Section 3: Coatings and Equipment

Vol.
1 Good Painting Practice Section 3

Coatings and Equipment
Table of Contents
Application of Industrial Coatings

Coatings for Industrial Stmctures
Polysiloxane Coatings GC”
(J-ìL,_)b_)
Elevated/High Temperature Coatings 3-21

Concrete Surface Preparation and Coatings 3-30
Concrete Flooring Moisture Issues 3-34
Thermal Spray Coatings 3-40
Powder Coating 3-51
Inspection of Nonskid Coatings 3-57
Non-Ferrous Surface Preparation 3-62
Shop Painting of Steel 3-70
Contractor Equipment: An Overview 3-76
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Application oflndustrial Coatings
Application of Industrial Coatings

John Kern, Technical Consultant
Introduction
Proper application of coatings is as critical as their selection and surface preparation in

producing long-term protective films. This article describes different recommended methods of
applying industrial coatings.
Preparing Coatings for Application
Mixing
During storage, coating pigments

tend to settle and cake at the bottom of
cans. Coatings in this condition must be
mixed thoroughly and uniformly so that
they can be applied in an even,
continuous film. Improper or
inadequate mixing can result in uneven
film thickness, uneven color, limited
adhesion, cracking of the film, and poor
cathodic and limited corrosion
protection.
Mixing can be done manually or

mechanically. Mechanical
mixing is usually preferred because it is
faster and more efficient, especially
with large volumes and viscous materials. Mixing Station
ln both cases, it is necessary to first break up clumps
and settled materials from the bottom of the can and remove any surface skins.
When stirring mechanically:

° Use appropriately sized equipment
° Form a relative small vortex in the coating
° Use a slow speed stirrer (never a mechanical shaker)
Note: Foaming and entrapment of air bubbles during mixing can result in voids in cured films.
Waterborne coatings are especially susceptible, because they contain wetting agents.
Thinning (Reducing) Mixed Coatings
Many coatings are formulated for application without thinning under normal conditions.
Two-component coatings should be thinned only after combining and mixing the components. If
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SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Application oflndustrial Coatings
thinning is necessary, the coating manufacturer”s recommendations for the type and amount of
thinner should be followed. Thinning should never cause the coating to exceed VOC limits and
should only be done if approved by the coating manufacturer. Over-thirming can result in a mix
that runs or sags. Use of the wrong thinner can cause the coating to gel or create other adverse
effects. Prior to thirming, applicable local, state, and Federal regulations should be reviewed. The
U.S. Navy does not permit thinning.
Tinting
Adj acent coatings in multiple-coat systems are sometimes tinted with different colors to
make it easier to detect skips in the topcoat film. ln such cases, the coating manufacturer”s
instructions should be followed, since not all tints are compatible with all coatings.
Straining
Paints should always be strained to

eliminate lumps, skins, or other
nonconformities that can affect the coating°s
appearance and clog spray equipment.
Inorganic zinc-rich coatings should always
be strained to remove coarse or agglomerated
zinc particles. Straining is the last step before
application. lt should be done using a fine
mesh sieve or a commercial paint strainer.
Brush Application
Straining Zinc Particles
Brushes are available in natural
and synthetic fibers. Typically, natural M7 0 Si
bristle brushes are used for applying ¿ff Í
solvent-based coatings and synthetic fiber ~ ,f 5;
;Í ›x
brushes for applying waterborne coatings. _ HANULE ..,/ ¡Í
Some tips for optimum brush application: I/ ¡
1
_.
3 - 'l
~._._ _,N_:..›` W
° Before painting, shake loose any ¿I «-,_
unattached fibers by spinning between ,›" TW
the palms of the hands. l Run END _¢¡_-¡mm F
° Remove any stray fibers with a putty fi A 7 0V
kn¡fe_ mïift :çf K;
° Dip the bmsh in the paint to cover no ,›“
(Ag
›^
A 9' '1 'Ä
more than one-half of the bristle length. É ff' ïšgš§n“E””

° Remove excess paint by tapping the É lfìåffiì PNY? T Aj
brush on the edge of the can. 0
Parts of a Brush
° Apply even strokes lightly with the bristle tips.
' Hold the brush at a seventy-five degree angle, much like holding a pencil.
° Apply paint from top to bottom, always finishing in the same direction.
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SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Application of Industrial Coatings
° Start and finish at natural boundaries and

always keep a wet edge to minimize lap marks.
Brushes are used to apply stripe coats to edges and

welds in accordance with SSPC-PA Guide l l,
Protecting Edges, Crevices, and Irregular Steel
Surfaces by Stripe Coating, prior to spray
application as paint will draw back from an edge
or will not fill the voids found in welds applied by
spray.
Rollers
Stripe Coating After Priming
Roller application is often used on large, flat, or
curved Surfaces and when spray application is prohibited or uneconomical. lt can be as much as
four times faster than brush application with a finish not as even as spray application.
A paint roller consists of a cylindrical sleeve or cover that slips over a rotating cage with
an attached handle. The core of the roller is usually made from either phenolic-reinforced or
metallic fiberboard. Rollers are dipped directly into a pail of coating and the surplus paint
worked off on a grid or screen in the pail, or taken from a tray that has a grid.
Rollers are not used ifthe coating being

applied contains extremely strong or fast-
evaporating solvents, or if the presence of roller
fibers in the coating would jeopardizes its integrity
or performance. Rollers also lack the ability to force
the coating into the pores or profile of a surface. ln
addition, rollers can load air into the coating as it is
being deposited on the surface. If the air is unable to
escape from the coating, it may form voids and
holidays.
Roller Application in the Field
Spray Application
Spray application is the process by which coatings are atomized into fine particles and
deposited upon a surface. The two types of spray systems are conventional air spray and airless
spray. All other spray systems are variations of these.
Conventional (Air) Spray
The conventional spray system consists of the spray gun, the material container, an air
compressor, fluid and air hoses, and air-controlling devices.
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SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Application oflndustrial Coatings
s pmy G "" _ÑozzIe

(Air cap) Fiuid
The spray gun delivers specific \` Nozzle Pattern Control Knob
amounts of paint and atomizing air to L É A/
the gun nozzle, producing a controllable ¦ <fl:H]]]H _ìã¦ ¡ I <-~ Flllld C0nlf0l Kn0b
pattem of atomized coating. ln external /4 A' A" Vawe
mixing guns, the compressed air and
paint are mixed as they are sprayed from Hem Needie *
the air cap and fluid tip. ln internal Valve \ Í.-`
mixing guns, the air and paint are mixed Fluid
inside the air cap as spraying occurs. Inlet
Trigger Air Inlet
Air Cap. Air caps direct the jets of
compressed air into the stream of material from the Pam Of C0HV°flf¡0Hfl| SPFHY
fluid tip to atomize the coating and form the spray Gu"
pattern. The air cap fits over the fluid tip and is connected to the gun by a threaded ring. The air
cap and fluid tip are selected according to the type of coating to be used and the desired
application rate. The external mix air cap can be identified by the “homs” that extend from the
air cap. Air from the holes found on the face of the air cap partially atomizes the paint, and the
air from the hom holes completes the atomization and shapes the spray pattem.
HORNS FLUID NOZZLE
/\
EXTERNAL MIX EXTERNAL MIX

PRESSURE FEED SIPHON FEED
Air Caps
Fluid Tip and Needle. The fluid tip is a nozzle directly behind the air cap that meters and directs
the material into the air streams. The fluid tip forms a seat for the fluid needle, which shuts off
the flow of material. When the trigger is pulled, the needle is drawn out of the fluid tip and the
paint is allowed to flow to the air cap. When the trigger is released, the needle seats itself in the
fluid tip, stopping the flow of the coating. Flow rate adjustments are made by either increasing or
decreasing the air pressure to the paint tank, or by changing to another size of fluid tip and
needle. The fluid adjustment valve can be used when the operator needs to make minor
adjustments to reduce or increase the paint flow.
Trigger. The trigger operates the air valve and the fluid needle. lt acts as a switch to turn the
atomizing air and fluid on and off.
3-4
Air Valve. The air valve is the on-and-off control for the movement of atomizing air through the
spray gun. lt is the stem that is directly behind the trigger and is moved by the trigger.
Spreader Adjustment Valve. The spreader adjustment valve controls the air supply within the air
cap and also controls the size and shape of the spray pattern. lt also controls the flow of air to the
holes in the homs of the air cap.
Air and Fluid Inlets. The air inlet on the gun handle connects the atomizing air hose to the air
supply, which is either a compressor or a transfomier. The fluid inlet connects the material
supply container or hose to the fluid inlet behind the air cap on the spray gun.
Material Containers
There are two types of material containers used to supply the coating for conventional
spraying: the attached cup and the remote pot. Attached cups are either suction or pressure-feed
containers, but remote pots are pressure-feed only. Suction feed cups are used when colors must
be changed frequently and when only small amounts of coating are needed.
Pressure-feed systems are assembled with zero, one, or two regulators. They require two
independent supplies of compressed air. One source of compressed air is used to pressurize the
container to move the coating into and out of the gun. The other supply of compressed air is used
at the gun as the atomizing air source. With both regulators at the pot, the material is easier to
control. A material container equipped with an agitator should be used for zinc-rich coatings.
Compressor
Compressors must generate a large enough volume of clean, dry air at the correct
pressure to move and atomize the coating. The most common are piston, vane, and screw.
Fluid and Air Hoses
The fluid and air hoses carry specific volumes of atomizing air or coating. They are lined
to protect against strong solvents moisture and oil. Air hoses are usually red and material hoses
are black.
Air-Controlling Devices
Regulators, transformers, separators, and filters are used in conventional spray systems
between the compressor, the material container, and the gun to control air pressure. Separators
and filters are used to clean oil and dirt from the air supply and to extract moisture from the air.
Airless Spray
Airless spray painting does not use compressed air. instead, atomization occurs when the
paint is pumped at high pressures through a small orifice in the gun nozzle. Airless spraying is
also known as hydraulic spraying, because it uses the principle of hydraulics. The basic
3-5
components of the airless spray system are the fluid pump, the high-pressure static-dissipating
hose, filters and screens, and the airless spray gun.
v Air Motor _
Paint Pump ¬
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nlet
Screen
Airless Spray System
Airless Spray Fluid Pumps
Airless spray fluid pumps have gears, a diaphragm, or pistons to draw the paint from the
container and force it through the paint hoses and airless spray gun. The fluid pump may be
mounted on a lid that can be attached to a paint drum or on a wheeled cart so that the pump head
can be set inside a paint container. Altematively, the pump may use a siphon hose to draw the
paint from the container.
Pump Classification. Airless spray pumps are identified by the ratio of paint pressure produced
to that of the air pressure used. For example, a pump that delivers paint at a pressure of 4 psi
(27.5 kPa) for each l psi (6.9 kPa) of air pressure would be identified as having a 4:1 ratio. Some
fluid pumps will use 80 psi (552 kPa) of air pressure to generate a paint pressure of 2400 psi
(l6,547 kPa), resulting in a 30:1 pump ratio. Pumps are also classified by the volume of paint
delivered per minute. A heavy-duty pump may be capable of delivering as much as 7 gallons of
(26.5 liters) paint per minute.
Paint pressure is regulated by adjusting the pressure regulator on the pump. The pressures
on airless spray equipment should not exceed the maximum working pressure of the pump
system. The pump must be capable of delivering more than the tip can use. This pemiits the
pump to run slower than its maximum speed and thus reduce wear, while providing a reserve
capacity of pressure in case a change is made to a larger spray tip or a longer hose.
Electric Fluid Pump. An electrically driven pump motor can be plugged into a standard
grounded outlet unless working in a wet, marine, or offshore facility in which case a ground fault
intermpter (GFI) is required. The electric fluid pumps have adjustable paint pressure settings. In
one type of electric pump, the motor moves a piston sunk in an oil chamber. The pressure thmst
on the oil by the piston opens and closes a diaphragm that draws the paint into the paint chamber,
where it is pressurized.
3-6
Spray Tip
The selection of a spray tip is

based on the volume of fluid produced by
the paint pump. In other words, there must
be a match between the pump volume
produced and the tip spraying rate. Most
coating manufacturers also will indicate
on the product data sheet (PDS) the
recommended tip size and pressure for
best atomization. The applicator can
adjust the pressure and tip size to obtain
the required spray pattern and paint flow.
High-Pressure Fluid Hoses and Fittings
The paint hoses used in airless

spray painting are specially constructed to Airless Spray Gun
withstand high fluid pressure. The materials passing through airless hoses at high pressures build
up static electricity through friction. For this reason, these hoses have a grounding wire located
in the outer skin.
Fìlters and Screens
Airless spray systems use filters and screens to keep the coating free of pigment lumps
and resin seeds. These filters or screens are typically placed at the base of the siphon hose; inside
the surge tank; in the material hose; and behind the spray tip.
Gun
The only adjustment on an airless spray gun is the ability to change the tip. The guns also
have two safety features: a tip guard and a trigger lock.
Airless Spray Techniques
Since the shape of the airless spray pattem is determined by the built-in angle of the fluid
tip, the operator must change the spray tip in order to change the shape of the spray pattem.
Improper application can cause runs or sags and insufficient application pressure will cause tails
to form when the coating is concentrated at the top or bottom of the spray fan pattem.
Air-Assisted Airless Spray
With air-assisted airless spray, a pump is used to force coating through a small orifice or
tip at low hydrostatic pressure. To complete atomization and stop tails from fomiing, low-
pressure (lO-30 psi [69-207 kPa]) compressed air is added to the airless spray by an air cap.
3-7
Electrostatic Spray Systems
Electrostatic spraying permits coating application on irregularly shaped, electrically

conductive structures and components. The paint is electrically atomized and charged as it leaves
the edge of a spinning bell or the electrical charge is applied to paint particles already atomized
by conventional or airless spray.
Spinning Bell & Disk Method
Centrifugal force propels the coating to the edge of the rapidly spinning disk or bell
where coating droplets are charged as they spin off the edge and onto the surface, forming a
spray pattern. Such rotating disks are used on automatic lines.
Air Atomizing and Airless Electrostatic Spray
Air atomizing and airless electrostatic spray are suitable for field application during
maintenance painting. The electrostatic charge is applied either by an electrode protmding in
front of the gun and extending into the paint atomizing zone, or by an electrode extending into
the paint stream in the gun just before atomization.
Safety
The fluid hose contains a special grounding wire or features a jacket conductive to
electrostatic charges. The painter is grounded when gripping the gun handle since the handle is
connected to ground through a high-voltage cable as well as through the hose. It is essential that
all electrically conductive objects, including workers, be grounded when within l5 feet (4.6 m)
of the gun operating area. In addition to grounding the power supply, it is recommended that the
unit be located at least 20 feet (6.l m) from the spray area.
Electrostatic Spray Application Techniques
When painting, follow the manufacturer°s guidance in how far to hold the electrostatic
gun from the surface. The distance should never be much greater than l2 inches (30.5 cm).
Otherwise, the sprayed paint particles may be more attracted to the painter's grounded hand than
to the object being painted.
Lower atomizing air pressures are required because the electrostatic charge aids in paint
particle formation. Likewise, considerably lower fluid pressures are necessary and the degree of
atomization is usually finer than with other methods.
Paints must be kept from accumulating on the electrode wire and on the face of the
nozzle. Paint deposits may be removed with a bristle brush and solvent, but only after the high
voltage has been turned off.
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SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Application of Industrial Coatings
Recommended Solvents
The standard formulations of most solvent-based paints can be sprayed successfully by

electrostatic spray, providing that the paint conductivity is not so high as to form a grounding
path for the high voltage. Paints with solvents too conductive for electrostatic spray application
can seldom be modified to suit it.
Plural-Component Spray
The plural component method of spraying coatings

combines at the nozzle components of coatings that cure by
chemical or themioset reaction. Each component is
automatically proportioned as recommended by the
manufacturer and combined in either a manifold/mixing
chamber immediately before spraying or when exiting the tip
of an airless or conventional air spray gun.
Plural component spray systems consist of: i
° Coating material feed system for each component

Proportioning pump
Chemically-resistant hoses for unmixed components
Mixer manifold assembly
Whip hose
Airless or conventional air spray gun piurai (jompgnem Spray Line
Solvent-purge system
Filters
Heaters (when used in lieu of solvents to adjust viscosity)
Off-ratio alarm/shut-down (optional)
Typical plural component materials include epoxies, polyurethanes, polyureas, polysulfides,

and silicones.
High-Volume, Low-Pressure Spray
High-volume low-pressure spray (HVLP) systems resemble conventional air spray

systems. The air cap, fluid needle, fluid tip, fluid adjusting screw, spreader adjusting valve,
trigger, and gun body are similar. This delivery method can be compared to using a 74:1 airless
spray pump with a large orifice opening in the spray tip to deliver approximately 1.25 gallons a
(4.7 liters) minute. HVLP is used extensively in wood finishing, farm equipment manufacturing 3
automotive, and commercial and residential applications.
3
Summary
Coatings are prepared for application by mixing and sometimes by thinning, tinting, and
straining. Coatings are most commonly applied by spray but may be applied by brush and roller
Other methods of coating application include electrostatic, plural component, and high-volume
low-pressure spray (HVLP).
3- l 0
SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Coatings for Industrial Steel Structures
Coatings for Industrial Steel Structures

John Kern, Technical Consultant
Introduction
This article provides basic information on coating systems used on industrial steel
structures. Different environments require different coating systems with significantly different
chemical and physical properties.
Background
The removal of deteriorated coatings for either repair or replacement of damaged

coatings can be very expensive and require containment, collection, on-site storage, laboratory
analysis, and special disposal procedures. In the past, due to economics and scheduling,
decisions were sometimes made to use cheaper coating materials with shorter protection times
but this does not pay off in the long run.
Surface Preparation of New Steel
Abrasive blasting is usually the preferred method of preparing steel surfaces for coating
because it is typically more economical and quicker than power tool or hand tool cleaning while
providing both the desired level of cleanliness and the desired profile height.
The recommended level of abrasive blast cleaning for coating application on steel
depends upon four factors:
Generic type of primer

Severity of environment
Desired service life
Requirements of the coating manufacturer
Different generic coating systems require different levels of surface cleanliness. Thus,
commercial blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 6/NACE No. 3) may be adequate for alkyds, drying oils, or
waterborne coatings in mild atmospheric environments, and a higher level of cleanliness, such as
near-white blast cleaning (SSPC-SP 10/NACE No. 2) may be required for coating systems in
immersion or severe environmental service.
Manufacturers of primers for coating systems for steel typically publish in their product
data sheets (PDSs) both the recommended cleaning levels and profile heights. The owner or
specifier will accept the manufacturer's recommendation or may state the application
requirements in the specification.
3-ll
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Coatings for Industrial Steel Structures
Primers for Steel Surfaces
Primers for steel surfaces are formulated to bond well, provide corrosion resistance
through either application thickness or cathodic protection, and provide a suitable surface for
overcoating.
Surface-Tolerant Primers
Surface-tolerant primers are designed to provide corrosion protection for a lower degree
of surface cleanliness. Topcoating with a barrier coating is highly recommended to provide film
integrity and additional corrosion protection. The SSPC standard frequently specified is SSPC-
TU 1, Surface-Tolerant Coatings for Steel.
These primers are typically chosen when abrasive blast cleaning is not possible. Their use
is not recommended solely to reduce surface preparation costs, because coating performance
may be significantly compromised.
There are several types of surface-tolerant primers:
° Low-viscosity (penetrating) coatings, such as oil-based, alkyds, and waterborne acrylic

coatings that contain corrosion-inhibitive pigments.
° Barrier coatings, such as epoxy mastics and moisture-cured polyurethanes containing

laminar pigments (e. g., aluminum flake and micaceous iron oxide), to impede moisture
transmission.
' Unpigmented, low-viscosity (penetrating) two-component epoxy and polyurethane

coatings with barrier-building topcoats.
Pre-Construction Primers
Epoxies, acrylics, alkyds, moisture-curing polyurethanes, and solvent-bome and

waterborne inorganic zinc pre-construction primers have all been used successfully in the steel
industry. These are sometimes referred to as universal primers. After application, the coated
surface is given a secondary surface preparation that may include complete removal of the pre-
construction primer but more commonly consists of:
° Surface preparation of weld and damaged areas (abrasive blasting to SSPC-SP

10/NACE No. 2 Near-White Blast Cleaning or SSPC-SP 3 Power Tool Cleaning,
SSPC-SP 15, Commercial Grade Power Tool Cleaning, or SSPC-SP l 1, Power Tool
Cleaning to Bare Metal)
° Light (sweep) blast cleaning (in accordance with SSPC-SP 7) to remove surface
contaminants
3-12
Desired properties for pre-construction primers include:
° Corrosion protection of steel during fabrication

