in a society, its study
must be considered a part of social science. This means that criminology is __.
A. Applied science B. Social Science C. Natural
Science D. All of these
17. The term white- collar crime was coined by
A. E. Sutherland B. R. Quinney C. E. Durkheim
D. C. Darwin
18. What is means of "R" in the criminal formula?
A. Total Situation B. Criminal Tendency C. Temperament
D. none of these
19. His key ideas are concentrated on the principle of "Survival of the Fittest" as a
behavioral science. He advocated the "Somatotyping Theory".
A. W Sheldon B. R Merton C. E Sutherland
D. Ivan Nye
20. When someone is tagged as criminal, he or she may reject it or accept it and
go on to commit crime.
A. Rational Choice Theory B. Control Theories C. Labelling
Theory D. Social Disorganization Theory
REFERENCES:
1. Unpublished handouts on THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION, 2019, University of the Cordillera (UC).
2. Unpublished handouts on THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION, 2019, University of Baguio (UB).
PREPARED BY: MARK P. CIANO, RC, MSCRIM

Theories of Crime Causation

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SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE AND PUBLIC SAFETY (SCJPS)

INTRODUCTION TO THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION WITH CRIME

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MICRO-AND MACRO THEORIES

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 2

KEY CONCEPTS OF THEORIES

HOW DO YOU KNOW A “GOOD THEORY” WHEN YOU SEE ONE?

THE 10 MOST WIDELY ACCEPTED CONCLUSIONS THAT EACH THEORY

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 6

SUMMARY OF THEORY AND CONTEMPORARY CRIMINOLOGY

THE ROLE OF THEORY IN CRIMINOLOGY AND CRIME CAUSATION

PRINCIPLE DIVISIONS OF CRIMINOLOGY

1. INTENT (MOTIVE/ REASON) – Refers to a state of mind, deliberately

2. INSTRUMENTALITY (TOOLS) – Is the means or implemented used in the

3. OPPORTUNITY (CHANCE) – Is synonymous with carelessness, acts of

THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF CRIME

Frequently, crimes in the context of the study of criminology are classified in

2. MOTIVES OF THE OFFENDER (Bonger). – The reason or reasons of the

3. STATISTICAL PURPOSES – It is imperative to gain awareness on the statistics

4. THEORETICAL PURPOSES. – For theoretical purposes, each class should be a

C. RECIDIVISM – It refers to the act of committing the same type of crime at a

D. OCCASIONAL – Commits crime perhaps only once, perhaps separated by long

II. BODY: THEORIES OF THE CAUSATION OF CRIME AND CRIME

Growing understanding of these mechanisms suggests that certain biological

RESPONSES OFFERED BY BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE INCLUDE MEASURES

2. DEVELOPMENTAL LIFE-COURSE THEORY

RESPONSES FROM THE DEVELOPMENTAL-LIFE COURSE THEORY INCLUDE:

RESPONSES BASED BROADLY IN PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY SPAN A WIDE

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES RESPONSES INCLUDE:

RESPONSES OF GEOGRAPHIC THEORIES TO CRIME INCLUDE:

ECONOMIC RESPONSE TO CRIME INCLUDES:

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 13

LOMBROSO AND BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM

THE CHICAGO SCHOOL/SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY

SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY

RIGHT REALISM/RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

REALISM - Realist criminology tends to be written from a particular ideological

LEFT REALISM/RELATIVE DEPRIVATION

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 16

THREE (3) ELEMENTS OF DETTERENCE THEORY

7. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY -This is the 1980s formulation of classical

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 17

10. SHOCK INCARCERATION. This approach generally uses a combination of a

NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE

NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 18

NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE

NOTABLE INDIVIDUALS OR PERSONALITIES WHO CONTRIBUTED IN THE

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 20

MAJOR THEORIES OF CRIME CAUSATION AND DEFINITION OF

THREE (3) PSYCHE OF PERSONALITY

PSYCHOPATHY CHECKLIST (PCL-R) - Developed by HARE, this is a tool

KEY CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOPHIC THEORY

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 21

2. ATAVISM - Part of the theory developed by Lombroso in which a person is a

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 22

KEY CONCEPTS OF BIOLOGICAL THEORIES TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 23

C. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

1. BEHAVIOR THEORY - Burgess and Akers expanded differential association and

4. DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT - One of the four main concepts of Akers’

BY: MPC, RC, MSCRIM 24

KEY CONCEPTS SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO THE EXPLANATION OF THE

D. SOCIAL BONDING AND CONTROL THEORIES