' Ease of application in thin continuous films
' Resistance to damage from welding or off-gassing during welding
° Compatibility with coating systems to be applied after secondary surface preparation
Coating Systems Used on Steel
Coating systems used to repair damaged coatings are usually identical or of the same
generic type as the original coating system in order to be compatible.
Alkyds and Other Systems that Cure by Oxidation of Drying Oils
Alkyds and other drying oil coating systems have been used on steel structures in mild
atmospheric interior and exterior service. A silicone alkyd finish coat may be used in exterior
service to provide a greater resistance to weathering.
Epoxy Systems
A wide variety of epoxy coating systems may be used in both atmospheric and immersion
service:
° Epoxy polyamides for atmospheric and immersion service in the offshore, petroleum,
and marine industries
° A range of amine-cured epoxies for chemical immersion service
° Epoxy mastics for use as tie coats and surface tolerant coatings
' Phenolic epoxies for hard, chemically-resistant systems
' Novolacs for combined chemical, solvent, and heat resistance
° Solvent-free epoxies for edge retention
When epoxies are used in exterior atmospheric service, aliphatic polyurethane finish
coats can impart greater resistance to weathering. Epoxy systems are specified according to
SSPC-Paint 42, Epoxy Polyamide/Polyamidoamine Primer, Performance-Based.
Coal-Tar Epoxy Systems
Coal-tar epoxy coating systems have been used

on underground piping, interiors of wastewater tanks,
and on steel pilings immersed in water. Though their use
is restricted by health and safety regulations, coal-tar
epoxy systems have good water and chemical resistance
and good film builds. SSPC-Paint 32, Coal-Tar Emulsion
Coating and SSPC-Paint 33, Coal-Tar Mastic, Cold-
Applied, are specified for these systems.
Coal-Tar Epoxy
Coated Steel Pipe
3-13
Polyurethane Systems
Polyurethanes are available in both two-component thennosetting and single-component

moisture-curing systems with physical properties that range from hard and rigid to soft and
elastomeric. The elastomeric formulations have less chemical resistance than the harder
formulations. The SSPC standards specified for these systems are SSPC-Paint 36, Two-
Component Weatherable Aliphatic Polyurethane Topcoat, Performance-Based, SSPC-Paint 38,
Single-Component Moisture-Cure Weatherable Aliphatic Polyurethane Topcoat, Performance-
Based and SSPC-Paint 41, Moisture-Cured Polyurethane Primer or Intermediate Coat,
Micaceous Iron Oxide Reinforced, Perfomiance-Based.
-Q /
Zinc-Rich Coating on
Tank
Polyurethane Tank
Finish
Zinc-Rich Coatings
Inorganic and organic zinc-rich coatings can provide galvanic cathodic protection. ln
severe service environments, organic zinc-rich coatings must be topcoated to provide longer
protection. Inorganic zinc-rich coatings may be used with or without topcoats in mild
atmospheric environments. The SSPC standards specified for these systems are SSPC-Paint 20,
Zinc-Rich Coating Type I - Inorganic and Type II - Organic, and SSPC-Paint 29, Zinc Dust
Pigmented Primer, Performance-Based.
3-14
Polysiloxane Coating Systems
Polysiloxane coatings have good chemical, weather, and heat resistance and can be
formulated to provide excellent color retention. They are relatively low in VOCs and have been
used successfully on steel bridges, storage tanks, and chemical and marine service.
Waterborne Acrylic Systems
Several waterborne acrylic coating systems are formulated for use in relatively mild
atmospheric environments. Waterborne acrylic finish coats can be applied to exterior epoxy
systems to impart good weathering properties.
Polyurea Coating Systems
Two-component polyurea systems typically do not contain any volatile organic

compounds (VOCS). They are nomially applied using specialized plural-component equipment,
which utilizes high-pressure and high temperatures to spray the viscous mixed blend. Because of
the rapid curing reaction, it is necessary to mix the two components inside an impingement mix
spray gun, rather than by the usual pre-mixing method (hot potting).
There are many uses for polyurea coatings, including coating/lining applications over
concrete, geo-textile membranes, corrosion control and aesthetics, as well as coating plastics. In
each of these applications, the rapid curing permits the coated products to be quickly placed into
service. The SSPC standards specified for these systems are SSPC-Paint 39, Two-Component
Aliphatic Polyurea Topcoat, Fast- or Moderate-Drying, Performance-Based, SSPC-Paint 43,
Direct-To-Metal Aliphatic Polyurea Coating, Performance-Based, and SSPC-Paint 45, Two-
Component, Thick-Film Polyurea and Polyurea/Polyurethane Hybrid Coatings, Performance-
Based.
Summary
A coating system is selected based on the prevailing service environment, the intended
service life of the structure, the level of surface preparation possible, the desired service life of
the coating, access to the work, and economic considerations. In an ideal world, users would
conduct performance tests of candidate systems on steel panels or test areas on the structure to be
protected. This, however, is both expensive and time consuming. Today, coating manufacturers
are more likely to follow how well their systems are preforming in service and refer potential
users to the current users to observe the performance. The chart that follows lists the SSPC
recommended environmental zones.
3-l5
SSPC Environmental Zone Chart
Zone
Characterislics of Service Environment
No.
Dry interiors where structural steel is enbedded in concrete, encased in masonry, or protected by merrbrarie or non-
0
corrusive contact type fireproaling.
1A Interior, normaliy dry (or temporary protection). Very mild.
1B Exterior, normally dry. Coatings may be subject to exposure to sunlight.
ZA Frequently wet by fresh water. Coating may be subject to condensation, splash, spray or frequent immersion.
2B Frequently wet by salt water. Coating may be subject to oondensation, splash, spray, or frequent immersion.
ZC Fresh water immersion. Coating is constantly submerged.
2D Salt water irrmersion. Coating is constanliy submerged;
3A Chemical atmospheric exposure, acidic (pH 20 to 5.0)
3B Chenical atmospheric exposure, neutral (pH 5.0 to 10,0)
30 Chemical atmospheric exposure, alcaline (pH 10.010 120)
3D
Chemicà atmospheric expos-iure, presence of mild solvent fumes.
Intermittent oontact with aliphatic hydrocarbon solvents (e.g,, mineral spiriis), lower aloohols, glycols, etc.
Cherrical atmospheric exposure, severe.
3E includes oxidìzing chemicals, fumes from strong sotvents, extreme pHs, or combinaiions of these with high
temperatures.
4A Extremely high temperatures, e.g., 650° F (330= C) and higher
3-16
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Polysiloxane Coatings
Polysiloxane Coatings
Mark Schultz, Project Development Manager - Marine
Sherwin-Williams
Introduction
Polysiloxane coatings are based on the functional group siloxane (Si-O-Si). Inclusion of
inorganic silicon into an organic coating resin provides performance benefits. For example,
silicone alkyd technology developed in the l950s has been a U.S. Navy mainstay for decades.
The alkyd component provides ease of application and the silicone component provides color
and gloss retention superior to a standard alkyd.' While an improvement in performance, silicone
alkyd eventually chalks, fades, and discolors due to the limiting performance ofthe alkyd. A
better performing solution that incorporates the inertness of inorganic silicon and carrier
properties of an organic coating resin was still sought.
A patented epoxy polysiloxane entered the marketplace in the l990s.2 This technology is
comprised of interpenetrating epoxy and siloxane networks. Siloxanes by themselves inherently
lack the necessary properties-poor impact and flexibility-to be used as general-purpose
coatings. Thus, dual reactivity, or blending of an organic epoxy and inorganic siloxane, provides
high performance in one product. The epoxy component provides ease of application, adhesion,
flexibility, and corrosion protection while the siloxane component provides color and gloss
retention, weatherability, abrasion resistance, and chemical resistance.
Application
Epoxy polysiloxanes are chosen for superior long-term performance. This chemistry will
out perform the traditional alkyd or polyurethane systems. While initial material costs are higher,
long-term performance and longevity pay back this investment several times over.3 Typically,
epoxy polysiloxane is applied in two coats (epoxy or zinc rich primer with an epoxy
polysiloxane topcoat) versus three coats (traditional zinc primer, epoxy mid-coat, and
polyurethane topcoat). Given the labor cost advantage, proven long-term corrosion protection,
and extended color and gloss retention, epoxy polysiloxane makes a practical choice for the
freeboard and topside of vessels. The United States Coast Guard has been using epoxy
polysiloxane since the early 2000s. The U.S. Navy began use of epoxy polysiloxane in 2010 as
part of their high-durability topside systems designed to reduce vessel total ownership cost.
3-l7
SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Polysiloxane Coatings
EE :;:\::::::::: ¡
P "' Irlilire
_'
USCG Cutter Matinicus (WPB 1315) 110-Foot patrol craft using polysiloxane topcoat on the vessel freeboard
and topside.
Of particular importance to applicators and end users is that epoxy polysiloxane does not
contain isocyanates (-NCO). This compound is considered a potential human carcinogen and is
present during traditional polyurethane topcoat application. The fact that excellent color and
gloss retention can be achieved without the use of a polyurethane finish coat is a significant and
often the deciding factor to use epoxy polysiloxane technology.
(Left): USS BonHomme Richard (LHD-6) with

haze gray low solar absorption polysiloxane
applied to the freeboard. Coating approved to
MIL-PRF-24635, Type V, Class 2, Grade B.
(Right): Polysiloxane is specified by the U.S.

Navy for anchor chain due to its good impact
and abrasion resistance.
I.
3-18
SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Polysiloxane Coatings
Table 1. Comparison of Alkyd, Polyurethane, and Epoxy Polysiloxane Properties

Ratings are Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor
Property Medium Oil Alkyd Aliphatic or Acrylic Epoxy Polysiloxane

Polyurethanes
Ease of Excellent Poor Fair
Use/Repair
Number of One Two Two
Components
Color and Gloss Poor to Fair Excellent Good
Retention
Abrasion Fair Excellent Excellent
Resistance
Weather Fair Excellent Excellent
Resistance
General
Chemical/Solvent Poor Good Excellent
Spill Resistance
Ease of Use (single Both Corrosion and UV
Best Attribute component & surface Color and Gloss Protection in One
tolerant) Retention Product
Disadvantage Color and Gloss Ease of Use (two Cost
Retention component)
Performance
Several critical aspects of the siloxane component explain its performance:
l. Si-O has a bond strength of 193.5 Kcal/mole. The C-C bond (as found in organic
coatings) has a bond strength of l45 Kcal/mole. Thus, the higher inorganic Si-O bond
strength aids in the prevention of chalking, cracking, and performance loss versus solely
carbon based polymer networks.4
2. With organic coatings, oxidative degradation of C-C bonds on the polymer surface, as
accelerated by radiant energy such as UV light, greatly impacts weathering and long-temi
performance. With siloxanes, the Si-O bond is already oxidized and therefore oxidative
degradation cannot occur. This again provides enhanced long-term performance.
While epoxy polysiloxanes have dominated the marketplace to date, both single- and two-
component acrylic polysiloxanes are available. The acrylic polysiloxanes have increased
flexibility, easier recoatability, and excellent weathering. However, they lack the corrosion
protection afforded by the epoxy component. Project requirements, including structure location,
aesthetics, and maintenance cycle, will drive the choice between epoxy and acrylic polysiloxane
technology.
For both epoxy and acrylic polysiloxane technology, a key and interesting aspect is the
dependency upon atmospheric moisture to cure. F orty percent relative humidity or greater is
3-19
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Polysiloxane Coatings
recommended for optimal polymerization, although products will cure at lower RH with an
extended dry time. This moisture sensitivity is important for both because once material
containers are opened, the polysiloxane has a limited shelf life and suitable RH is required for
proper cure - both of which must be closely monitored.
Summary
Polysiloxane coatings offer a range of benefits such as:

- Long-term color and gloss performance comparable to polyurethanes
- Isocyanate-free
- Corrosion and chemical resistance
- Abrasion resistance
- Resistant to stains and dirt accumulation
- Meets emissions regulations in strict environments
- Cost savings
- Replaces multi-coat systems, providing equal or better performance
References
(1) SSPC Paint Specification No. 21, White or Colored Silicone Alkyd Paint, Type I High
Gloss, Type II Medium Gloss, 1982.
T (2) Polysiloxane Coatings Innovations. Norman Mowrer, Ameron International.
: (3) Time and Cost Savings Associated with the Application of MIL-PRF-24635 Type V
Polysiloxane To The Freeboard of the USS BonHomme Richard (LHD-6). Gordon
Kulijian, Paul Slebodnick, and Mark Schultz (Mega Rust 201 1).
(4) Recent Advances In Polysiloxane Coatings. L.H.P. Gommans, Shu Yi Chu, Karen
Constable. Ameron (New Zealand) LIMITED; E. Hemmings and L. Bailey Ameron
(Australia) PTY.
(5) ASM Handbook, Volume 5B Protective Organic Coatings. ASM International, 2015
(6) Corrosion Protection by Protective Coatings. Charles G. Munger, NACE International
1994.
3-20
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Elevated/High Temperature Coatings
Elevated/High Temperature Coatings and Coatings

for Insulated Service
Michael F. MeLampy,
Director of Business Development,
PPG Protective & Marine Coatings
Introduction
In the protective coatings

industry sector, there is a significant
need to provide corrosion protection
for steel that gets extremely hot or
cold, covering temperature ranges
from -300°F to l200°F (-l85°C to
650°C). Protection of carbon and
stainless steels is important for the
long life of the structures and
processes involved. Many industries
process materials with cold and heat,
including electric power plants,
refineries, LNG pipelines and
vessels, offshore, FSPOs,
petrochemical facilities, cement plants, Refinery
fertilizer plants and pulp and paper mills. C°"“°SY PPG Pmtective &
Marine Coatings
This article will discuss special issues raised for coatings that can be used for higher
temperature service. Coatings used for high temperature service must be able to withstand all
thermal issues that might develop during the operation of the equipment where the coating is
applied. The coating must survive the thermal issues and then provide for corrosion protection
when temperatures fall and can allow for corrosion to take place, typically less than 2l2°F
(l00°C).
Thermal Issues
Coating selection can be limited based on operating maintenance and upset temperatures.
Often, maintenance procedures can require use of high-pressure steam at up to 300 psi at 422°F
(126°C) to de-sludge or clean pipe and vessel interiors for inspection or for improved product
throughput / efficiency. Upset temperatures can be the result of a process imbalance that can lead
to overheating or other effects. Many generic coating systems have properties that can limit their
effectiveness when exposed to this potential range of service temperatures and conditions.
Thermal shock of coatings can occur regularly as a result of rainstorms, or even active
fireproofing systems that are tested periodically, spraying large amounts of water onto
3-21
SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Elevated/High Temperature Coatings
hot-operating and insulated equipment. Typically, coatings in both insulated and non-insulated
service can be stressed by drastic temperature changes and thermal cycling.
Thermal shock or thermal cycling can induce excessive stress on a coating as the coating
must expand and contract with the substrate. For example, natural gas regenerators can cycle
from -40°F to 600°F (-40°C to 3 16°C) three times a day. This thermal cycling can cause coating
systems to fail if the coatings are hard and brittle. Some coatings systems that provide good
thermal protection at these temperatures fail due to the constant cyclic nature of the service,
while more flexible coatings can provide longer service life.
ISO themial or continuous service at elevated temperatures can also have negative effects
as some coatings will continue to cure and crosslink and, as a result, the coating film continues to
shrink until it ultimately cracks, much like an aged alkyd.
In addition, aesthetics can be an important aspect of coatings with special thermally-

stable pigments required. Some colors may be hard to formulate and some may have upper
temperature limits where the pigment can change color.
Insulated Service
Coatings for use in insulated service have even higher performance requirements than
coatings for non-insulated service. Corrosion under insulation (CUI) is accelerated corrosion that
takes place under insulation typically used to conserve energy, to help with process control, and
to protect workers from temperature extremes. CUI is an issue for facility owners in many
industries that use heat or cold in their industrial processes, including chemical processing,
refining, fertilizer manufacturing, and power generation. Insulation used in these applications is
generally mechanically attached to the substrate vessel or pipeline and is typically covered with
cladding. Differing micro-environments can develop in different areas of the assembly,
depending upon the insulation materials chosen _ mineral wool, fiberglass, foam glass, calcium
silicate, pearlite, or aerogel blankets. Additionally, spray-applied liquid insulating coatings can
be used. Cladding can be made out of metal or plastic and is applied to protect the insulation
from physical damage and to keep water away from the insulation and substrate.
Eventually, water and entrained contaminants can leak through the cladding into the
insulation and can migrate to the carbon or stainless steel substrate. This water, with its entrained
contaminants, can be collected and trapped by the cladding and absorbed into the insulation
material. The water can then collect and travel down a vertical surface to collect on horizontal
surfaces. Water can pass through the cladding as a result of workers damaging the cladding
materials when accessing the local area to work or adjusting equipment as needed. In some cases
the cladding is installed with gaps or shingles to collect water. Rain water or water from deluge
or active fireproofing systems can leak and flood into the insulation assembly. Along with water,
contaminants, including acid rain and chlorides, also enter into the assembly. As the water is
heated by the underlying hot steel surfaces, the contaminants often become more concentrated.
As more water and contaminants enter the assembly, the water can collect and pool at the
bottom of the cladding where it can soak into the insulation material. When water gets close to
the hot substrate and makes contact with it, the actual substrate surface temperature can be
3-22
lowered so that a corrosion cell develops, even when the process is in full operation. Often the
water can be trapped near the top of the outside of the piping where surface tension can hold it
between the insulation (typically more rigid types) and the piping, allowing it to contact and cool
the surface. This water can boil at the steel surface if hot enough. As the water volume increases,
the steel can be exposed to an active corrosion cell for long periods of time.
As described, insulated service can be very harsh and coating systems can fail
prematurely or unexpectedly if not properly selected. Coating systems must be able to maintain
film integrity throughout the maximum and minimum temperature cycles and provide corrosion
protection when temperatures and the presence of water and contaminants allow the formation of
a corrosion cell. The coating system must be able to sustain boiling water if substrate
temperatures will exceed l21°F (100°C). This can be an important characteristic for new-builds
and for protection during shut downs that may become extended.
NACE SP0l98-10: Standard Practicefor Control ofCorr0sion Under Thermal

Insulation and Fireproofing Materials _ A Systems Approach provides general
recommendations for upper temperature limits for various generic coating types. See Table 1 for
a brief description of coatings for carbon steel with insulation. Table 1 does not represent all
systems and does not represent systems for stainless steel.
Table 1: Peak Temperature for Generic Coating Systems For CUI
System Type Surface Peak Coats/DFT

Preparation Temperature mils
CS-1 HB Epoxy SP-10 -50 to 140°F 2/10
(-45 to 60°C)
CS-2 FB Epoxy SP-10 -50 ÍO 140017 /12
(-45 ÍO 600€)
CS-3 Epoxy Phenolic SP-10 -50 '(0 300017 2/10
(-45 '(0 60°C)
CS-4 Epoxy Novolac SP-10 -50 'E0 205017 2/12
(-45 tO ÓOOC)
CS-5 TSA SP-5 -50 to 1100°F /125
(-45 to 5950€)
CS-6 Inorganic Co-Polymer, SP-10 -5ot012oo°F 2/10
lnert Multipolymeric (45t065o°c)
Matrix
CS-8 Bulk or Shop-Primed Low-pressure -50 to 750°F Various
Pipe Coatings With Water cleaning (-45 to 4000€)
Inorganic Zinc
Table 1 identifies typical coatings used for high temperature service to prevent corrosion
under insulation for carbon steel. Note that within each generic category there are many coatings
formulations to choose from, and not all will have the same performance. Some will not perform
as well as expected and others may perfomi at slightly higher temperatures. One coating is not
3-23
practical for all applications as coatings designed for higher temperature service have more
flexibility, which means that these coatings may not be the best choice for service temperatures
under 2l2°F (l00°C).
Stainless Steel
The primary reason for applying protective coatings on austenitic and duplex stainless
steels is to prevent chlorides from contacting the surface of the substrate, which can lead to
external stress corrosion cracking (ESCC). ESCC can develop when chloride ions are present
from the process, from the environment, or from improperly specified insulation materials. It can
also develop when dissolved oxygen is present or the metal is under stress. This stress typically
occurs when components are cold-worked or bent or when components are welded together.
Once the conditions supporting ESCC are present, chlorides can migrate into the grain
boundaries. The direction of this attack is not predictable and often results in liquid leaks where
products begin to seep through the pipe or vessel. Pitting corrosion can also occur. Unfortunately,
and depending on the process, liquids, and pressures, catastrophic failures can occur. Thus, one
of the primary concerns with stainless steel is establishing barrier protection over the service
temperature range.
Coating Systems
One of the first things to consider after the process and temperatures of the given service
environment are understood is to determine if an organic coating or an inorganic coating is
required for the service. Organic coating systems have hydrocarbon chains that can be broken
down if temperatures exceed the chemical bonds and limitations. Inorganic coatings will not
typically suffer from this. Organic resins typically used for elevated temperature coatings include
epoxies and acrylics. Inorganic coatings include inorganic zinc and silicones (polysiloxanes).
Other coatings use a combination of polymers. These include the inert multipolymeric matrix
coatings, inorganic copolymers, and inorganic ceramic coatings. These coatings can use organic
resins as part of the mechanism for proper inorganic coatings application and surface protection
at lower temperatiires, while the inorganic components provide for better protection at higher
temperatures. Additional thermal spray or metallized coatings are often used for thermal service
and various alloys and grades of aluminum can be used for different environments.
Generally speaking, one should consider epoxy coatings, fusion-bonded epoxies, and
phenolics and novolacs as immersion-grade coatings that are ideal for service temperature ranges
below 300°F to 400°F (l50°C to 204°C). Of course, each type of coating and specific
formulation will have specific temperature limits. Coating temperature limits can, at times, be
referred to as maximum temperature limits for dry service. For insulated service, all coatings
should be considered for temperature service based on wet conditions, as most all insulated
service can become wet.
3-24
Silicones
For many years, silicones, silicone acrylics, and modified silicones were thought to be the
best coatings for elevated temperatures because they have good temperature ranges and are also
resistant to ultra-violet (UV) light and oxidation. Typically, silicones can withstand service
temperatures from 700°F to l000°F (370°C to 538°C) or more, depending on pigments. Silicone
acrylics and modified silicones can typically withstand service temperatures to 400°F (204°C)
before the acrylic components become affected by the temperature. In many cases, silicone
acrylics are marketed to work at temperatures up to 500°F (260“C) or higher. However, the
acrylics and other modifiers, which are typically organic, can lose performance properties at
200°F (204°C). These coatings can generally be applied in two coats, depending on formulation,
in very thin layers of 1 or 2 mils (25-50 um) for a total of 2-4 mils (50 -100 um) dry film
thickness (DFT). As such, silicones, which have limited capacity for film build by themselves,
provide for limited corrosion resistance and can often fail or suffer from premature rusting as a
result of ambient temperature service below 2l2°F (l00°C).
As an example, think of a backup generator with an exhaust muffler or stack coated with
silicone coatings and consider how quickly the coating fails. The coating does not fail as a result
of temperature (if specified properly) yet the substrate can rust quickly because it is only hot
when the generator is ruririing and little or no corrosion protection is provided during generator
shutdown.
Silicones by themselves do not provide significant corrosion protection, and they can fail
if exposed to boiling-water. Silicones are a good cosmetic topcoat for other high temperature
coatings when aesthetics are important. Temperature limits for these systems should be checked;
the specifier must accept the lowest temperature the system components allow. In addition, these
systems should be verified for the service. For example, inorganic zinc silicone systems can fail
completely in cyclic service in natural gas regenerator services in less than a year and a half,
even though the temperatures are well within the range of the process. Thermal cycling causes
the coating system to fail.
Silicones are not recommended for carbon steel in harsh insulated service because they
offer limited corrosion protection. Use of silicones is sometimes recommended for stainless steel
in preventing ESCC; however, others think that the coating is too thin to provide any real barrier
protection.
Inorganic Zinc Coatings (IOZ)
IOZ coatings provide sacrificial corrosion protection to carbon steel especially for non-
insulated service on equipment such as smoke stacks, pipes, tanks, and vessels. They can also be
useful for dry high-temperature service. These coatings can provide good service life, especially
if topcoated with a silicone or other appropriate coating that can provide performance over the
temperature range. Inorganic zinc coatings offer good sacrificial protection as long as they are
not in an excessively moist or wet service. Recognize that zinc is consumed in the process of
corrosion protection and can become depleted, leading to corrosion of the substrate and
aggressive CUI.
3-25
Most large, multinational oil and gas companies

have moved away from using IOZ coatings in CUI
service, while others continue to rely on IOZ for CUI
protection even though the risk for severe corrosion and
even perforations with premature equipment failure is
elevated. Additional expenditures may be required for
coating assessments or risk-based inspections that
involve removing the cladding and insulation to
determine coating condition.
¡_
Over the years, some have reported that use of
zinc coatings at temperatures between l40°F to l76°F
(60°C to 80°C) can result in reverse galvanic corrosion -
where carbon steel corrodes to protect the zinc. While
this has not been confirmed in a laboratory setting, many
believe that this phenomenon occurs, which is something
else to consider when selecting a coating system. As a
general rule, zinc coatings should not be applied to
austenitic stainless steels. SSPC-Paint 20, Zinc-Rich
Coating Type I Inorganic and Type II - Organic is
. _ St k
frequently specified for these coatings. courtesy ¡,Pâc¡,Sr0tect¡ve &
Marine Coatings
Epoxies, Fusion-Bonded Epoxies, Phenolics, and Novolacs
Epoxy coatings can be formulated for chemical resistance and also to be very hard and
tightly crosslinked, which makes them great for immersion service. In general, epoxy-based
materials are subject to chalking when exposed to sunlight and ultraviolet light.
Bisphenol A-based epoxy resins and fusion-bonded epoxies are usually good for service
temperatures up to l40°F (60°C). While epoxy phenolics can generally withstand temperature
ranges up to 300°F (l50°C), and the novolac subset is typically a bit harder and can withstand
slightly higher temperatures up to 400°F (204°C).
Phenolic and novolac resin systems may be most appropriate for themial service
temperatures under 300°F to 400°F (150°C to 204°C). However, as the service temperature
increases, thermal degradation may also increase. Most coating manufacturers offer epoxy-,
phenolic-, and novolac-based coatings for CUI service. Some epoxies with glass flake or other
fillers can work at slightly higher temperatures. The asset owner and engineer should examine
this issue closely because further knowledge about specific products may lead them to limit
temperatures for epoxy-based materials in future specifications to improve long-term coating
performance. Short- and/or long-term problems may develop as a result of specifying generic
coatings without fully understanding the possible thermal issues. Ensure that the manufacturer
has a test process and good documentation about the coating system”s actual performance.
3-26
Epoxy coatings are often formulated for service in full-time immersion. Proper
application of these immersion-grade coatings is essential. Epoxies can continue to cure as
temperatures increase. At elevated temperatures, epoxies can suffer thermal degradation as a
result of the continued shrinking of the coating system, which may result in cracking. At more
elevated temperatures, thermal fatigue may result in premature failure of the coating. Standard
epoxies can often be a bit more flexible than phenolic epoxies or novolacs. Excessive thickness
can also lead to some of the same issues as excessive temperature.
As previously mentioned, epoxies can be formulated in many ways to provide for specific
services. Additives, such as glass flake and phenolics, can allow the cross-linking epoxies to hold
together at elevated temperatures. A potential negative is that the coatings may become more
brittle with these additives. SSPC-Paint 42, Epoxy Polyamide/Polyamidoamine Primer,
Performance-Based, is often specified for these coatings.
Fusion-Bonded Epoxy (FBE)
A powder coating, F BE is typically applied in a specialized shop and used for

underground pipelines or long pipe runs. NACE SP0l98 recommends that FBE coatings be
limited for use at peak service temperatures of l40°F (60°C) or lower. One issue that can arise
with FBE is that all of the joints must be treated with field-applied coatings after the installation
is Completed. This can be challenging and careful quality control is required.
Phenolic Epoxies
Phenolic epoxies are formulated with phenols, which allow the epoxies to exhibit better
heat tolerance, typically up to 300°F (l50°C). Phenolic epoxies are also good for immersion
service, and as such, they are very appropriate for CUI up to this temperature. Special care,
similar to that used for a tank lining, must be taken to ensure proper application. It is essential to
ensure that the coating system can sustain boiling water, thermal shock and thermal cycling.
Epoxy Novolacs. A subset of phenolic epoxies, epoxy novolacs are a reaction of phenols with
formaldehyde. Subsequent and additional reactions produce products such as epoxy phenol
novolacs and epoxy cresol novolacs. These resins form a highly cross-linked polymer network
with high temperature and chemical resistance, but low flexibility and a high degree of
brittleness. NACE SP0l98 states that these coatings can be used at service temperatures up to
400°F (204°C).
Other Generic Coatings
Other generic coatings technologies are often referred to as inorganic co-polymers, inert
multi-polymeric matrix coatings, or inorganic ceramic coatings. These coatings offer a more
flexible film so that the coating can continue to expand and contract with the substrate. It is
important to understand that coatings must have more flexible films for high temperature service.
This flexibility does not imply that the film can be bent, but that it can move microscopically in
conjunction with the heating and cooling of the substrate.
3-27
These one- or two-component coatings of differing pigment types can survive boiling
water and can perform well when subjected to thermal shock and thermal cycling. Some are
more surface-tolerant and can be applied to hot operating steel, which can be very beneficial for
maintenance and repair activities. Such thicker film coatings are not as hard or as adherent as
typical epoxies but can provide elevated temperature service or CUI. Typically, they provide
good barrier protection and some have added corrosion-irihibition characteristics that lengthen
service life.
Thermal Spray Coatings
Thermal spray coatings (TSC) are another system used to prevent corrosion on steel that
can become very hot. There are many differing metal types including aluminum, zinc, some
ratios of zinc aluminum, and nickel chromium alloy. Aluminum may be used for insulated
service and nickel chromium for boiler service.
One primary concem with TSC is whether or not the dry film thickness required will
provide the appropriate protection. In general, it is best practice to apply enough metal to exceed
the porosity thickness of the material, which would be about 10 mils (250 um) for aluminum. A
thin film sealer, such as 1 mil (25 um) of an epoxy or silicone, may be applied to cover up areas
with less film build than required. If the films are applied excessively, the aluminum and carbon
steel may become overstressed at the coating interface during thermal expansion, causing the
aluminum to disbond from the substrate.
Thermal spray aluminum (TSA), when applied as a barrier coating at the appropriate
thickness, can be used to prevent ESCC on austenitic stainless steel. TSA is applied as an
automated process in the shop with field touchup of the coated pipes as they are erected and
welded together. Some of the generic systems mentioned previously may be used during field
touch-up. However, thicker film overcoats, such as epoxies or other coatings above 1-2 mils (25-
50 um), are not recommended for application over TSA as this can lead to premature and
catastrophic failure.
TSA is somewhat common in insulated service, but problems that lead to CUI can occur
in inaccessible areas. In a scenario similar to inorganic zinc, excessive moisture present in the
insulation and cladding system can lead to quicker than expected aluminum consumption if a
corrosion cell forms. Thus the asset owner should be careful to set reasonable inspection
intervals to ensure that the systems are staying dry and that the TSA has not been consumed. The
standard specified for thermal spray is SSPC-CS 23.00/ AWS C2.23M/NACE No. 12,
Specification for the Application of Thermal Spray Coatings (Metallizing) of Aluminum, Zinc,
and Their Alloys and Composites for the Corrosion Protection of Steel.
Cryogenic Coatings
Cryogenic coating systems are usually installed with a face-sealed insulation system that
prevents wami water from entering the insulation space where it could condense and turn very
quickly to ice. When cryogenic coatings are improperly installed, very large and heavy ice
blocks can fomi that detach the insulation and cladding, and sometimes even the coating, from
3-28
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Elevated/High Temperature Coatiiigs
the pipe or vessel. In very cold service, stainless steel vessels and pipes are frequently specified.
Using a more flexible coating that provides good barrier protection will prevent chlorides from
making contact with the stainless steel, thereby helping to prevent ESCC. The coating will need
to survive all of the thermal issues related to this service, including pipe and vessel expansion
and contraction. Typically, and depending on the cyclic nature of the service, epoxy coatings,
such as phenolics, thermal spray aluminum, and some of the other generic coatings types,
provide the barrier protection needed for stainless steel and cryogenic temperatures.
Summary
The information provided here is a good starting point for those involved with coating
selection for high temperature and /or CUI service. It is very important to understand the
probable peak temperature, service temperature, and thermal cycling nature of the service. With
this information, a proper coating material selection can be made.
3-29
(
(
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Concrete Surface Preparation and Coatings
Concrete Surface Preparation and Coatings

Fred Gelfant, Vice President,
Research and Development
STONHARD/EPOPLEX
Introduction
Concrete is a widely used '.

construction material for all industrial, if.-,'_=f
i1'
commercial, institutional, and residential `,
structures as well as for infrastructuref -' L
roads, bridges, dams, tanks, and pipelines. ' ~ I'
Although concrete has many advantages as * _ ' `
a structural building material, it has ef: U- 1.
numerous disadvantages that often require É, ' .
coating, including porosity, cracks, joints, ¿' ~ ` . i
dust source, and susceptibility to chemical ¡Li M
attack. *"¡"i"";i" “A * `
Aggregate in a coating
Surface Preparation (C'°S°'"P)
Concrete surface preparation differs from surface preparation of steel, mostly due to the
inherent properties of concrete. Concrete is a non-uniform mixture of porous, permeable
materials (cement, sand, stone, additives, water) with low tensile strength and often numerous
cracks and defects. It will vary in properties, including moisture content, from site to site and
within any site due to the batched nature of its production and installation.
Before starting surface preparation, the first essential step is to inspect the concrete to be
coated to determine its condition. This includes inspecting and testing for existing coatings or
other chemical contamination, concrete soundness, surface strength, physical and chemical
damage, concrete defects (voids, cracks), and moisture issues. Many of these tests are required
for both new and existing concrete. New concrete may have moisture cure membranes, fomi
release agents, excess laitance, voids, etc. while existing concrete may have coatings, surface
hardeners, cracks, laitance, and other miscellaneous fomis of contamination, ranging from oil to
silicones. In addition, moisture membranes (placed under the concrete to prevent groundwater
intrusion, as recommended in ACI 302.1, Guide to Concrete Floor and Slab Construction, after
2004) may or may not be present on ground level floors and may or may not be functional in
either new or existing concrete.
SSPC-SP 13/NACE No. 6, Surface Preparation of Concrete states that the objective of
surface preparation is to produce a concrete surface that is suitable for the adhesion of the
specified protective coating system. It also requires that unsound concrete be removed so that
only sound concrete remains and that all concrete surfaces are repaired to the level required by
the coating system in the intended service condition.
3-30
The surface preparation method is selected to suit the existing concrete condition/degree
of contamination and the level of cleaning required. It should also be compatible with the
specified coating.
These cleaning methods, which generally precede or follow other methods, will not
change concrete profile:
° Vacuum cleaning
° Low-pressure water cleaning
° Detergent (degreasing) washing/scrubbing
° Acid etching
Chemical methods will change concrete profile slightly and will require thorough rinsing
and drying.
Dry mechanical surface preparation methods can remove existing coatings, will
significantly alter the profile, and also generate a lot of dust. These methods include using large
grinders for horizontal surfaces or smaller hand-held grinders; abrasive blast cleaning, primarily
vacuum shot blasting on horizontal surfaces; and scarifying, needle scaling, and scabbling.
Wet grinding, wet abrasive blasting, and high-pressure water blasting are other methods
of concrete surface preparation.
Inspection and Testing Concrete After Surface Preparation
Once surface preparation is complete, the surface cleanliness should be checked using the
clear tape test for any residual contamination from excess dust and the water drop test can be
used to check for hydrocarbons. Sound, structural concrete should also have a pH greater than 9.
Surface tensile strength can tested in accordance with ASTM D7234, Standard Test Method for
Pull-Off Adhesion Strength of Coatings on Concrete Using Portable Pull-Off Adhesion Testers.
The profile itself may be compared against the ICRI 310.2, Selecting and Specifying Concrete
Surface Preparation for Sealers, Coatings, Polymer Overlays, and Concrete Repair concrete
surface profile (CSP) chips. Most thin film coatings work is best over a CSP of 1-3, while thick
film coatings and systems usually required a CSP of 3-5.
The moisture content of the concrete may

be measured in accordance with the procedures
described in ASTM F 1869, Standard Test Method
for Measuring Moisture Vapor Emission Rate of
Concrete Subfloor Using Anhydrous Calcium
Chloride, and ASTM F2l70, Standard Test
Method for Determining Relative Humidity in
Concrete Floor Slabs Using in situ Probes. ASTM
F l 869 involves measuring the moisture flux near
the top or emitting from the top of the slab, while
ASTM F2l70 concems measuring the equilibrium
in situ Probe Testing
3-31
moisture level at a specific depth in the slab. Accepted levels are 15 g/24 hr/mz (3 lb/24 hr/ 1000
ft.2) and 80% for ASTM F 1869 and ASTM F2170 respectively, with some select coating
products being tolerant to higher levels.
Coating Concrete
Concrete is coated to protect it from chemical attacks, abrasion, and impact; to control the
presence of dust and moisture in an enclosed environment; to prevent water or salt intrusion; and
to contain water or chemicals and/or prevent contamination of tank contents. It may also be
coated for decorative reasons or to identify hazards or provide a form of conductive and/or spark
resistance that protects equipment and workers.
Types of Coatings Used on Concrete
Thin film coatings are usually defined as

thinner than 0.5 mm (20 mils) and are applied by
spray, roller, rakes, and squeegees. They are not
typically used in severe chemical or physical
environments. Thick film coatings, usually
defined as greater than 0.5 mm (20 mils), are
applied in single or multiple layers by spray,
rakes, squeegees, and trowels to flooring and
lining systems in more severe chemical or
physical environments. Flooring systems may be
self-leveling, slurry, slurry broadcast, broadcast, i
and troweled. Lining systems include primary or
secondary containment, thin and thick films, or fiber- Sl¡p`Res¡sta“t F|°°r¡"g
reinforced composites.
Polymer Resins Used for Coating Concrete
Acrylic enamel (latex paint) is used only in thin film coating applications. It displays
good UV-resistance with limited properties for chemical and abrasion resistance. Amine-cured
epoxies are used in all types of thick- and thin-film applications with broad-based chemical
resistance, excellent adhesion, and high hardness and physical strength. Urethanes (isocyanate-
cured aromatic or aliphatic polyols) and polyureas (isocyanate-cured aromatic or aliphatic
amines or aspartics) have a range of properties from elastomeric to very hard. They are used in
all types of thick- and thin-film applications and can be formulated for quick curing. The
aliphatic versions have exceptional UV-resistance and color stability.
Peroxide-cured, mostly methyl methacrylate, acrylates are used in the commercial

flooring and food industries where fast and low temperature curing is required for a quick retum
to service. They are available in thin and thick formulations, displaying moderate chemical
resistance and good UV resistance. Vinyl esters and peroxide-cured polyesters are often used for
highly chemical resistant applications and in highly filled or fiber-reinforced systems.
3-32
Critical Properties for Coatings on Concrete
Adhesion, or the ability to wet the surface and maintain the bond after cure, including
shrinkage, is critical for any coating and coating system placed over concrete. Note that
adhesion, as tested in accordance with ASTM D7234, can be dramatically affected by inadequate
surface preparation, contamination, and surface profile. The importance of physical strength
and/or flexibility depends on the service environment and degree of chemical exposure. Hard
coatings are designed to resist gouging and flexible coatings to bridge cracks. Rigid thicker film
coatings and systems require minimal shrinkage and a thermal expansion coefficient close to that
of the concrete. Other considerations with concrete coatings include the need for compatibility
with potentially high alkali, high-moisture environments at the concrete/coating interface and
permeability or impermeability, depending the environment.
Marking Lanes and

Hazards
Summary
Formulation problems, off-ratio and inadequate mixing, films that are too thick or thin,
environments that are too cold or hot or humid, an excess or lack of air flow, and missing recoat
window can all contribute to concrete coating failures. Other issues include:
° Bond failures - Primarily due to inadequate surface preparation (residual laitance) and/or
contamination
° Reflective cracking - Cracks in the concrete, moving or developing after coating installation,
“reflecting” through the coating, which cannot prevent concrete movement
' Chemical attack - Staining, etching, gloss changes, or blistering from short- or long-term
exposure to chemicals such as cleaners, solvents, acids, oxidizers, or food products
° Moisture issues - Blistering or delamination of coating due to excess moisture in the concrete
or incorrect coating installed
3-33
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Concrete Flooring Moisture Issues
Concrete Flooring Moisture Issues

Frank Apicella, Manager, R&D
and Fred Goodwin, Fellow Scientist
BASF Construction Chemicals
Sources of Moisture in Concrete
Water is an essential ingredient in concrete. Initially, moisture must be present for the
continued gain of strength and other desired properties. However, excessive moisture in a
concrete slab can lead to premature failure of floor coverings. Some of these failures may
originate from:
° Residual water from mixing, curing, or surface preparation.
° Natural occurring sources of water from the environment around concrete such as
precipitation, proximity to the water table/ground water, hydrostatic pressure, osmosis,
sub-slab vapor, indoor relative humidity, and condensation occurring as the concrete
temperature passes the dew point of the air.
° Water from damaged plumbing pipes, leakage, spills, or cleaning.
All concrete is permeable. The capillaries in the

concrete may be too small to permit liquid water from
transmitting, but water vapor can still freely move
through the slab. Even though the surface of the
concrete may appear dry, high levels of moisture may
be present.
Many high-quality flooring installations have

failed by blistering and peeling due to moisture vapor
migration through a concrete slab. Vapor emissions
from the slab, if not released, may build up pressure
Blistering of Flooring Material Due To
under a flooring system or othervvise deteriorate the _
system. Failure occurs when the adhesion of the flooring Concrete Mmsture Issues
material to the slab or the integral strength of the concrete is
less than the pressure from the moisture emissions.
Addressing concrete floor moisture begins with proper design, curing, and surface
preparation. Testing for moisture content and identifying its source are very important steps
toward controlling moisture within the concrete. The relevance and accuracy of any testing
depends on the frequency and locations of the tests performed. A moisture mitigation strategy
appropriate for the floor covering and structure is determined by these test results and knowledge
of the moisture source.
3-34
SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Concrete Flooring Moisture Issues
Testing Concrete For Excessive Moisture
ASTM F1869, Standard Test Method for

Measuring Moisture Vapor Emission Rate of
Concrete Subfloor Using Arihydrous Calcium
Chloride, is commonly called the calcium chloride
or the MVTR Test. It involves using a dish
containing calcium chloride is placed on the
'- concrete surface and covered with an airtight
._ dome. After waiting 72 hours, the dish is retrieved
F¡00f¡"8 D€|2m¡Hflf¡0fl caused By COHCWU-1 and weighed and the results reported as pounds of
M°¡st"“* ¡ss“es water emitted from 1,000 ft.2 (93 mz) of the surface
in 24 hours. The limitation of this method is that it
only measures moisture content in the top surface, which is not always representative of the
moisture deeper in the slab. There is no industry standard, however, many flooring
manufacturers recommend a maximum rate of 3 pounds per 1,000 ft.2 (93 mz) in 24 hours before
application of their materials.
.-
<\\\
\_ t
ASTM F1869 Testing Components
ASTM F1869 Test in Progress
ASTM F2170 Standard Test Method for Determining Relative Humidity in Concrete
Floor Slabs Using in situ Probes, is commonly called the relative humidity or the embedded
probe test.
In this method, a probe is used to detemiine the relative humidity of the concrete slab at a
specific depth. A hole is drilled into the slab and then a sleeve and probe are inserted to take a
reading. This method is more predictable than ASTM F1869 because it requires a depth of 40%
ofthe slab thickness when taking measurements. It also indicates the potential moisture reservoir
that can cause problems when the moisture distribution changes within the concrete. The sleeve
3-35
and probe may be left in the concrete and can be monitored over time. Note that concrete
reinforced with metal fibers can produce false readings. Many flooring manufacturers
recommend a maximum internal humidity of >85% relative humidity before application of their
flooring systems.
Usually, the best method for evaluating concrete moisture content involves a combination
of techniques that include:
° A visual survey to evaluate drainage issues
° An examination of maintenance and cleaning practices using water and a
comprehensive qualitative survey using moisture meters
' Quantitative testing using a combination of both ASTM F1869 and ASTM F2170
Combining ASTM F1869 and ASTM F2l70

provides an indication of both the current moisture
vapor emissions and the potential amount of moisture
can cause problems with the flooring system.
Moisture Mitigation
Moisture is constantly moving within concrete

and the quality of the concrete cannot be determined by
moisture--vapor emission test results. The moisture ASTM F2170 Tesfing Components
vapor emissions rate only reflects the condition of
the concrete floor during the test. All concrete floors emit some moisture in vapor form.
Concrete moisture emission is a natural process driven by environmental conditions that can
change with the temperature and humidity of the interior and exterior of the room being tested.
Moisture vapor emission test results carinot guarantee that floors will not fail unless the
slabs are sealed with a permanent penetrating moisture vapor emission control system. Once a
moisture level requiring remediation has been identified in the concrete to receive the flooring
system, several options are available. Beginning with the simplest, easiest, and least expensive
method may not resolve the issue, but can improve the situation so another method may prove
effective.
Waiting
The first step is to simply wait~the concrete will dry eventually if the ambient humidity
is lower than that within the concrete and external sources of moisture are minimized. Letting
nature run its course is the lowest cost, easiest, and simplest solution, but frequently the delay to
the construction schedule is not acceptable. Monitoring the intemal humidity with ASTM F2170
is especially helpful to gauge the effectiveness of natural drying.
3-36
SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Concrete Flooring Moisture Issues
Dehumidification
Specialized equipment that supplements the HVAC system designed for the structure is
commonly used to lower the relative humidity on exposed concrete or to increase the
temperature to accelerate drying. However, the concrete must achieve sufficient strength and
maturity before any attempt is made to accelerate natural drying. If attempting to dry a slab on
grade, dehumidification may initially lower the moisture of the upper surface of the slab, but
moisture issues may reoccur once the floor covering is installed. It is necessary to continue to
monitor concrete moisture during dehumidification and after the concrete has retumed to its
service environment before the flooring system is installed. Depending on the situation, this can
be time-intensive.
Application of a Moisture Mitigation System
Installing most moisture mitigation systems requires some sort of surface preparation.
Factors to consider include:
° Compatibility of the system with the flooring finish

° Cost
° Curing time
° Difficulty of installation
° Ability of the system to mitigate the existing moisture level
° Service life
Moisture mitigation systems applied as topical treatments to concrete have been

successful in reducing moisture vapor emission rates.
Liquid Membranes. Liquid membranes are usually water-resistant and acrylic- or epoxy-based.
Low-cost, water-resistant acrylics, typically used for less severe moisture problems, are the
simplest to apply. Epoxy systems offer the greatest degree of protection but most still limit the
amount of existing moisture emission that can be mitigated. Many epoxy-based liquid
membranes claim to reduce the amount of moisture emissions from up to 20 lbs. /1000 ft.2 (93
mz) /24 hours down to 3 lbs. or from 99% to 75% relative humidity in one application. Each
liquid membrane system will have specific requirements for substrate preparation to achieve
penetration, and may require multiple coats and trained installers for application. Many liquid
membranes are temperature-sensitive and can only be applied at room temperature.
Reactive Penetrants. Reactive penetrants are designed to react with the calcium hydroxide and
moisture within the concrete to form a gel or crystalline deposit that restricts moisture diffusion
through the concrete pore structure. Different concrete mix designs may produce mixed results
with these materials and over application can create difficult-to-remove surface deposits.
Modified Cementitious Overlays, These polymer-modified or polymer/cement hybrids form very

dense, partially permeable overlays that reduce moisture and alkalinity to help minimize
problems with the floor covering system.
3-37
Dispersive Membranes. Dispersive membranes include a porous sheet bonded to the concrete
with a polymer coating that absorbs the moisture and allows it to wick out through joints and
edges of the installed flooring. Most systems require a leveling material to offer compatibility
with the floor-covering adhesive. Some dispersive membranes are also designed to reduce the
appearance and spreading of cracks.
Assembly Systems. Assembly systems typically consist of a flexible, non-breathable polymer

sheet that has dimples or ridges to interlock with an adhesive to bond to the concrete surface. The
ridges either allow air movement to help dry the surface or provide a physical barrier so that a
layer of fast-drying mortar may be applied to the upper surface of the plastic, allowing it to
accept the flooring system.
Combination Systems. Combination systems utilize two or more of the previously described
approaches to moisture and alkali mitigation. Often the design is tailored to the measured
moisture-vapor emission rate (MVER). Higher emission rates, for instance, may require multiple
layering of coating and overlay or the use of a reactive penetrant with a moisture-retarding
coating, dispersive membrane, or cementitious overlay.
Consideration of Alternative Flooring
Different flooring systems have varying tolerances to concrete moisture. For example, a
thin-set ceramic tile flooring may pose fewer problems for high moisture than a thin-film epoxy
coating. Excess moisture can still cause efflorescence, staining, and biological growth, even with
moisture-tolerant flooring materials. Carpet can still mold even ifit is breathable, and polished
concrete frequently must be sealed with a vapor-inhibiting stain or coating that may then have
issues with moisture from the concrete.
Replace the Slab
To solve some moisture problems, the only solution may be to remove the concrete and
install a properly designed vapor-retarding barrier, using a low-moisture emission concrete mix
design to produce a properly cured new slab. This course of action is usually the last option to
consider after other approaches have failed.
Summary
Water found in concrete may originate with mixing, curing, or surface preparation, from
the environment, or from leakage, spills, or cleaning. Excessive moisture in a concrete slab can
lead to premature failure of floor coverings. Concrete may be tested for moisture in accordance
with the ASTM methods described here.
3-38
Suggested Reading List
ACI 302.lR (latest revision), “Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction,” American
Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
ASTM D4263 (latest revision), “Standard Test Method for Indicating Moisture in Concrete by
the Plastic Sheet Method,” Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 6.2, ASTM, West
Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM F1869 (latest revision), “Standard Test Method for Measuring Moisture Vapor Emission
Rate of Concrete Subfloor Using Anhydrous Calcium Chloride.” Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, Vol. 6.2, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
ASTM F2l70 (latest version), “Standard Test Method for Determining Relative Humidity in
Concrete Floor Slabs Using in situ Probes,” Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 6.2, ASTM,
West Conshohocken, PA.
Engineering Bulletin 1 19, “Concrete Floors and Moisture,” by Howard Kanare, Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, IL, 2005.
3-39
Thermal Spray Coatings
Bill Medford, Technical Consultant, and SSPC Staff
Introduction
Thermal spraying is a group of processes in which the thermal-spray feedstock material is

heated, atomized and propelled by a conveying gas stream, and deposited to form a laminar
thermal spray coating (TSC) on a prepared substrate.
The material used may be in

the form of a powder or wire. The
thermal spray gun generates the
necessary heat by using combustible
gases or an electric arc. As the
materials are heated, they are
changed to a plastic or molten state,
are atomized, confined, and
accelerated by a compressed gas
stream to the substrate. The particles
strike the substrate, flatten and form
thin platelets (splats) that conform
and adhere to the irregularities of the
prepared substrate and to each other.
Electric Arc Spraying
Electric Arc Spraying
TSCs of zinc, aluminum, or their alloys, are used in infrastructure corrosion-control

applications, primarily applied by the electric arc themial-spray process. Arc spraying production
rates are 3 to 5 times faster than flame spraying with less energy cost. In the arc-wire process,
two consumable wire electrodes that are insulated from each other automatically advance to meet
at a point in an atomizing gas stream. A potential difference of 18 to 40 volts applied across the
wires starts an arc that melts the tips of the wire electrodes. An atomizing gas stream, usually
compressed air, is directed toward the arc zone, shearing off molten droplets that form the
atomized spray.
In the arc spray system, wire electrodes are fed through wire guides and into the contact
tips. The atomizing nozzle conducts the compressed air and directs it across the arc zone.
Insulated power cables connect the gun to the DC power source. Arc guns also include
mechanisms for feeding the wire at a controlled rate. Contact tips are sized for a particular wire
diameter. A trigger switch on the gun controls the wire feed, compressed air supply, and electric
power. During the melting cycle, the feed wire is super heated to the point where some
volatilization may occur. The high particle temperatures produce metallurgical interactions
and/or diffusion zones after impact with the substrate. These localized reactions form minute
3-40
weld spots with good cohesive and
adhesive strengths. It is important
to note that the specified thickness
ofTSC is applied in ~ 3X3-in.
(~76X76 mm) blocks using
multiple passes. A quick inspection
of each block and the adj acent area
to be sprayed must be conducted
before spraying can be resumed.
Safety Fl ame S praying

'
Potential thermal-spraying hazards include exposure to vapors, metal dust, fumes, gases,
noise, and arc ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Uncontrolled metal dust is an explosion and a personnel
inhalation hazard. Improperly used thermal-spray equipment can create potential fire and
explosion hazards from the fuel gases and an potential electrical shock hazard from the electrical
and electronic equipment and charged wire spools. Follow proper safety precautions to minimize
hazards. Operators must comply with the manufacturer”s technical information and safety data
sheets (SDSS). SSPC-CS 23.00/AWS C2.23M/NACE No. 12 Specification for the Application of
Thermal Spray Coatings (Metallizing) of Aluminum, Zinc, and Their Alloys and Composites for
the Corrosion Protection of Steel contains requirements for the application of zinc and aluminum
alloys to steel substrates for corrosion protection.
Thermal-Spray Coatings (TSCs) for the Corrosion Protection of Steel
Aluminum, zinc, and their alloys provide both barrier and galvanic protection: barrier
protection when applied in non-through-porosity thickness; galvanic protection when applied in
a through-porosity thickness. Zinc”s greater chemical activity provides greater galvanic
protection than aluminum. Aluminum°s lower chemical activity, adherent oxide film, and higher
wear and temperature resistance as compared to zinc, provides longer-term protection along with
high-temperature and abrasion/wear resistance.
When zinc is alloyed with aluminum, the zinc-rich spray material forms an effective
corrosion-resistant coating, having the attributes of both elemental components. 85/15 Zn/Al
alloy and pseudo Al-Zn alloy, produced by arc spraying Al and Zn wires, can be used to
maximize their alloy performance over their individual performance: in this case, the corrosion
resistance of zinc with the severe-environment and high-temperature resistance of aluminum.
When cut-through exposing the substrate steel, or when applied in a through-porosity

thickriess, these TSCs will retard corrosion through cathodic protection. The selection of TSCs
should be based on the service environment and the desired service life.
Sealing and Topcoating of TSCs
TSCs of aluminum, zinc, and their alloys have porosity ranging up to 15%.
lnterconnected porosity will extend from the surface to the substrate when the TSC is applied at
less than a non-through porosity thickness. Sealing fills the porosity extending the service life of
3-41
the TSC. Sealing is accomplished (a) by applying thin sealer coatings that will penetrate into and
are absorbed into the pores of the TSC or (b) naturally by the oxidation of the sprayed aluminum
or zinc filling the pores with a tightly adherent oxide layer. The seal coat must be applied before
significant natural oxidation occurs to be effective. The pigment particle size for colored sealers
must be small enough to flow easily into the pores of the TSC, nominally a 5-finess grind per
ASTM Dl2l0, Standard Test Method for Fineness of Dispersion of Pigment-Vehicle Systems by
Hegman-Type Gage. For service temperatures > 250°F (l20°C), a high-temperature resistant
coating, such as an aluminum- pigmented silicone sealer, is required.
Sealed TSCs are preferable to topcoated TSCs. Sealed TSCs should be topcoated only
when: (1) the environment is very acidic or very alkaline; (i.e., when pH is outside the range of5
to 12 for zinc and zinc alloy TSCs or 4 to 9 for aluminum and 90/10 Metal Matrix Composite
[MMC] TSCs), (2) the metal is subject to direct attack by specific chemicals; (3) the required
decorative finish can be obtained only with a topcoat; and (4) when additional abrasion
resistance is required. Topcoat materials must be compatible with the TSC material and sealer
and the intended service environment. Never topcoat an unsealed TSC.
Examples
There is a history of corrosion protection by aluminum and zinc TSCs for structural steel
work: buildings, bridges, towers, radio and TV antenna masts, steel gantry structures, high power
search radar aerials, overhead walkways, railroad overhead line support columns, electrification
masts, tower cranes, traffic island posts, and street and bridge railings. Zinc TSCs complement
hot-dip galvanizing and should be considered when fabrications are excessively large or
otherwise cannot be hot-dip galvanized. Zinc TSCs should also be considered for repairing
galvanized coating damaged during the fabrication process (e.g., welding, cutting and
joining areas) and for maintenance recoating. Here, a zinc TSC is particularly advantageous
because it ensures the uniformity and reproducibility of the galvanized coating thickriess.
Wellhead valve assemblies for offshore use have been thermal-spray coated for salt
atmosphere protection since the l950s. Aluminum TSCs are used for high-temperature corrosion
protection of flare stacks. Aluminum and zinc TSCs have been used for exterrial protection of oil
and propane gas storage tanks. TSCs have been used to protect pipelines against many
environments. Pile couplings, valves, manhole covers, industrial gas bottles and other small
industrial items are candidates for TSCs.
The interior of steel hopper rail cars for hauling coal have been sprayed with aluminum
for sulfuric-acid corrosion protection and with aluminum composite for both corrosion and
abrasion protection. Steel car exteriors have been sprayed with zinc for atmospheric-corrosion
protection.
Zinc TSCs are used to protect potable water pipelines and storage tanks as specified in
ANSI/AWWA D-102 Painting Water-Storage Tanks. Aluminum and zinc TSCs are used on
sluice gates in irrigation systems and canal lock gates in shipping canals.
Sealed aluminum and zinc TSCs improve the corrosion resistance of steel bridgework
and railings from marine corrosion and de-icing salts. Reinforcing steel in concrete can be zinc-
3-42
sprayed to retard corrosion. Reinforced concrete bridges and highways, especially in those in
marine and freezing environments where de-icing salts are used, commonly suffer from chloride
intrusion into the concrete followed by reinforcing steel corrosion and concrete spalling. Zinc
TSCs are sprayed directly onto bridge concrete substructures to provide a sacrificial protection
coating or to be a secondary anode when electrically connected to an impressed current cathodic
protection system.
In marine applications, ship structural areas and components are preservcd with
aluminum and zinc TSCs. The U.S. Navy uses aluminum TSCs in new ship construction and in
the overhaul, repair, and maintenance of ship structures and for a wide range of shipboard
components, especially those in topside and wet spaces. The British, Australian, and New
Zealand Navies use a duplex zinc (base) and aluminum (top) TSC system. Commercial shipping
and barges have used TSCs to preserve ship superstructures and a range of topside and interior
components.
TSC Cost
The use of TSCs is preferred on the basis of fitness-for-purpose for a few specific
applications including corrosion protection in very turbulent ice- and debris-laden water, high-
temperature applications, and zebra-mussel resistance. TSCs may also be selected because of
restrictive air pollution regulations that do not allow the use of some paints with excessive VOC
emissions. For all other applications, the choice between thermal spray and paint coatings should
be based on cost.
Whenever possible, coating selection should be based on life cycle cost. Because oftheir
somewhat higher initial cost, TSCs are often overlooked. To calculate life cycle costs the
installed cost of the coating system and its expected service life must be known. Life cycle costs
for coating systems are readily compared by calculating the average equivalent annual cost
(AEAC) for each system under consideration. The basic installed cost of a TSC system is
calculated by adding the costs for surface preparation, materials, consumables, and thermal spray
application. Other factors that increase the cost of thermal-spray and other coating jobs include
the costs of containment, inspection, rigging, mobilization, waste storage, and worker health and
safety.
Design Guidance and Process Standards

Design Guidance
The application of TSCs for the protection of steel structures and components requires
comparable design considerations as that for high-performance paint-coating systems, i.e.,
material selection, geometry, and surface considerations in the structural design and during
fabrication/assembly, and accessibility for surface preparation, coating application, and in-
service maintenance and repair.
3-43
Process Standards
There is one thermal-spray process standard for the corrosion protection of steel in the U.S.
and one ISO standard:
1) SSPC-CS 23.00/AWS C2.23M/NACE No. 12 Specification for the Application of
Thermal Spray Coatings (Metallizing) of Aluminum, Zinc, and Their Alloys and
Composites for the Corrosion Protection of Steel
2) ISO 2063, Metallic and Other Organic Coatings - Thermal Spraying - Zinc, Aluminum
and Their Alloys.
Inspection of Thermal-Spray Coatings
Inspection Requirements
The evaluation of the requirements and methods for the inspection of thermal-spray
coatings should be considered during the initial design and implemented/updated during the
fabrication and assembly of steel structures and their components. The TSC system requirements
for initial application and in-service performance requirements should be established to parallel
other inspection requirements. The inspection of TSCs should be based on inspecting and
documenting the major planning, production, and maintenance and repair actions for the life-
cycle support of the structural and components of the TSC systems. Inspection items, criteria,
and measurement methods should be decided in the design, construction, and in-service phases.
It is important to note that the TSC procurement contract or the job order must specify the
inspection requirements, i.e., the acceptable parameters and measurement methods. lf inspection
requirements and methods are not specified, the inspection and corrective action for deficiencies
cannot be contractually binding on the applicator.
Design Phase
The design engineer, in the contract, should define the TSC specifications, application
process, and inspection and acceptance requirements. The contract specifications should be
based and balanced (traded off) with the project engineering requirements, and construction
schedule on a life-cycle basis. The design should specify the key (mandatory) inspection items,
acceptance values, and their sequence in the construction, overhaul, or repair schedule. The
thermal-spray inspection actions should also be integrated into the overall project inspection
schedule.
Construction Phase
During the initial application of the thermal-spray coatings system, the key inspection
events include surface preparation, thermal-spray equipment setup, TSC application, and sealing
or sealing and topcoating.
In-Service
Establish the TSC in-service inspection actions and schedule to confoim to the
anticipated wear and degradation for the service environments and wear/abrasion duty cycles.
3-44
TSC System Requirements and Application Process
The TSC system requires proper specification and application of surface preparation,
thermal spraying, and sealing or sealing and topcoating in line with their inspection and
acceptance tests. Proper surface preparation is mandatory to the successful application of a TSC.
Accordingly, if separate contractors perform the surface-preparation and thermal spraying, the
thermal spray contractor should approve the suitability of the surface preparation. The
procurement contract should account for this interaction among the owner°s inspector and the
surface-preparation and thermal-spraying contractors.
Table 1: Minimum TSC System Requirements and Acceptance Tests

TSC System Requirements
Operation Hold Point Requirement Acceptance Tests
Proper Feedstock Per contract AWS C.2.25/C.2.25M or
(Paragraph 4) requirement ASTM B833
Temperature ofthe
substrate is a
Ambient Conditions
minimum of3 °C ASTM E337
(Paragraph 5.1.1)
(5 °F) above the dew
Pre-Preparation
point
Requirements
Complies with SSPC-
pcr SSPC-AB l, 2, or 3 HS
Cleanliness of Abrasive AB l, 2, 3 as
applicable
applicable
Cleanliness of
ASTM D4285
Compressed Air Free of Contaminant
(Paragraph 5.1.2)
SSPC-SP 10/
NACE No. 2 SSPC-SP 10/NACE No. 2
Surface Cleanliness
mlflllfiüm Paragraph 2
(Paragraph 5.2.1) 1(f`\)
SSPC-SP 5/ SSPC SP-5/NACE No.
NACE No. 1 for Paragraph 2
Surface Preparation
immersion service
Water soluble
Per the contract
contaminants SSPC-Guide 15
requirements
(Paragraph 5.2. 1 ) (B)
Surface profile Range 65 um (2.5 mil) ASTM D44l7 (Method B or C) per
(Paragraph 5.4.1) to 125 um (5 mil) SSPC-PA 17
Minimum and
Maximum Coating
Per contract ssiflc-PA 2 'U
requirement Inspection Level 4
Thicknessltl
Smooth and uniform.
TSC Coating Applied Coating No blisters, cracks, Compare with acceptedjob
Appearance loose particles or reference standard
exposed steel.
ASTM D454l
Tensile adhesion See Table 2
Method C, D, E, of Flf”
(A) SSPC-SP 5/NACE No. 1 is generally used for exposures in very corrosive atmospheres and immersion
service.
(H) SSPC-Guide 15 describes methods for detection and analysis of soluble salts.
(Cl Verify accuracy ofthe gage and measure the TSC thickness in accordance with SSPC-PA 2.
(D) Specify the ASTM D454l Method to be used and its minimum acceptable value for the Job Reference
Standard and the job work surfaces.
3-45
Surface Preparation
The steel substrate should be prepared to (1) white metal finish, SSPC-SP 5/NACE No. 1
for immersion service, or (2) the minimum of near-white metal finish, SSPC-SP 10/NACE No. 2
for other service applications, and (3) the level of visible contamination specified in the
procurement documents (project specifications).
The steel substrate shall have, at a minimum, a sharp angular profile depth 2 65 um (2.5
mils), maximum of 125 um (5 mils) with a sharp angular shape. There is currently no standard
method for measuring the angularity of the blast profile. However, a “metallographic
examination of a successful bend coupon” can be used to evaluate the angularity suitability of
the blast. The profile depth shall be measured according to ASTM D44l 7, Standard Test
Methods for Field Measurement of Surface Profile Method C (replica tape, x-coarse, 38 to 115
um (1.5 to 4.5 mils), or Method B (profile depth gage), or both. The requirements of SSPC-PA
17, Procedure For Determining Conformance to Steel Profile/Surface Roughness/Peak Count
Requirements should also be followed. Use clean dry angular blasting media. Mineral and slag
abrasives shall be selected and evaluated according to SSPC-AB 1, Mineral and Slag Abrasives;
steel grit to SSPC AB-3, Ferrous Metallic Abrasive. Table 2 lists the blasting media and mesh
size found suitable for TSCs on steel substrates.
Table 2: Blasting Media and Mesh Size Found Suitable for TSCs on Steel Substrates
Thermal Spray I Process I Blasting Media ` Size(^)
Material
Al, Zn, 85/15 Zn/Al, Flame and arc wire Aluminum oxide 10-30 mesh
90/10 Al/Al2O3_ Angular steel grit G-16 to G-40
Al MMC Copper and iiickel slag G-16 to G-24
Almandite garnet G-16 to 30/60
Cliilled iron grit G-16 to G-40
(A) Grit size utilized should be appropriate for the specified profile and the blasting equipment used.
TSC Requirements
Feedstock and TSC Thickness. The TSC feedstock material and thickness should be selected
according to intended service environment and service life. The minimum and maximum TSC
thickness shall be measured in accordance with SSPC-PA 2, Procedure for Determining
Conformance to Dry Coating Thickriess Requirements.
Tensile adhesion. One portable tensile adhesion measurement shall be made about every 50 mz
(550 ftz). Ifthe tensile adhesion is less than the contract specification, the degraded TSC shall be
removed and reapplied. In the case of destructive testing, a repair method should be specified.
3-46
Table 3: Minimum Tensile Adhesion Requirements
(In Accordance With ASTM D4541 Using Self-Aligning Adhesion Tester
Type III, IV, V, or VI)
Minimum S ot Avera e
Feedstock l Mpa (psi) p g
zn 1 3.45 (500)
A1 | 6.s9(i,000)
85/15 zmA1 | 4.83 (700)
For nondestructive measurement, testing is best performed on a companion coupon. It

may be possible to measure the minimum tensile force on the actual piece before failure ifthe
force is reduced, allowing the tensile fixture to be removed without damaging the TSC. In any
case, the tensile force shall be measured to the contract-specified minimum tensile.
Bend Test (Nonmandatory unless specified). The bend test (1800 bend on a mandrel) may be
used as a qualitative “system test” for the proper surface preparation, equipment set-up, and
spray parameters. The bend test puts the TSC in tension. The mandrel diameter for the threshold
of cracking depends on substrate thickness, coating thickriess, and mandrel diameter. The Bend
Test may also be conducted in accordance with ASTM D522, Standard Test Methods for
Mandrel Bend Test of Attached Organic Coatings.
Table 4: Maximum Bend-Test Mandrel Diameter for Relative TSC Thickness

Using Steel Coupons 1.3 mm (0.05 in) Thick
rsc Thickness r, pm (mii) | 2 250 (io) § r < 380 (15) 2380 (15) 5 r < 640 (25) I tz 640 (25)<^>
-_ M“"“"°' 'ì::;“°t°" mm l 13 (0.50) 16 (0.63) I 25 (i.o)<B>
(A1 Film thicknesses greater than 635 um (25 mil) are rarely specified for zinc-aluminum alloys for corrosion
protection.
(B) NOTE: Confirm diameter with JRS and include the spray parameters on the Job Reference Standard (JRS).
Five corrosion control bend coupons shall be sprayed and shall pass the following bend test:
(a) Carbon steel coupons of approximate dimensions 50 mm >< 150 mm ><l.3 mm (2

in >< 6 in >< 0.05 in) shall be used.
(b) Surface shall be prepared in accordance with contract specification.
(c) The TSC shall be sprayed at the thickness to be used in production.
(d) Coupons shall be bent 180° around a mandrel of a diameter appropriate for the
coating thickness.
Bend test passes if, on the bend radius, there is no cracking or spalling, or only minor
cracking that cannot be lifted from the substrate with a knife blade.
3-47
PASS PASS FAIL
0 (1 1
NO MINOR CRACKS with CRACKS with
CRACKS NO LIFTING or LIFTING or
SPALLING SPÄLLING j
Bend Test
TSC Cut Test (Nonmandatory unless specified). The TSC cut test is a destructive test
to assess the adhesion strength. The TSC cut test consists of three cuts 40-mm (1 .5-in) long
through the TSC to the substrate without severely cutting into the substrate. The cuts should be
made using a chisel having a sharp 40-mm (1.5-in) wide blade impacted with an approximately
1.3 kg (3 lb.) hammer. The chisel cut should be made at an angle of approximately 60 degrees to
the surface and should be spaced approximately 12 to 25 mm (0.5 to 1 in.) apart. None of the
cuts should exhibit any lifting or sliding ofthe applied TSC. The adhesioii should be considered
inconclusive if any part of the TSC along one of the cuts lifts from the substrate, and should be
considered failing if coating along all three cuts exhibits lifting or sliding.
TSC Finish. The deposited TSC shall be uniform without blisters, cracks, loose particles, or
exposed steel as examined with a l0x loupe.
TSC Porosity. If required by the purchaser, the maximum allowable porosity and the
metallographic measurement method to be used for the evaluation shall be specified. Note:
Porosity measurements are not used for in-process quality control in metallizing for corrosion
protection of steel. However, porosity measurements may be used to qualify thermal-spray
application processes and spray parameters.
TSC QC Measurement Procedures and Instruments. The suitability of the TSC thickness,
portable tensile adhesion, bend test, and cut test measurement procedures and instruments should
be validated during the contract pre-award validation.
3-48
Job Reference Standard (JRS). The JRS is a job site pass/fail reference standard representative
of the whole job or major sections of the job. The JRS is prepared by the thermal-spray coating (
applicator (TSCA) at the pre-award job conference to demonstrate and validate the TSCA°s
surface-preparation and thermal-spray application processes. The JRS is used as a “comparator”
to evaluate the suitability of the application process.
(1) The JRS shall be made on a steel plate approximately 500 mm >< 500 mm >< 6 mm (20 in >< 20
in >< 0.25 in.).
(2) The JRS shall be made with the actual field equipment and the process parameters and
procedures (surface preparation; thermal spraying; sealing or sealing and topcoating; and the in-
process QC checkpoints) that shall be used for
the contracted work.
(3) The JRS shall be made with the actual field
equipment and the process parameters and
procedures (surface preparation and thermal
spraying) to be used for the contracted work.
(4) The JRS is unsatisfactory if any
measurements are less than the contract-
specified value.
(5) The JRS is used as a pass/fail reference for
the applicator's in-process QC and the
purchaser's inspector. ,_ Í
(6) The preparation and the use of the JRS for in- Job Reference Standard Y
process QC and the inspector”s pass/fail reference
standard should be agreeable to both the purchaser and TSCA.
Thermal-Spray Coating Applicator (TSCA) Qualification
There are two standards for the qualification of TSCA:

(1) ASTM D4228, Standard Practice for Qualification of Coating Application of Coatings for
Steel Surfaces. This practice provides a standard qualifying method for coating applicators to
verify their proficiency and ability to attain the required quality for application of specified
coatings to steel surface including those in safety-related area in a nuclear facility.
(2) SSPC-QP 6, Standard Procedure for Evaluating Qualifications of Thermal-Spray

(Metallizing) Applicators. This standard describes a method for evaluating the qualification
of thermal-spray (metallizing) applicators (or firms) to apply thermal-spray coatings in
accordance with SSPC-CS 23.00/AWS C2.23M/NACE No. 12. Requirements and auditing
criteria are included for the surface preparation, thermal spraying, and sealing or sealing and
topcoating of components/assemblies in the shop and complex structures in the field. This
procedure is applicable to a fabricating shop, shipyard, or other entity that applies coatings in
the shop, even though providing coating application services is not the primary function.
3-49
TSCA must have equipment, materials, and application and in-process QC procedures to
meet SSPC-CS 23.00/AWS C2.23M/NACE No. 12.
TSC Inspector Qualification
The TSC inspector at a minimum, should:

(1) Meet the knowledge requirements of a qualified thermal-spray operator.
(2) Be skilled in observing and evaluating conformance of the application process to the
contract specifications.
(3) Be knowledgeable of and skilled in using inspection equipment to measure and
Validate the TSCA”s conformance to the purchasing contract.
(4) Submit timely oral and written reports to the purchaser.
Summary
Thermal-spray coatings are used for the corrosion protection of steel and iron in a wide
range of environments. TSCs of zinc, aluminum, or their alloys are used for infrastructure
corrosion-control applications and are primarily applied by the electric arc thermal-spray
process. The current industry standard for the application of TSCs is SSPC-CS 23.00/AWS
C2.23M/NACE No. 12 Specification for the Application of Thermal Spray Coatings
(Metallizing) of Aluminum, Zinc, and Their Alloys and Composites for the Corrosion Protection
of Steel. The qualifications for metallizing contractors are specified in the SSPC-QP series of
qualification procedures for coating contractors.
3-50
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Powder Coating
Powder Coating
SSPC Staff
Introduction
Powder coatings are dry rather than liquid products. The common constituents of coating
films (resins, pigments, and modifiers) are also present in the powder. The powder is fused by
heating to form a continuous protective or decorative film. This article describes different types
of powder coatings, methods of applying them, and many of their uses.
Powder Manufacture
In the manufacture of powder coatings, the resins, pigments, additives, and curing agents
(for thermosetting powders) are mixed, homogenized, and dispersed at a temperature of about
194° to 248°F (900 to l20°C) to provide rapid wetting of the pigment with resin. This molten
material is then cooled, ground to the desired particle size, and sieved to remove any course
particles.
Types of Powder Coatings
Thermoplastic
As with conventional liquid coatings, thermoplastic powder coatings are not changed
chemically during application or film formation. Thermoplastic powders are based on tough,
high-molecular weight resins that tend to be difficult and expensive to grind to the consistently
fine particles needed for spray application and fusing of thin films. Consequently, they are
usually applied as thicker coatings by the fluidized bed application technique, described later in
this chapter. Typical thermoplastic powder coatings include polyethylene, polypropylene, nylon,
polyvinyl chloride, polyesters, and polyvinylidine fluorides/fluorocarbons. They have quite a few
automotive uses, as well as domestic uses.
Thermosetting
Thermosetting powder coatings are based on lower molecular weight solid resins. These
powders also melt when exposed to heat, forming a uniform thin layer. However, they
chemically cross-link to form a reaction product with a much higher molecular weight structure
that is very different from the starting resin. These newly formed materials are heat-stable and,
unlike cured thermoplastic products, will not soften back to the liquid phase if heated again.
Resins used in thermosetting powders can be ground into the fine particles necessary for spray
application. Most of the technological advancements in recent years have concemed
thermosetting powders, and they are used much more often than thermoplastic powder coatings.
They are usually derived from three generic types of resins: epoxy, polyester, acrylic, and
hybrids of these polymers.
3-51
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Powder Coating
Thermosetting powder coatings

possess an excellent combination of
appearance, corrosion protection, and
chemical and physical properties. Thus,
they find such versatile uses as coatings
for furniture, shelving, plastic bottles, and
appliances.
Decorative and Protective

Characteristics
Powder coatings provide excellent

product aesthetics, high-performance
protection, and attractive economics.
Characterized by Outstanding toughness,
corrosion resistance, flexibility, and
adhesion, they also come in a variety of _
finishes: from low-to-high gloss and smooth-to- Powder Coatmg
complex specialty textures. Generally, cured decorative thermosetting and thermoplastic powder
coatings are used on metals, glass, wood, and plastic. Thermoplastic powders have a much
higher dry film thickness.
Protective powder coatings are generally applied at a greater dry film thickness than
decorative ones and provide long-term protection from corrosion on metal substrates. Epoxy
powder coatings continue to be most frequently used. Some end uses for themioplastic and
thermosetting protective powders are anti-chip primers for truck seat frames, water heaters, metal
cabinets, space heaters, riding mowers, rebar, piping, and lawn furniture.
Storing Powder Coatings
Powder coatings should be stored under dry, cool, clean conditions and at temperatures
typically below 77°F (25°C). Typical adverse effects are:
° Excess heat -clumping of powder or partial reaction of fast or low temperature-curing
powders to “B” state
° Dampness/water-poor application/appearance/performance
' Contamination-dust or other powders in coating film
Powders should always be stored away from sources of heat, sparks, and open flames
with the container closed when not in use. It is good practice to bring quantities of powder into
the application room the night before the job begins to promote temperature equalization when
opening the container.
3-52
SSPCÍVOLI GoodPamnngPnmnce:PowderCoanng
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages include:
° Absence of solvents (virtually 100% solids; no VOCs)

' Transfer efficiency near 95-98% with overspray recovery and reuse
° Good one-coat thickness (e. g., 6 mils [152.4 um]) by electrostatic spray
' No solvent odor or flammability
° Easier compliance with federal and state regulations
° Reduced housekeeping problems
° Good edge application and retention
° Fast-cure, quick tumaround
° Can be applied to metal, wood, and plastic
° Multiple curing options such as heat, infrared (IR), UV, and “near” IR
Limitations include:
' Application usually limited to shops

° Powder suspensions in air may bc explosive
° Difficulty in coating inside surfaces (Faraday “cage” effect; requires a tribo-gun)
° Occasional powder clumping
' Color changes may be time consuming/expensive
Surface Preparation
Parts to be coated should be exposed to a pretreatment operation to ensure that the

surface is free of any contaminates. The pretreatment process nomially takes place in a series of
spray chambers where alkaline cleaners, iron or zinc conversion coatings, and rinses are applied.
For large areas, abrasive blast to SSPC-SP 5/NACE No. 1 White Metal or SSPC SP
10/N ACE No. 2 Near-White Metal, as recommended by the powder manufacturer, to achieve the
profiles necessary for satisfactory bonding of the powder to the substrate.
Application Methods
Electrostatic Powder Spray
The electrostatic powder spray application system consists of five basic units: the powder
supply unit, the spray gun, the power supply, the spray booth, and the powder recovery unit.
The powder delivery system consists of a powder storage container or feed hopper and a
pumping device that transports a mixture of powder and air into hoses or feed tubes. These
supply the powder to the applicator gun for electrostatic spraying. Pneumatic pumps driven by
clean, dry compressed air are most often used to supply the powder, because they aid in
dispersing the powder into individual particles for easier transport. Each powder pump supplies
3-53
SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Powder Coating
powder to one gun typically located several feet from the powder supply area. Delivery systems
are available in many sizes. Proper selection depends on the application, number of guns to be
supplied, and volume of powder to be sprayed in a given time period. Recent improvements in
powder delivery systems, coupled with better powder chemistries to minimize clumping, have
improved particle flow to the gun. Some feed hoppers vibrate to help prevent clogging or
clumping.
Electric Field
Manual and automatic electrostatic Eiectmde 1-¡¡“eS
spray guns direct the flow of powder and (Recessedj O I°
control the pattem size, shape, and density of É
the spray as it is released from the gun. The
l
1 Q í`"
ø '
¡ , Wrap
<_ A f0U“ d
I
9
gun also imparts the electrostatic charge to _ _7 O I °
the powder and controls the deposition rate *Q <~Grounded
onto the electrically conductive, grounded ° _ _e . Substrate
item to be coated. There are two basic types
of electrostatic powder spray guns, extemal Applicator
(corona charging) guns and intemal (tribo ¡ Powder ,
charging) guns. i Free Uncharged Charged
¡ Flow . .
Low ions Particles Particles
Voltage
Extemal charging guns have a charging Spray Gun p,¡,,c¡p¡e
electrode at the front of the gun that produces an
electric field (corona) through which the powder particles pass and become charged. The charged
particles are directed by the electrostatic field to deposit them onto the intended surface. The film
thickness can be controlled by the application conditions or the properties of the powder. One
drawback to the external charging gun is the relative difficulty of coating irregularly shaped parts
in recessed areas or cavities.
Intemal charging (tribo) guns have an internal electrode system that charges powder
particles passing through the gun. These guns require more maintenance than extemal charging
guns, but do not create an actual electrostatic field and so are not susceptible to the Faraday
“cage” effect in recessed areas and cavities. The power supply must provide the necessary
voltages for charging the powder during application. These voltages will vary with different
applications.
The primary function of the powder spray booth is to safely contain the powder so that
overspray cannot migrate into other areas. Several criteria must be met in selecting the
appropriate spray booth for a given coating line. The entrance and exit openings must be
properly sized to allow clearance of the largest product part. The air flow through the booth
must be sufficient to channel all overspray to the recovery system, but not so forceful that it
disrupts powder deposition and retention. This is usually accomplished by maintaining a
minimum average face velocity of 100 ft.(30.48 m]/min across all end openings. The air flow
must also prevent the accumulation of powder in the air from approaching the lower explosive
limit. lf one booth is to be used to apply multiple colors, the booth interior should be free of
narrow crevices, seams, and irregular surfaces that would be difficult to clean. This is especially
important if collected overspray is to be recycled. Because there is no solvent loading in the air
3-54
exhausted from a powder coating booth, the air can be circulated back into the plant. This saves
considerable energy during winter months. Color changes can be accomplished in a relatively
short period of time if one independent booth is used to replace the one in need of cleaning.
Recovery and recycling systems are an integral part of the powder spray booth, allowing
most overspray to be reused. The three commonly used types of powder recovery systems are
conventional (i.e., cyclone), filter belt, and cartridge (replaceable cartridge filters). The
recovered powder is blended with virgin powder before reuse.
Fluidized Powder Bed
In this process, the item to be coated is heated to a temperature above the melting point of
the powder and immersed in a fluidized bed where the powder fuses to it. The powder is
fluidized by passing compressed air through a porous membrane at the bottom of the container
in which the application is conducted. Coating thickness is determined by substrate temperature
and time immersed in the fluidized bed. Attaining the proper cure of the deposited powder may
require additional heating.
Electrostatic Fluidized Bed
The electrostatic fluidized bed process uses electrodes in the fluidized bed to charge the
air and then the powder in the fluidized bed. This process is ideally suited to substrates that have
a relatively small vertical dimension, such as flat sheets, expanded metal, wire mesh, screen,
cable, and tubing. Preheating is not necessary. The electrical force will cause the powder to
adhere to the cold or heated surface.
Thermal Spray of Thermoplastic Powders
In the thermal spray application of thermoplastic powder coatings, the atomized powder
is melted in a propane or acetylene flame and deposited in a molten or semi-molten condition to
form a continuous coating. To achieve optimum adhesion, the steel surface must be very clean
(e.g., SSPC-SP 10/NACE No. 2, Near White Blast Cleaning). However, the steel is commonly
cleaned by simply burning away any extraneous matter and condensation.
Advantages of this method of application include:
° Good for field application (no oven required)

° Can coat non-conductive materials (wood, concrete, plastics, etc.)
' Can coat temperature sensitive materials
Limitations include:
° Performance affected by surface cleanliness

° Performance affected by quality of application
' Overheating powder may deteriorate resin
' Tight particle size distribution required
3-55
Oven Curing
Convection and infrared ovens or a combination of the two are used to cure powder
coatings applied in shops. Air is heated and circulated inside gas or electric convection ovens to
surround the powder-coated parts, which are heated to oven temperature for curing. Infrared (IR)
ovens using either gas or electricity as their energy source emit radiated energy that is absorbed
by the substrate to promote curing. Specially formulated themiosetting powders may be cured
with ultra-violet (UV) light sources.
Combination ovens generally use IR in the first “zone” to melt the powder quickly. The
substrate then passes into the convection zone, which uses high-velocity currents to permit faster
heat transfer and a shorter cure time since there is no danger of disturbing the coating once it
exits the IR zone. Most oven systems are positioned to be part of the conveyor line.
Cure temperature depends on the type of powder coating, the coating thickness, and the
type of substrate. The average temperature usually ranges from 250nF to 350uF (l2l°C to 177“C).
Film Thickness
Powder coatings can be applied in a wide range of film thicknesses. Very thin films
require special powder grinds. Extremely heavy films are generally achieved by coating the
substrate while it is hot.
Transfer Efficiency
Powder coating transfer efficiency is generally defined as the ratio of powder weight
deposited on the part or parts to the total amount of powder weight sprayed. Recovered powder
is not considered in this calculation. Many factors can affect transfer efficiency, including
operator proficiency, shape of the part, booth design, and condition of the spray equipment, part
grounding, powder condition, and application technique.
Summary
Powder coatings are available in several compositions and have several methods of
application and curing. These can be used to provide protective and decorative
coatings to many industrial and domestic products.
3-56
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: lnspectioii of Nonskid Coatings
Inspection of Nonskid Coatings

SSPC Staff
Introduction
A nonskid (nonslip) coating is defined as “a coating that contains coarse particles (e.g.,
aluminum oxide, aluminum metal, garnet, sand, glass, walnut shells or cork) and that dries to a
rough, abrasive surface that resists sliding of people and machinery on floors, ship decks, ladder
treads, etc. Resins used are usually epoxies, polyurethanes, or alkyds.” Steel and polypropylene
bead aggregates are also sometimes used. Slip resistance is not a constant and should not be
confused with coefficient of friction. Slip resistance varies with such surface conditions as
texture, wear, and contamination. It also varies with the nature of the contact (e.g., feet, wheels,
etc.). This article describes the use of these products and the inspection techniques used to
establish their qualities.
Descriptions of Nonskid Coatings
Broadcasting aggregate into the wet coating generally results in an uneven distribution and
areas of lower slip resistance and unsightly appearances. A more uniform distribution of
aggregate can be obtained by including specific amounts of aggregate to the mixed coating
components before application by roller. The appearance and the slip resistance will vary with
the amount of aggregate used. For the decks of U.S. Navy ships, the aggregate is always added to
the mixed coating.
The primers and other undercoats used are related to the use of the nonskid and its substrate.
The aggregate type and size used to provide slip resistance are generally determined by
anticipated traffic, chemical exposure, and cleanability requirements, as described here:
' Aluminum oxide and garnet aggregates for hardness and corrosion resistance.
° Sand aggregates are readily available and cheap but relatively easily crushed.
° Steel aggregates provide good impact resistance.
° Polypropylene beads provide a softer aggregate and excellent cleanability and sanitation.
Anticipated traffic conditions may vary widely:
° Foot traffic (Occasional to continuous)

° Vehicular traffic (with different rubber and steel tires/wheels)
° Aircraft (take off and landing from flight decks)
White aluminum oxide grit is used to provide slip resistance floors in Navy hangars and
aircraft maintenance shops. The aggregate may be broadcast at different levels to achieve
different levels of slip resistance. Commercial aggregate blowers are available. Altematively, the
aggregate may be mixed into the coating prior to application.
3-57
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Inspection of Nonskid Coatings
Application of Nonskid Coatings
Nonskid coatings can be applied to steel, aluminum, glass-reinforced plastic (GRP),

wood, or concrete floors or decks by spraying, roller, or trowel. The surface preparation and
application methods will vary with the particular products and its use. In all cases, the
manufacturer°s instructions should be carefully followed. On Navy ships, nonskid is applied in
accordance with MIL-PRF-24667C, Coating System, Non-Skid, For Roll, Spray, or Self-
Adhering Applications, which describes six types:
1. Type l High durability deck coating

2. Type II Standard durability or trowel deck coating
3. Type III Standard durability, rollable resilient deck coating for use on exterior wood decks,
GRP, or metal decks where flexibility is required and where increased weight is not a factor
4. Type IV Standard durability, sprayable deck coating
5. Type V Extended durability, rollable deck coating
6. Type VIII Low temperature cure, rollable deck coating
The six types are further subdivided into two classes according to composition:
1. General use deck coating (Types I, II, III, IV and V) to supply safe footing to persomiel and
to act as a slip-resistant surface for vehicles and aircraft
2. Limited use non-abrasive (Type I, V, and VIII only). On the landing areas of flight decks,
softer aluminum aggregate is used rather than aluminum oxide. The aluminum aggregate
causes less abrasion damage to the arresting cables caused by the action of tail hooks of
landing planes.
The surface preparation and application of the various types of MIL-PRF-24667 are
described in detail in Naval Ships° Technical Manual Chapter 634 and in Preservation Process
Instruction (PPI) NBR 63421-O01. The Naval Surface Treatment Center (NST Center) provides
assistance in getting nonskid products qualified for Navy use.
Inspection Associated with Used of Nonskid
Inspection of nonskid work varies greatly with the type and use of the nonskid. Navy
inspection requirements to verify that nonskid coatings have been properly applied to decks are
well established. Many of these requirements, summarized below, are also appropriate for other
uses for nonskid coatings.
Storage Requirements
° Store all coatings in tightly sealed containers in a dry place, not exposed to direct
sunlight or freezing conditions.
' Storage temperatures are to be between 55 and l00°F (l3°C and 38°C) for long storage and
70 to 80°F (21 to 27°C) 24 hours prior to mixing for application. For Type VIII nonskid and
primer, refer to an applicable ASTM F-718 product data sheet. More guidance is available at
the NST Center web site.
3-58
Pre-Surface Preparation
° Conduct pre-job conference with all personnel involved in the work.

° Check for required certifications of blast media, coatings, blasters, and painters and for
presence of safety data sheets.
' Check that all necessary modifications, repairs, covering of equipment, and other preliminary
actions to surfaces to be coated have been completed.
' Check to see that all environmental requirements are being met:
Except Type VIII nonskid,
Air temperature (e.g., 55 - 100° F [(13 - 38°C])
Deck temperature (e.g., 40 - l20°F [4 - 48.8°C)
Relative humidity (85% maximum)
Dew Point (at least 5° F [3°C] below deck temperature)
Wind (15 mph maximum)
Surface Preparation
° Verify that degreasing or wash down (e.g., SSPC-SP 1, Solvent Cleaning, or SSPC/NACE
WJ-4, Waterjet Cleaning of Metals - Light Cleaning) of all surfaces to be coated with
nonskid have been properly completed.
° Verify that all surfaces to be coated have been cleaned by hydroblasting (waterjetting) to a
SSPC/NACE WJ-2 L, Waterjet Cleaning of Metals ~ Very Thorough Cleaning condition or
by abrasive blasting to a near-white condition (SSPC-SP 10/NACE No. 2, Near White Blast
Cleaning) using abrasive conforming to MIL-A-22262, Abrasive Blasting Media Ship Hull
Blast Cleaning.
' Verify by ASTM D44l7, Standard Test Methods for Field Measurement of Surface Profile of
Blast Cleaned Steel, Method B or C that the specified surface profile (e.g., 3 - 6 mils (76.2-
l52.4 um) was received.
° Test the cleaned surfaces for residual soluble salts (mostly chlorides) at a frequency that
varies with the total surface area. The maximum allowable limit for soluble salts on Navy
decks is 5 ug per sq cm (70 (,iS per cm conductivity).
' Ensure that all areas are clean and free of abrasive blasting dust, steel shot, steel grit and
other contaminants, using a mirror to check hard to see areas.
Application of Primer
° Check that appropriate areas have been masked.

° Check all coating identifications, batch numbers, and expiration dates.
° Again, check to see if all environmental requirements are being met.
° Ensure that all coatings are mixed according to the manufacturer”s recommendation, with
special attention to mixing ratios, and applied within specified time periods.
° Ensure that all coatings are applied in accordance with induction and pot life requirements.
° Ensure that coatings are not thinned, unless special permission has been obtained.
3-59
Monitor application of primer by roller or airless spray in accordance with manufacturer°s

instructions within 4 hours after completion and acceptance of cleaning.
Periodically, check the coating wet film thickness using the procedure described in ASTM
D44l4, Standard Practice for Measurement of Wet Film Thickness by Notch Gages, for
compliance with the manufacturerls recommendation.
Check primer for specified dry film thickness using the test method described in SSPC-PA 2,
Procedure for Determining Conformance to Dry Coating Thickness Requirements.
Verify the application of a stripe coat of primer to all specified edges and other areas that are
difficult to paint.
Inspect primer and subsequent coat(s) for holidays.
Nonskid Applied Properly (Left); `

lmproperly (Right)
Application of Nonskid Coating
Check to see if all environmental requirements are met, as required for application of the
primer.
Ensure that mixing of the nonskid coating has continued until a consistent dark gray color,
free from black or white streaks, is achieved. Refer to an applicable ASTM F 718 product
data sheet for more guidance
Ensure that all personnel coming into contact with the newly applied primer wear lint-free
foot coverings and keep them clean.
Verify that the recommended maximum time of curing of the primer (e.g., not more than 36
hours) has not been exceeded.
Verify the application of nonskid by a roller with a smooth surface and a hard phenolic core
roller (or by spray, as appropriate) at the specified spreading rate from the amount of coating
applied to a known area.
Ensure that the coating has been applied so as to produce a uniform pattern of wave-like
ridges and valleys.
Ensure that all welds have been cross-rolled (at 90°) and the nonskid coating extended 3 to 6
inches (76 to 15 cm) on each side of the weld.
Test the strength of the ridge by showing whether they are damaged by probing with a dull
putty knife.
3-60
SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Inspection of Nonskid Coatings
° Visually inspect the cured nonskid coating system for cracks, disbonding, discoloration,
holiday and other defects.
' Verify the protection of the nonskid system from traffic for the specified period of time (e.g.,
24 hours for foot traffic, 96 hours for vehicular traffic, and 7 days for aircraft).
° Ensure the complete curing of the nonskid coating following procedure specified in NSTM
634.
° Ensure the complete curing of the nonskid coating by probing with a dull putty knife or
similar instrument using moderate pressure.
*sky kg
*S i
Nonskid Application
Application of Color Topping in Required Areas (e.g., Aircraft Security Fittings)
° Check to see if all environmental requirements are met, as required for application of the
primer.
° Ensure that all of the manufacturer”s recommendations for mixing and thinning (i.e., no
thinning) have been followed.
° Ensure that the application color topping (by brush, spray, or roller) is properly applied to
form a thin coating that completely obscures the nonskid coating but does not compromise its
slip resistance.
Summary
Nonskid coatings contain coarse particles and dry to a rough, abrasive slip-resistant
surface. This slip resistance varies with texture, wear, contamination and nature of contact.
3-61
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Non-Ferrous Surface Preparation
Non-Ferrous Surface Preparation

SSPC Staff
Introduction
While steel is the predominant material of construction requiring industrial painting

practices, there are significant uses of other painted substrates in industrial, military, and
architectural structures. These include non-ferrous metals, such as aluminum alloys, copper
alloys, nickel alloys and stainless steels, and non-metallic materials, such as wood and polymer
resin-based composites. Other terms that are commonly used for composites include fiberglass,
fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP), and glass-reinforced plastic (GRP).
Ferrous vs. Non-Ferrous. Steel alloys and cast irons are termed “ferrous” materials because the
major alloying element in them is iron. The chemical symbol for iron is “Fe,” which comes from
the Latin name for iron ferrum; thus the term “ferrous” Non-ferrous metals are therefore alloys
that either do not contain any iron, or those that contain less than 50% iron as one of their
alloying elements. Strictly speaking, by this definition most grades of common stainless steels
are ferrous materials, although many people may call them non-ferrous, especially the grades
that are non-magnetic.
It is fairly common knowledge that painting wood structures slows their deterioration and
makes them last longer, but non-ferrous metals and alloys are generally more corrosion-resistant
than steel, and composite materials do not corrode at all in the sense that metals do. So why paint
these materials? There are a variety of reasons:
° Corrosion protection is still required when these materials are used in immersion service,
or in various types of environments where they will be exposed to chemicals or chemical
fumes.
° Painting may be performed for cosmetic reasons, either for the aesthetics of matching a
surrounding paint scheme, or for color-coding of piping or ducting according to their type
of service.
° In situations where dissimilar metals are used together in immersion, it is often good
corrosion control practice to paint the cathodic material (the one less prone to corrosion)
in order to minimize the amount of its bare surface area and therefore help minimize the
effects of galvanic corrosion.
° The surface of the structure to be painted may have various types of functional
requirements. These include diverse properties such as being fire-retardant, slip-resistant,
condensation-resistant (anti-sweat), resistant to biofouling, and, for military equipment in
particular, camouflage and signature reduction.
° Painting non-metallic composite materials used in exterior or immersion service helps
protect them from degradation caused by ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, and helps to
prevent moisture absorption that can damage and weaken composites.
ln terms of these uses of non-ferrous materials, there are many structures and structural
members that are made from aluminum alloys, wood, and composites. The variety of non-
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SSPC Vol. I Good Painting Practice: Non-Ferrous Surface Preparation
structural components that are painted is as wide as the variety of types of facilities that they are
in: buildings, factories, chemical plants, power and water utilities, aircraft, ships, and offshore
structures to name a few. Typical painted non-ferrous components can include piping and piping
system components, ductwork, tanks, storage and electrical cabinets and enclosures, and
walkways, and gratings.
The iriherent differences in the types of materials and the types of structures and
components they are used for helps to define the differences that can be expected in surface
preparation methods, materials, and tools. With the exception of stainless steels, steel alloys are
generally much harder than non-ferrous metallic and non-metallic materials, and are also
frequently used at a greater thickness. There are also significant differences in the surface
preparation of steels and non-ferrous materials between new construction and existing structures.
New non-ferrous materials will not have hard mill scale on the surface like new steel. Corrosion
of existing steel structures produces rust on the surface that ranges from tightly adherent layers
immediately at the surface, to looser, thick voluminous scale. While aluminum alloys can
produce a voluminous white-gray corrosion product under certain conditions in service, there is
generally no equivalent to the thick rust scale on any non-ferrous surfaces. The general
philosophy that surface preparation should only be aggressive enough to clean the surface and
produce any desired profile, and should minimize the removal of sound material, is especially
true for non-ferrous materials. The ability to do this while preventing contamination of the softer
non-ferrous materials is the focus of this article.
Surface Preparation Process
The goals of surface preparation on non-ferrous materials are generally the same as those
on steel surfaces: remove contaminants, obtain a specified cleanliness level, and obtain a surface
roughness profile or other surface condition that will enhance adhesion of a coating system.
Therefore, the same sequence of steps generally applies, for both new construction and
maintenance painting:
° Sharp edges, burrs, and weld spatter are all potential sources of premature coating failure
on aluminum and other metallic surfaces, just as they are for steel. Rounding edges, de-
burring, removal of weld spatter and similar precautions should be completed in
accordance with SSPC-PA Guide 1 1, Protecting Edges, Crevices, and Irregular Steel
Surfaced by Stripe Coating, prior to coatings work.
° Pre-cleaning to remove oils and greases, in order to prevent them from being embedded
in a surface by subsequent hand and power tool or abrasive blasting cleaning methods.
This also prevents contamination of the tools and blast media. Solvent cleaning methods,
in accordance with SSPC-SP 1, Solvent Cleaning, including steam cleaning and detergent
cleaning, are used for this step.
' Clean to specified cleanliness level using hand or power tools, abrasive blasting,
waterjetting, or other, more specialized processes.
° Post-cleaning to remove and collect dust, paint chips, and other debris that may be lying
on the surface as a result of the previous cleaning method.
3-63
One important difference in the goal of surface preparation on many types of non-ferrous
structures and components arises in maintenance re-painting. Frequently, stripping of the old
paint from the surface while doing little or no damage to the substrate or any chemical pre-
treatment films is the main objective of surface preparation. This is often the case for commercial
and military aircraft and other sensitive equipment made from aluminum alloys and composite
materials. It is a significant challenge to perform this operation both economically and in an
environmentally friendly marmer. This challenge has led to the development of several
specialized surface preparation techniques.
Surface Preparation Inspection Methods
The quality assurance (QA) checks and tests that a coating inspector would perform
during the surface preparation phase of an industrial coatings job involving non-ferrous surfaces
are similar to those used for steel surfaces, with a couple of important differences. These
differences should be accounted for in a good coating specification.
° Environmental conditions, such as relative humidity, dew point, and surface temperature,
may still need to be measured and monitored. Magnetic surface temperature gages will
not stick to non-magnetic non-ferrous materials, so they may need to be held in place
with tape. An alternative is to use a non-contact surface temperature-measuring
instrument.
° Surface profile on non-ferrous metallic surfaces can generally be measured the same
way, using the common profile tapes described in ASTM D44l7, Standard Test Methods
for Field Measurement of Surface Profile of Blast Cleaned Steel.
° The measurement of residual surface salts on prepared non-ferrous metallic materials

prior to painting may still be required, especially for structures subject to immersion in
fresh or salt water or exterior atmospheric exposure. The methods of salt extraction, and
their measurement by either chemical or conductivity techniques, will be similar to those
used on steel surfaces.
° Wood surfaces may require a test for moisture content prior to painting.
Specific Surfaces
Aluminum Alloys
The surface preparation of aluminum alloys can be divided into three general categories
that generally align with the type of structure being painted. Mechanical cleaning methods, such
as hand and power tools and abrasive blasting, can be used on heavy, thicker structures. Non-
mechanical, non-abrasive chemical cleaning and pre-treatments are frequently used on thinner
sheet metal structures, and surfaces of components that will be exposed to less demanding
environments and do not require high-performance coating systems. These types of pre-
treatments are also used to support high-production rate component coating operations on
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SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Non-Ferrous Surface Preparation
assembly lines. A variety of methods that can selectively strip existing paint without affecting
the substrate or previously applied surface pre-treatment films comprise the third category.
The key to successful mechanical cleaning of aluminum is to avoid excessive metal

removal and prevent contamination. Most hand tools used on steel, such as scrapers and chipping
hammers, tend to gouge and mar aluminum very easily. One exception is wire brushes; however,
special precautions exist for their use. Wire brushes used on aluminum should have stainless
steel bristles, in order to prevent contamination with iron. Likewise, these brushes should be
designated only for use on aluminum, in order to avoid cross-contamination and embedding of
steel particles in the aluminum. This is because free iron and steel contaminants can rust quickly,
and cause the coating to fail prematurely in these spots. Wire brushes and other tools must also
not be made from any copper alloys, and must not have been previously used on copper alloys or
copper-pigmented paints. The copper-aluminum dissimilar metal combination results in very
severe galvanic corrosion of aluminum.
Abrasive mats, papers, and cloths can also be used on aluminum alloys for sanding to
remove corrosion products and loose paint, and for feathering the edges of surrounding tightly
adherent paint. Aluminum oxide is effective for light corrosion products, and silicon carbide for
heavier corrosion. Metallic wools are also available for hand cleaning, and they are available in
steel, aluminum, copper, and stainless steel varieties. Only aluminum wool should be used on
aluminum substrates. As with wire brushes, all of these materials should be reserved for use on
aluminum alloys only, in order to prevent cross-contamination.
Power tool cleaning can be performed on aluminum alloys, using tools such as power
wire brushes, flap brushes, and orbital sanders. Since these tools generally do not produce a
significant surface profile, on thicker structures careful needle gunning or roto-peening can
supplement them. If contamination occurs or is suspected, the surface should be cleaned prior to
painting. The cleaned surface must be completely dry before painting. Strong alkaline cleaners
are usually corrosive to aluminum alloys, and should be used with care or not at all.
Abrasive blasting can be performed on aluminum alloys, provided that the blast media is
not too aggressive and does not contaminate the surface, and that blast pressures are reduced to
account for the softer surface. When abrasive blasting is performed in order to remove corrosion
products and obtain a profile, 80-grit aluminum oxide or gamet are frequently specified
abrasives. Steel shot, chilled iron, and metal smelting slags, especially those that contain copper,
must not be used as abrasive media on aluminum, since they will cause contamination. Hard,
angular abrasives can easily become embedded in aluminum at high blast pressures. These
embedded particles can be sites for local coating failure. Sponges that have bonded aluminum
oxide or garnet abrasive in them can be used on aluminum.
Waterjetting, has also been used on aluminum surfaces, ranging from complete
biofouling and coating removal and cleaning of underwater hulls, to paint stripping on sensitive
aircraft surfaces. It is considered a cleaner technology than those that use abrasives or chemicals,
since there are no abrasives or hazardous chemicals to dispose of, and the water can be treated
and recycled. Depending on the actual pressure and how the equipment is used, waterjetting can
3-65
SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Non-Ferrous Surface Preparation
damage softer materials. In addition, it can damage joints and sealants in assemblies, so some
masking may be required.
Mild abrasives are used for paint stripping where one of the primary goals is to have little
or no risk of substrate damage. This is frequently the case when re-painting aircraft. Abrasives
used for this purpose can include agricultural products, such as walnut shells, peach pits, com
cobs, and wheat-starch, and manufactured abrasives, such as pellets of plastic media, glass beads,
sodium bicarbonate, and carbon dioxide, or dry ice.
Plastic media blasting (PMB) has been widely used for aircraft paint stripping, and
applications on sensitive components. The media can be made from a variety of polymeric
materials.
PMB can be performed in glove-box cabinets, in blasting booths, or in large contained

areas such as airplane hangers. Plastic media can be recycled and reused a number of times, until
the particles become too small to be effective. PMB can generate a significant amount of waste
that must be contained, collected, and disposed.
Chemical paint stripping has been used for many years on aluminum surfaces prior to
re-painting. They are classified into three generic categories:
° Bond breakers that penetrate the coating film, causing it to swell, soften, and lift, thereby
breaking its bond to the substrate.
° Caustic paint strippers based on alkaline compounds, such as sodium, calcium,
potassium, and magnesium hydroxide. These materials are best suited for removal of
alkyd and polyester coatings, but they should not be used on aluminum alloys since they
are highly corrosive to aluminum.
° Selective adhesion release agents (SARA) that are similar to the bond breakers described
above, in that the chemical permeates through the coating system and stresses the
chemical bonds. A unique difference in SARA materials is that once they reach the
substrate, specific compounds, such as hydrogen peroxide, react with the substrate and
forms gas under the film. The pressure of the gas formation works to disbond the coating.
As a final note, it should be kept in mind that acid cleaning and pickling processes used
for steel to remove rust and mill scale must not be used on aluminum alloys, since they are too
aggressive and will cause rapid, severe corrosion.
Stainless Steels
Many of the same precautions used for preparing aluminum surfaces also apply to
stainless steels, especially those dealing with avoiding contamination by plain carbon steel and
free iron. Stainless steels are harder than aluminum alloys, and are closer to steel alloys in
surface hardness, especially the heat-treated, high-strength grades. Therefore, embedding of
abrasive grit and surface gouging is not as great a risk with stainless steels. Hand and power tools
to be used on stainless steel surfaces should not be used on other types of metals. Similar to
3-66
aluminum, aluminum oxide and gamet are frequently recommended for abrasive blasting of
stainless steel.
Problems encountered in painting stainless steels are generally associated with poor
adhesion, especially for structures that have not been blasted and profiled. This is thought to be
due in part to the protective oxides that form on stainless steel surfaces when exposed to air, and
which provide their corrosion resistance.
Copper Alloys
Most copper alloys of any significant surface area to be painted in industrial applications
are likely to be associated with piping systems. This is especially true in marine applications.
Copper and copper-nickel alloys are used for piping and tubing, and various grades of copper-
nickel or bronze castings are often used for components such as valves, pumps, strainers, and
heat exchangers. Copper alloys may also be used for other types of components in food
processing plants. Architectural components and bronze statues may also need to be cleaned
prior to the application of transparent, protective lacquers. Surface preparation methods specified
are generally mild compared to those used for steel and structural aluminum. As with other
metallic surfaces, solvent cleaning should be performed first. Hand or power tool sanding using
abrasive cloths, belts, or pads is often the only other surface preparation method specified.
Wood
Wood can have many different product forms in industrial and architectural structures
that are painted: dimension lumber, various grades of plywood, siding, hardboard, flake board,
particleboard, and others. Since each of these product forms can have special considerations, the
discussion here only serves as an overview.
All oil, grease, dirt, and other contaminants should be removed as one of the first steps in
surface preparation. Loose materials can be removed by scraping, or for larger surface areas, by
power washing. This is followed by hand or disc sanding. Generally, disc sanding is the only
power tool cleaning method that should be used on wood, in order to prevent damage. 80-100
grit sanding media are recommended for new wood. For old, previously painted wood, scraping
and coarse (36-grit) sanding media are needed to remove loose paint.
The orientation of the grain in wood may also be a factor in surface preparation, in order
to promote good paint bonding. Exposed edge grain will be present on the surfaces of lumber
that was produced when a log has been sawn radially through the center, while flat grain is
exposed on lumber cut from the outer area of the log. Flat grain is more difficult for paint to
penetrate and bond to, and may need power sanding to help promote bonding.
Mildew may be encountered during maintenance painting of existing structures. If

mildew is present, cleaning with solutions of detergent and bleach in warm water should be done
to kill the organisms that cause mildew.
3-67
Wood surfaces are naturally porous, and are therefore prone to retaining moisture. Some
specifications may have a maximum moisture content requirement on the order of 10% to 15%.
Freshly cut lumber, also sometimes called green lumber, generally contains a large amount of
water. Ideally, this wood should be dried before painting, or it will cause blistering and cracking.
Special drying or sealing pre-treatments may also be required on existing wood structures to
prevent blistering or other problems from moisture content.
If resinous soft woods, such as pine or fir, are to be painted with latex paints, they may
need to be sealed first with an oil-based paint or other product to prevent the resin from bleeding
through over time and causing staining. Pine and fir boards are also likely to contain pockets of
resin or pitch. For work where the cosmetic appearance will be important, these pockets can be
emptied and filled with putty and sealed prior to painting. Knots in particular have more resin,
and may need sealing before finish painting to prevent later staining.
Cracks, nail holes, other defects should be filled and smoothed, as they can be sites for
prematiire coating failure, especially on structures where an aesthetically pleasing surface is
desired. Putty should be used for nail holes and gouges. Putty should not be used to fill seams
and crevices, since it is inflexible and likely to crack. Caulks and sealants are used for seams and
crevices, but silicone-based products must not be used on surfaces to be painted, since the paint
will not stick to this material. Sealants are generally elastomeric materials, and are more flexible
and rubbery compared to caulks. Therefore, sealants are recommended in expansion joints where
flexibility is needed.
Fiberglass and Composite Materials
Fiberglass and related composite materials are made from high-strength fibers or
filaments that are embedded in a polymer resin matrix, or binder. The fibers are most commonly
different types of glass, but can also be graphite or other materials. The fibers may be short
whiskers or long strands. The polymer resin matrix is most often an epoxy or polyester, but many
other types can be custom-selected to meet an application need. Fiber reinforcement provides the
strength engineered into a composite material. These composite materials often have a surface
layer consisting only of resin, in order to protect the fibers. This layer is frequently called a gel
coat. One of the key aspects in surface preparation of these materials is not to damage or expose
the fibers, and therefore not to penetrate the gel coat.
Surface preparation methods for composite structures partly depend on the type of
material that needs to be removed. In the marine and shipping industries, hard and soft
biofouling may need to be removed from immersed surfaces. This material is best removed while
still wet, since it will harden and be more difficult to remove when it dries out. Depending on the
amount of surface area to be treated, manual scraping and bristle brushing or low-pressure water
blasting can be used for this purpose. Degreasing may be needed on composite surfaces, and
detergent cleaning is often used for this. Solvents for degreasing should be tested on very small
areas first to make sure they do not damage the resin matrix. Hand and power tool sanding are
used to lightly roughen the gel coat or previously applied and intact coatings prior to topcoating.
If stripping of old paint is required, the softer types of PMB materials, such as starch-acrylic,
have been used without damaging the surface. If paint needs to be removed from composite
3-68
surfaces used in aircraft, it is sometimes specified that only the topcoats be removed and that
primer be left intact, in order to help prevent damage to the laminate. Primers on composites are
often a different color than the topcoats to help facilitate this process.
Summary
Non-ferrous metals include aluminum alloys, copper alloys, nickel alloys and stainless
steels, and non-metallic materials, such as wood and polymer resin-based composites. Non-
ferrous metals are alloys that either do not contain any iron, or contain less than 50% iron as one
of their alloying elements. These materials are painted for corrosion protection, aesthetics, and
for functional requirements, including slip-resistance and cathodic protection in immersion
S€l'VlC€.
3-69
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Shop Painting
Shop Painting of Steel

Heather Gilmer, Quality Assurance Manager, Tampa Tank
and Florida Structural Steel
Introduction
This article describes different types of industrial and light industrial/commercial paint
shops, their methods of operation, and their advantages and limitations when compared to on-site
field painting.
Types of Shops for Cleaning/Coating Operations
There are numerous different types of shop structures in which surface preparation and
coating of metal objects are conducted. These include:
' Enclosed Shop-~A permanent facility, enclosure, or building (four walls to grade and a
roof).
° Covered Shop-A permanent facility, enclosure, or building having a roof.
° Open Shop-A permanent area or facility with no roof or walls.
Some painting shops are very small and do

only custom work. Others serve a particular
industry, such as offshore petroleum production,
or specialize in a particular product such as piping
or rebar. Some painting shops are part of a larger
fabrication shop that may build only one specific
item (e.g., light rail cars) or various types of
structural or industrial steel products.
In shipyards, fabrication and coating is

done indoors in part or in whole. Large shipyards
may also have separate shops for automatic blast
cleaning and application of pre-construction
primer to steel sheet or beams, or for metallizing,
powder coating, or other specialized coating work. TTF Shop Blasting Booth
Advantages of Shop Painting Over Field Painting
The chief advantages of shop painting over field painting are:
' Better economics

° Ease of containing emissions produced in abrasive blast cleaning
° Ease of recycling abrasive
3-70
° Better environmental control

to meet surface preparation,
coating application, and
curing requirements
° Less opportunity for
contamination of steel and
undercoats
° Better access for surface
preparation, coating
application, and inspection as
well as safer working
conditions
° More choices of coating
systems
° More constant labor force
' Less interference with
personnel from other trades or
from other activities At Work ¡n the Shop
(e.g., plant operations or highway traffic)
' Better storage conditions for materials
Better Economics
Shop painting and fabricating shops have the opportunity for more efficient use of
automated or other more economic systems for cleaning and painting.
Ease of Containing Emissions Produced in Abrasive Blast Cleaning and Recycling
Shop abrasive blasting has environmental as well as economic advantages:
' Containment of emissions generated during blasting

° Abrasive can be cleaned and recycled to reduce waste
Better Environmental Control to Meet Surface Preparation and Coating Application

Requirements
Environmental control in enclosed and, to a lesser extent, covered shop painting

operations has the following advantages:
' Operations can be conducted all year long

° Temperature and humidity control minimizes flash rusting
° Improved lighting permits greater production and quality of work
° No overspray caused by wind
Environmental restrictions for shop painting vary geographically. Overall, restrictions are
more severe for shop than field painting, because shop painting is more easily controlled.
3-71
Less Opportunity for Contamination
Steel cleaned in a shop is not likely to be exposed to salt or other undesirable wind-blown
contaminants. Undercoats will similarly not be exposed to contaminants before topcoating.
Better Access for Surface Preparation, Coating Application, and Inspection
Better access to work minimizes the need for support equipment (ladders, scaffolds, lifts,
etc.) and results in higher-quality, faster work and safer working conditions.
More Choices of Coating Systems
A controlled environment permits

the use of surface preparation and systems
that are easier to use, less expensive, or
have greater field restrictions.
More Constant Labor Force in Shops
A more constant work force

eliminates the training and other programs `
to develop more skilled, safe, and content
workers.
Less Interference with Personnel from

Other Trades
In the field, it is common for blasters and painters Sh°P'C°a1°d M”'¡"° “ec”
to have interference problems with personnel from other trades,
so that work must be deferred to a later time.
Better Storage of Materials
Shops have the ability to better protect materials, abrasives, and coatings from exterior
weather conditions.
Disadvantages of Shop Painting Over Field Painting
The chief disadvantages of shop painting over field painting are:
° Damage to coatings during shipment from shop to field

° Damage to coatings during field erection of structure, notably cutting and welding
° Inadequate space for curing and storing finished items in shop
' Special handling and erection techniques needed to minimize damage to shop-coated steel
3-72
Areas of shop-applied coatings requiring touch-up because of damage during shipment to a

field site or the construction process is usually less than 5%.
During construction, cutting and welding of coated steel causes the most damage to
coatings. Thus, it is a common practice prior to abrasive blast cleaning and coating to mask areas
to be welded later to prevent burn-back of the coating. These areas are field-coated after the
welding is completed.
Most shops have limited storage areas for items to be coated and for those that have been
coated. Thus, shops must arrange for a fast pick-up or delivery of finished items.
Environmental Control
A variety of environmental control systems are used in painting shops. All enclosed
shops have ventilation and collections systems for dust and solvent vapors. Most shops use
heaters on occasion, but many shops do not have expensive dehumidification systems.
Higher temperatures have several effects on painting operations:
° Less need for heating coatings with restricted application temperatures

° Accelerated curing rate
' Reduced shelf life
° Reduced pot life
° Reduced viscosity
° Reduced recoat interval
Surface Preparation in Shops
Cleaning Methods
Dry abrasive blast cleaning is usually the preferred method of cleaning and profiling steel
for surface preparation. SSPC-SP 10/NACE No. 2, Near White Blast Cleaning is the most
commonly used level of blast cleaning. SSPC-SP 6/NACE No. 3, Commercial Blast Cleaning, is
satisfactory when applying alkyd coatings.
Shop abrasive blast cleaning has the following advantages and limitations:
Advantages
° More efficient cleaning

° Particulates more easily contained in blast cleaning area
° More consistent surface profile produced
° Less tendency to flash rust
' Can apply coating immediately after cleaning
3-73
Limitations
° More difficult to handle large or awkwardly shaped pieces
Waterj etting of steel does not produce a surface profile. Thus, waterjetting is more suited for
maintenance painting of steel where a steel surface profile already exists.
All of the above abrasives are recycled, but garnet was found to break down much
quicker than metallic abrasives. Staurolite, coal slag, and aluminum oxide abrasives are used
occasionally, but are not recycled.
Inspection of Surface Preparation
Surface cleanliness and profile are the two chief surface preparation concerris.
Coating Application in Shops
SSPC-PA 1, Shop, Field,

and Maintenance Painting of Steel,
is a commonly used standard for
shop (as well as field and
maintenance) painting of steel
surfaces. It covers both general and
specific requirements for the
application of paint.
Airless spray is the most

commonly used coating application
system because of its high
application rate and relatively good
transfer efficiency.
Shop-Coated Steel Beam

Coatings Used
Specific Coating Systems
The American Society of State Highway and Transportation Officials and the National Steel
Bridge Alliance published AASHTO/NSBA Collaboration S 8.1, which addresses application of
paint systems using zinc-rich primers to new steel bridges. The zinc-rich primer may be either
inorganic or organic, and the coating system may have two or three coats, of which all but the
primer may be applied in either the shop or the field. The most commonly specified system for
bridges is a three-coat system of inorganic zinc primer, epoxy interrnediate, and polyurethane
topcoat, although other systems have also proved successful.
3-74
The most commonly used generic shop coatings are epoxies. When intended for exterior
service, they are usually topcoated with an aliphatic polyurethane or an acrylic topcoat to provide
weather resistance.
Alkyd coating systems are sometimes used on steel in mild environments. They require a
lower level of surface cleaning than higher performance coatings.
Summary
Shop painting is by definition painting that is done in a shop environment protected from
the weather. There are several different types of industrial and light industrial/commercial paint
shops all of which have advantages and limitations when compared to on-site field painting. The
enclosed shop is a permanent facility, enclosure, or building (four walls to grade and a roof). A
covered shop is a permanent facility, enclosure, or building with a roof and an open shop is a
permanent area or facility with no roof or walls.
3-75
SSPC Vol. l Good Painting Practice: Contractor Equipment
Contractor Equipment: An Overview

John Caturano, Technical Consultant
Introduction
Industrial painting is a complex operation, especially when done in the field. Successful
coating work in the field requires the quality-oriented contractor to use a large array of
equipment in order to get the job done properly, on time, and in a safe and environmentally
compliant manner.
This article provides an overview of the types of equipment typically used for successful
industrial maintenance painting. It covers the major equipment needed to perform the primary
functions of surface preparation and coating application. It also covers the various types of
support equipment and tools required to complete each job successfully. It”s important to
understand that the equipment and tools used on a particular job depend on site-specific
conditions and contract requirements. For example, dry abrasive blasting may be prohibited in a
facility for any number of reasons. The contractor would then be required to determine an
alternate method that is acceptable to the facility owner to prepare the surfaces for coating.
While this article focuses on maintenance painting in the field, specific types of
equipment used in new construction or shop painting is briefly discussed. With some exceptions,
equipment mentioned for fieldwork is also used in new construction and shop painting
applications.
Mobilization
Before a contractor can begin work on an industrial structure such as a storage tank,
bridge, refinery or power plant, the contractor°s management persormel (including site
supervision) in charge of the job must set up the job site. Setting up the job site often requires
trucks and rigs to bring in site trailers which can be used for offices, lunch, and break areas or
meetings. Trailers may also be used for material and equipment storage, personnel
decontamination, and change out facilities. Local building codes may need to be consulted to
know how satellite trailers are to be set up (anchored to ground, etc.). In addition, if paint storage
is to be on-site in bulk, the contractor must consider temperature and flammable storage
requirements.
Once these trailers are delivered to the site, additional equipment may be needed (e.g.,
computers and Intemet access and copiers and printers) as required. In many cases, computers
will require installation of special project management software or other software required for
tracking such activities as work schedules, materials consumed, job costs, etc.
Even when a job site is within the confines of a protected facility, equipment on-site may
also require heavy-duty locks, security alarms, or fencing to secure it from vandalism and theft.
Security requirements will vary and are a function of the project°s location.
3-76
SSPC Vol. 1 Good Painting Practice: Contractor Equipment
Prior to arriving onsite to start work, the contractor must survey the site to determine how
its employees will safely access the structure to be cleaned and painted. These surveys are often
perfomied through use of snooper trucks, scissor lifts, man lifts, ladders and scaffolds. Once
access equipment needs are determined, the contractor must erect the needed scaffolding,
platforms, ladders, containment structures, etc., allowing workers safe access to the actual work
areas.
It is important for the contractor to perform a pre-construction walk-through of the job

site to identify site-specific conditions and potential hazards. Once hazards are identified,
workers should be made aware of site conditions prior to starting work.
Once the workers arrive on site, portable toilet, hand wash, and other hygiene facilities
must be set up along with installation of utility connections.
During the initial phases of setting up job site equipment, secondary containment and
ground protection must be considered to mitigate potential ground contamination from
equipment containing oil, coolant, or other liquids.
1;/
Containment Structure Trailer Mounted Blast

Equipment with Ground
Cover
Surface Preparation
The first major operation in an industrial painting project may include the erection of
scaffolding, containment, and dust collection equipment as required. Prior to actually begirirring
paint removal operations, there is usually a hold-point to ensure that the appropriate equipment
has been properly set up.
Prior to starting surface preparation, the surface condition should be evaluated and the
appropriate pre-cleaning method detemiined in accordance with SSPC-SP 1, Solvent Cleaning.
All SSPC dry abrasive blast cleaning surface preparation standards require pre-cleaning prior to
3-77
the beginning of mechanical surface preparation. Such activities may include pressure-washing,
steam cleaning, solvent cleaning, applying soluble salt removers, degreasing, etc.
Dry Compressed Air Abrasive Blast Cleaning
Once the job site is set up and the contractor has been given approval to proceed, surface
preparation can begin. If the contractor is going to dry abrasive blast clean the surface, surface
defects must first be identified and repaired, and detrimental contaminants removed. Blasting
operations will likely include the following equipment:
° Appropriately sized compressor and properly sized air hose

° Blast machine or blast pot, including metering valves
° Aftercoolers/air dryers
° Moisture separators
' Bulk abrasive storage facility
° Abrasive blast or “bull” hoses and related couplings and fittings
' Blast nozzles
° Breathing air filters
° Deadman controls (electric or pneumatic)
' Breathing air line hose
' Carbon monoxide (CO) alarms for breathing air lines when oil compressors are used
' Climate control valves for the breathing air line
° Two-way radio or other communication equipment
° Vacuum unit to clean up recyclable or spent abrasive
° Dehumidification units if work is being done inside a tank or confined space
° Portable ambient air heaters (propane, kerosene, electric, and diesel)
° Solvent recovery units, if solvents used for pre-cleaning
° Low-pressure washing units (diesel or gasoline powered)
° Appropriate dust collection units
° Material (abrasive) handling equipment
Manual dry blast cleaning done in the fabrication or paint shop is likely to be in a blast
room or ifthe pieces are small, in a hand-operated blast cabinet, which in themselves are
specialized pieces of equipment manufactured for indoor blast cleaning. Dry blasting in the shop
must be done in areas where airbome abrasive blasting debris cannot contaminate previously
painted or cleaned surfaces.
If required to reduce dusting while blast cleaning in the field, the contractor may attach
an abrasive water ring or similar attachment to the blast nozzle.
Blast cleaning with a variety of specialized soft media, such as carbon dioxide (CO2, dry
ice), sponge or organic material, such as com cobs or walnut shells, will require customized
equipment.
3-78
Centrifugal Blast Cleaning
Some surface preparation work is done using portable centrifugal blast cleaning units.
Robotic, remote-controlled units are used to clean relatively flat surfaces such as those found on
storage tanks or ship hulls. Portable blasting units may be used to prepare concrete floors and
other horizontal surfaces prior to coating.
In fabrication and blast and paint shops, large stationary centrifugal or wheel blasting
equipment is used to clean large items such as steel beams, plate, and piping using recyclable
metallic abrasive. These units allow for good production rates, produce uniform, high quality
cleaning, and eliminate the need for workers to do the blast cleaning manually.
Wet Cleaning Methods
High and ultra-high pressure (HP & UHP) waterjetting units are often used to remove
surface contaminants prior to coating application. Special wet abrasive blasting injector units
may also be used to prepare surfaces. Water cleaning produces less dust than would normally be
found when using dry blast cleaning methods.
Equipment needs for waterjetting are less intensive (although not necessarily less costly)
than for dry blasting. A typical waterjetting system requires a water supply line; holding tanks;
pump units to produce the pressurized water; hoses to supply water to the nozzle operator; and
the appropriate wand and nozzle. There are no controls on a manually operated waterjetting gun
except the trigger and the dump valve. The dump valve is a safety device similar to the deadman
control on a dry blasting unit that effectivcly shuts down or slows down the pump or reduces
nozzle pressure when activated.
In addition to manual operation, waterjetting equipment can be remotely operated for

cleaning tarrks, ships and other vertical surfaces. Hand operated or walk behind units with
vacuum attachments are also available for certain types of work such as small vertical surfaces or
floors and decks.
Specialty Blast Cleaning Methods
Special blast cleaning machines are available for specific surface preparation options
using “specialty” abrasives such as sodium bicarbonate (i.e. baking soda), carbon dioxide (i.e.
dry ice) synthetic sponge, or organic material (i.e. walnut shells or com cobs). Because certain
specialty media cannot be processed in a “traditional” blast machine, a specialized blast machine
is required. Otherwise, the equipment needs are essentially the same as for dry abrasive blast
cleaning.
3-79
Hand and Power Tool Cleaning
When wet or dry blast cleaning or waterjetting methods are neither feasible nor practical
or when spot repairs are needed in select areas of a surface, hand and power tools are typically
used for surface preparation.
The following are examples of the types of equipment and tools typically found on a
painting project job site:
° Scrapers
° Putty knives
° Wire brushes
° Needle guns
° Disc sanders
° Grinders
° Rotary peens
' Chipping hammers
' Power chisels
o Scabblers
o Scarifiers
o Scalers
Power tools used on industrial painting projects are usually air driven (pneumatic) but
electric powered models may also be employed. The three types of power tools typically used
include impact, rotary and rotary impact.
ROÍHTY P0Wer T00l Pneumatic disc sander
3-80
Concrete
A variety of equipment and tools are used to clean concrete prior to coating. They
include:
° Portable walk behind or ride on shot blasting machines

° Floor scalers, scabblers, or scarifiers
° Portable walk behind or ride on waterjetting units
° Traditional abrasive blast cleaning equipment
° Dehumidification equipment
Hazardous Paint Containment, Storage, and Disposal
If lead-based paint or other hazardous materials are to be removed during surface

preparation, additional specialized equipment must be brought in. These include:
° HEPA vacuums
° Hand washing units
° Shower and special “clean room” dirty room” change facilities
' Air monitoring equipment (for ambient air and personal breathing air)
° Biological monitoring and respiratory equipment
' Lead and soil sampling and testing equipment
' Metallic abrasive cleaning and recycling units
° Dust collection or bag house units, including appropriate ducting
° Containment materials (e. g., tarpaulins)
° Shrouds and vacuums attached to power tools to control dust emissions
° Storage drums or storage roll offs for hazardous waste
Other Equipment
Industrial painting operations sometimes require special support equipment or accessories

for non-routine circumstances. For example, working on structures such as a bridge over water or
a lock and dam, may require placement of equipment on a barge. Working over water may also
require the availability and use ofa rescue boat.
Contractors working on offshore platfomis or drilling rigs may require boats to transport
equipment and supplies. Smaller offshore structures may require jack-up boats or barges to be
used to stage equipment. Helicopters and crew boats may also be required to transfer crews to
the job site. In addition, living quarters may have to be set up for some projects. Diving
equipment and accessories are required for undervvater coating operations.
Night work or work in confined spaces or indoor spaces will require portable lighting.
Lighting may be powered by compressor, portable generators or plant electricity. In confined
spaces, especially storage tanks, explosion-proof lighting is often required. Lighting components
3-81
should be intrinsically safe and rated for hazardous locations as described in SSPC-Guide 12,
Guide for Illumination of Industrial Painting Projects.
Working around or near vehicle traffic will require various traffic control devices for
safety as well as for diversion of vehicles prior to begirniing work. The traffic control plan may
have to be approved by the appropriate DOT or other agency.
Access
Having the proper equipment for coating operations is essential. However, most of the
time additional support equipment is needed to provide workers with close access to the work
surface to enhance the quality of work and for working safely.
The ladder is the most common and fundamental piece of access equipment. Step,
extension, single and stationary ladders, such as those found on the outside and interiors of
storage tanks, are common on industrial painting projects.
More sophisticated access

equipment such as aerial lifts, scissor
lifts, and platform trucks are needed
when ladders cannot provide adequate
access.
Scaffolding is often used on

industrial painting projects to provide
worker access. Built-up, tubular,
mobile, and swing scaffolds are typical.
Scaffolds, particularly two-point
suspension systems, are raised and
lowered using powered hoists.
Scaffolding systems also include
guardrail systems, toe boards, canopies,
Painters in Lift Bucket
and screens, as needed.
Associated rigging equipment, such as transfer chains, scaffold platforms made of wood
or aluminum, are also typical. A single worker sometimes uses a bosun chair and work cages for
access.
Besides access equipment and accessories, working in high places requires fall
protection. Full body hamesses, shock absorbing lanyards, deceleration devices, lifelines, and
anchoring devices are among the critical components of a fall protection system.
Work/containment platforms may be in the fom1 of chain-link fencing covered with

tarpaulins, rolled steel decking, plywood, or other durable materials. Temporary ramps, runways,
and stairvvays are sometimes required for access to the work platform.
3-82
Support equipment needed to provide adequate access to work areas should always be
used in accordance with the contractor's OSHA-compliant safety program.
Paint Shops
Most of the surface preparation equipment used in the field is also used in the fixed
facility paint or fabrication shop. Some equipment unique to the shop (although sometimes found
in the field, too) includes:
° Fire extinguishers
° Fire sprinklers and alarm systems
° Solvent recovery equipment
° Permanent explosion proof lighting
in the paint storage area
° Material handling equipment (e.g.
cranes, forklifts, carts)
° Atmospheric heaters
° Curing ovens
° Special dip tanks for pickling or
phosphate treatment
° Dust tíollectors
Dust Collector (_
Paint shops will usually have separate rooms or booths for blast cleaning and coating to
keep airbome blast debris from contaminating newly painted surfaces. Shops will also have a
! number of environmental controls such as filters and ventilation equipment. Often shops have
pipe wrapping, powder coating, or metallizing equipment.
Application Equipment
Much of the support and access equipment used for surface preparation is the same
needed for quality and safe coating application. Specific types of application equipment may
include but are not limited to:
° Air compressors
° Moisture traps
° Air drying/cooling units
° Hoses, couplings and fittings
° Conventional or air spray equipment
° Airless spray equipment
° Fluid pumps, pressure tarrks or pots
' Spray guns and tips accessories
' Powered portable or drill mixers
(
3-83
° Viscosity cups & Straining equipment

° Siphon-fed spray equipment
° Electrostatic spray equipment
° Mechanical proportioning, plural
component spray equipment
° Ventilation fans for indoor and confined
spaces
° Dehumidification equipment
° Forced cure heating equipment, when
applicable
° Power trowels, rakes, squeegees (for
concrete surfaces)
° Material (paint cans) handling
equipment
Plural Component
Equipment
Flame or arc spray guns and customized control units are used for specialized application
processes such as thermal spray metallizing. Fluidized beds for dry powder-coating application
and other specialized powder-coating equipment is usually found in the shop.
Quality Control
The quality-conscious contractor will have necessary measurement and test equipment at
each job site to verify that work conforms to specification requirements. The use of calibrated
inspection equipment by properly trained inspectors can aid in identifying defects before they
show up in the final product, effectivcly decreasing the amount of rework and increasing
productivity. The number and type of instruments brought to the job site will vary with the
requirements of each contract and the size of the project.
-mà
Q
fì:
Tools For Measuring
Ambient Conditions
Light Meter
3-84
Examples of quality control equipment include but are not limited to:
Ambient Conditions
° Sling or electronic psychrometer (to obtain ambient temperature, relative humidity and
dew point)
° Surface temperature gage (to measure working surface temperature)
° Psychrometric tables (used in conjunction with a sling psychrometer to obtain ambient
readings)
° Moisture meter (to measure moisture in concrete)
' Light meter
l ¿
f_.`.-V \¬¬,
Nozzle Orifice Gage T' T

Replica Tape and
Micrometer
Surface Preparation
' Hypodermic needle pressure gage (to measure blast nozzle air pressure)
° Nozzle orifice gage (to measure nozzle wear)
° Abrasive sieves (to measure abrasive size or separate recycled abrasive)
° Surface profile comparator (to measure surface profile using visual comparisons)
° Replica tape and micrometer (to measure surface profile)
° Surface profile gage
° Chloride-ion and other soluble-salts testing equipment
' Conductivity meter (to measure soluble salts)
° Camera (to document work)
' Ultraviolet light (for detecting oil and grease contamination)
Application
' Paint thermometer (to measure paint temperature)

° Wet film thickness gage
° Dry film thickness (DFT) gage-magnetic pull-off or electronic constant pressure (to
measure paint film after it has dried)
3-85
Tooke gage (to measure coating thickness on non-metallic surfaces or multiple layers of a
coating system)
Holiday or spark tester-low or high voltage (to measure discontinuities in the coated
surface)
Adhesion testers (to measure paint adhesion or soundness of concrete)
Camera
Hardness pencils (to measure completeness of curing)
1 “-_..
'-*ec
“A .gig
si :f
Wet Film Thickness Gage
Electronic Dry Film

Thickness Gage
QC equipment kits may also contain SSPC visual guides, calibration instructions, and
plates or plastic shims (to verify calibration of DFT gages) as well as the other written standards
required for the job.
Safety Equipment
Velometer (measure air flow)

Anemometer (measure air flow)
Magnehelic gage (measure negative pressure)
o Manometer (measure negative pressure)
Noise meter
Heat-stress monitors
Gas/oxygen detector (for confined space work)
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
Contractors are required by regulation to make available and utilize an array of safety
equipment required for safe operations. Quality-oriented contractors also know that protected
and safe workers are more productive and miss less work. They know, too, that safe operations
reduce direct costs such as medical bills, insurance deductibles, and regulatory fines as well as
3-86
indirect costs such as increased insurance premiums, administrative costs, and bad public
relations.
PPE
Dry blasting and water blasting suits

Coveralls or disposable suits for paint application
Protective gloves
Eye protection (goggles, glasses, shields)
Hard hat
Ear protection (ear muffs, earplugs)
Knee pads
Protective footwear
Specialized clothing for hazardous material handling or
nuclear work
Special reflective vests for road or night work
Approved buoyant vests and life rings for working over or near ¡›¡ur,,¡ Component PPE
water
Abrasive blast helmets with the appropriate protection factor
Air purifying respirators and appropriate cartridges
Powered air purifying respirators (PAPR)
Supplied breathing air compressors
Confined Space
Supplied air respirators (airline more typical for workers)

Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA, typically used for rescuers)
Extraction equipment in case a rescue is required
Two-way radio for ease of communication
Other
Air and emission monitoring equipment

First aid kits
Eye and hand wash units
Fencing
Electrical circuit breakers and GFCIS
Safety and caution signage
J.-ir
Hand Wash Unit
3-87
Summary
All equipment discussed in this article as well as other equipment used on the job must be
checked for proper operation, preferably before it gets to the job site. Equipment should also be
properly sized with the rest of the equipment on the site so the intended work gets done
efficiently and cost-effectivcly. Common spare parts, fuel, and other accessories must be
factored in to job plarirring.
Protection of equipment while on the job site is also a concem. Sometimes the contractor
has access to storage areas at the customer”s facility to store equipment or there may be a need to
erect temporary storage facilities. Frequently, storage areas are not available and the equipment
is exposed to the environment. This is of particular concem in aggressive environments such as
an offshore rig where the equipment is subject to salt air, splashing seawater, etc.
The contractor must also determine what utilities (e.g. water; electricity; compressed air)
will be needed to operate powered equipment and whether the owner, painting contractor, or
general contractor will supply the utility.
Training of operators on the proper use, safe operation, and required maintenance of all
the equipment used on coating projects is essential for quality work, safety, and good production
rates. Often, contractor workers performing hazardous operations, such as the removal of lead-
based paints, working in confined areas, working at heights, working with chemicals, etc., are
required to have additional training.
3-88
Section 3 Index
l
A
Inorganic zincs 3-25
Abrasive blasting 3-11, 3-78 in-Situ probe testing 3-31, 3-35
Access equipment 3-82 Insulated service 3-22
Air-assisted airless spray 3-7
Airless spray 3-5, 3-7 J
Aluminum alloys 3-64
Ambient conditions 3-84 Job reference standard 3-49
Application equipment 3-83-3-86
L
B
Light meters 3-84
Bend test 3-47
Brush application 3-2, 3-3 M
C Mixing 3-1
Mobilization 3-76
Concrete, Moisture blistering 3-34
coatings 3-32 Moisture mitigation systems 3-37
equipment 3-81 Moisture vapor emission testing 3-36
inspection and testing 3-31 MVTR test 3-35
standards 3-30,3-31
surface preparation 3-30 N
Containment 3-77
Conventional air spray 3-3,3-5 Nonferrous 3-63, 3-64
Copper alloys 3-67 Non-skid,
Cryogenic coating systems 3-28 application 3-58, 3-60
CUI Peak Temperature 3-23 color topping 3-61
Cut test (thermal spray) 3-48 surface preparation 3-59
Novolacs 3-26
D
P
Dehumidification 3-37
Dust collectors 3-83 Paint,
shops 3-83
E storage 3-81
PPE 3-86, 3-87
Electric arc sprayiiig 3-40 Power tool cleaning 3-80
Electrostatic spray 3-8, 3-53 Plienolics 3-26
Epoxy systems 3-13, 3-26 Plastic blast media 3-66
Plural component spray 3-9
F Polysiloxanes 3-15,3-17
Polyureas 3-15
F iberglass 3-68 Polyuretlianes 3-14
Field painting 3-70 Powder coating 3-27, 3-51
Flame spraying 3-41 3-52
F luidized bed 3-55 Primers 3-12
Powder coating 3-27
H
Q
Hand tool cleaning 3-80
HVLP 3-9 Quality control 3-84
[_
R
Roller application 3-3
Shop painting 3-70, 3-73, 3-74, 3-83

Silicones 3-25
Slip resistant flooring 3-32
Stainless steel 3-66
Straining 3-2
Stripe coating 3-3
Thermal shock 3-21

Thermal spray 3-28, 3-41-3-49
Thinning 3-1, 3-2
Tinting 3-2
Transfer efficiency 3-56
Waterbome coatings 3-15

Wet cleaning methods 3-79
Wheel blasting 3-79
Wood 3-67
Zinc-rich coatings 3-14
I-2

Section 3: Coatings and Equipment

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Vol.

1 Good Painting Practice Section 3

Application of Industrial Coatings

Elevated/High Temperature Coatings 3-21

Application of Industrial Coatings

Proper application of coatings is as critical as their selection and surface preparation in

Preparing Coatings for Application

During storage, coating pigments

Mixing can be done manually or

When stirring mechanically:

Thinning (Reducing) Mixed Coatings

Paints should always be strained to

more than one-half of the bristle length. É ff' ïšgš§n“E””

° Start and finish at natural boundaries and

Brushes are used to apply stripe coats to edges and

Rollers are not used ifthe coating being

Roller Application in the Field

Conventional (Air) Spray

s pmy G "" _ÑozzIe

HORNS FLUID NOZZLE

EXTERNAL MIX EXTERNAL MIX

Fluid and Air Hoses

Immersion Spray Gun -.¬ ' Suction

Airless Spray Fluid Pumps

The selection of a spray tip is

High-Pressure Fluid Hoses and Fittings

The paint hoses used in airless

Fìlters and Screens

Airless Spray Techniques

Air-Assisted Airless Spray

Electrostatic Spray Systems

Electrostatic spraying permits coating application on irregularly shaped, electrically

Spinning Bell & Disk Method

Air Atomizing and Airless Electrostatic Spray

Electrostatic Spray Application Techniques

The standard formulations of most solvent-based paints can be sprayed successfully by

The plural component method of spraying coatings

Plural component spray systems consist of: i

° Coating material feed system for each component

Typical plural component materials include epoxies, polyurethanes, polyureas, polysulﬁdes,

High-Volume, Low-Pressure Spray

High-volume low-pressure spray (HVLP) systems resemble conventional air spray

automotive, and commercial and residential applications.

Coatings for Industrial Steel Structures

The removal of deteriorated coatings for either repair or replacement of damaged

Surface Preparation of New Steel

Generic type of primer

Primers for Steel Surfaces

There are several types of surface-tolerant primers:

° Low-viscosity (penetrating) coatings, such as oil-based, alkyds, and waterborne acrylic

° Barrier coatings, such as epoxy mastics and moisture-cured polyurethanes containing

' Unpigmented, low-viscosity (penetrating) two-component epoxy and polyurethane

Epoxies, acrylics, alkyds, moisture-curing polyurethanes, and solvent-bome and

° Surface preparation of weld and damaged areas (abrasive blasting to SSPC-SP

Desired properties for pre-construction primers include:

° Corrosion protection of steel during fabrication

Coating Systems Used on Steel

Alkyds and Other Systems that Cure by Oxidation of Drying Oils

Coal-Tar Epoxy Systems

Coal-tar epoxy coating systems have been used

Polyurethanes are available in both two-component thennosetting and single-component

Polysiloxane Coating Systems

Waterborne Acrylic Systems

Polyurea Coating Systems