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INTRODUCTION TO BOILERS
1.1. OVERVIEW
Generally the term boiler is referred to as a device used for generating either steam for power
generation or hot water for heating purposes. But the term boiler has been defined by the
Indian Boiler Act, 1923, as a closed pressure vessel with a capacity exceeding 22.75litres used
for generating steam under pressure.
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred into
water until it becomes heated water or steam [2]. The hot water or steam under pressure is then
usable for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and cheap medium for transferring
heat to a process. When water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times,
producing a force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be
extremely dangerous equipment that must be treated with utmost care.
The process of heating a liquid until it reaches its gaseous state is called evaporation. Heat is
transferred from one body to another by means of (1) radiation, which is the transfer of heat from
a hot body to a cold body without a conveying medium, (2) convection, the transfer of heat by a
conveying medium, such as air or water and (3) conduction, transfer of heat by actual physical
contact, molecule to molecule.
Boilers are a part and parcel of any manufacturing unit. It is used in power plants, sugar
industry, textile industry etc [11]. Without them no operations such as power generation,
heating, and many others cannot be performed. And we know the result of what would
happen. Such is the importance of boilers in the industry.
The boiler system comprises of: feed water system, steam system and fuel system. The feed
water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam
demand. Various valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam system collects
and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through a piping system to the
point of use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with
steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate
the necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel used in
the system. A typical boiler room schematic is shown in Figure1.1
The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feed water. The two
sources of feed water are: (1) Condensate or condensed steam returned from the processes and
a) Natural circulation boiler: here the circulation of water takes place due to the
difference in density between the saturated steam and the feed water.
b) Forced circulation boilers: here the circulation of water takes place by the help of a
feed pump.
(a) Coal fired (b) Gas fired (c) Oil fired (d) Wood fired (e) Bagasse fired
Temperature = 394 K
(a) Externally fired boilers: here the furnace is located outside the boiler.
(b) Internally fired boilers: here the furnace is inside the boiler.
(a) Dutch oven boiler (b) Open boiler (c) Scotch boiler (d) Screened boiler
Position - a) Horizontal
b) Vertical
c) Inclined
(a) Fire tube boilers: here the tubes contain the flue gases and water surrounds them.
(b) Water tube boilers: here the tubes contain water and the flue gases surround them.
(a) Fired boilers: here the firing is done with the help of fuel.
(a) Fuel fired boiler (b) Waste heat boilers (c) Electrical powered boilers
(a) Benson boiler (b) La Mont boiler (c) Babcock boiler (d) Wilcox boiler
According the "ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code" boilers [9] may be classified as
Section I Power Boilers - process boilers, power boilers and high pressure boilers
boilers in which steam or other vapor is generated at a pressures not exceeding 15 psig
high temperature water boilers intended for operation at pressures not exceeding 160 psig
and or temperatures exceeding 250 degrees F.
(g) The joints must be accessible and away from direct flame impact.
(i) Mud and other deposits should not collect on heated plates.
(h) The velocity of water and other flue gases should be minimum.
The factors taken into account while selecting a boiler [5] are:
(J) The probable steam generation during the calendar time at the rated steam
generation time.
(k) Average and maximum time of a campaign (i.e., the operation time to failure).
The performance of the steam boiler is generally measured in terms of its evaporative capacity.
The evaporative capacity can be defined as the weight of water that a boiler can evaporate per
hour [5]. It is expressed in kg/hour. It can also be defined as steam generated per kg of fuel burnt.
The evaporative capacity depends on-
However the working capacity of two boilers cannot be compared unless both the boilers have
the same feed water temperature, working pressure, fuel and final condition of steam. In actual
practice, the feed water temperature and working pressure varies considerably. It is thus obvious,
that the comparison of two boilers become difficult unless some standard feed temperature and
working pressure is adopted. The standard conditions are:
For comparison of two boilers, we make use of the term equivalent evaporation capacity or
equivalent evaporation (EE).
It is defined as the quantity of dry saturated steam that could be generated by boiler per unit time
from water at 100°c to steam at100°c at normal atmospheric pressure [5]. It is given by:
Thermal efficiency/Boiler efficiency: it is defined as the ratio of heat actually used in producing
the steam to the heat liberated by the fuel in the furnace.
Boiler efficiency =
If the boiler consisting of economizer and superheater is considered to be a single unit, then the
efficiency is termed as the overall efficiency of the boiler.
There are two methods for calculating the thermal efficiency of boiler:
1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is
compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel.
2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the
energy input.
This is also known as ‘input-output method’ due to the fact that it needs only the useful output
(steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can be
evaluated using the formula
Boiler efficiency =
Parameters to be monitored for the calculation of boiler efficiency by direct method are :
• Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr.
• Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr.
• The working pressure (in kg/cm2 (g)) and superheat temperature (°C), if any
• The temperature of feed water (°C)
• Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in kcal/kg of fuel.
Boiler efficiency =
Example
Find out the efficiency of the boiler by direct method with the data given below:
– Type of boiler: Coal fired
– Quantity of steam (dry) generated: 8 TPH
– Steam pressure (gauge) / temp: 10 kg/cm2 (g)/ 180°C
– Quantity of coal consumed: 1.8 TPH
– Feed water temperature: 85°C
– GCV of coal: 3200 kcal/kg
– Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm2 pressure: 665kcal/kg (saturated)
ASME Power Test Code (PTC-4-1, 1973) provides heat loss method, which applies to all types
of fuel. This heat loss method is also called as Indirect method. The efficiency can be arrived at,
by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100. The standards do not include blow down loss in
the efficiency determination process. A detailed procedure for calculating boiler efficiency by
indirect method is given below. However, it may be noted that the practicing energy mangers in
industries prefer simpler calculation procedures.
The principle losses that occur in a boiler are:
(a) Loss of heat due to dry flue gas
(b) Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel and combustion air
(c) Loss of heat due to combustion of hydrogen
(d) Loss of heat due to radiation
(e) Loss of heat due to unburnt
In the above, loss due to moisture in fuel and the loss due to combustion of hydrogen are
dependent on the fuel, and cannot be controlled by design.
Having determined flue gas analysis, flue gas temperature and combustion air temperature for
each boiler at perhaps four or five points over its load range, the operator can then make use of
this data to optimize plant performance. First, by looking at O2 and CO levels in the flue gas,
conclusions can be drawn about the adjustment of the air/fuel controls, and whether dry flue gas
loss (h1) can be safely reduced by reducing excess air. Second, boiler efficiency at each test
point can be obtained by adding up the losses, as determined from the foregoing procedures, and
subtracting from 100. That is;
Then an efficiency curve can be drawn for each boiler. Usually boiler efficiency is highest
somewhere between 50% and 80% of maximum capacity rating (MCR). It is generally lower at
low load due to higher excess air and higher radiation and convection losses, and lower at high
load due to high stack temperature. With the boiler efficiency curves as a guide the operator can
shift loads between boilers to maintain each at close to its highest efficiency. In designing or
refurbishing a plant, the profile of demand versus time should be carefully considered, and boiler
sizes should be selected so that they operate in the most efficient range most of the time.
If existing boilers have a high stack temperature at full load, and operate there much of the time,
it might be cost effective to add heat recovery equipment such as economizers or air heaters.
ASME has recommended that one boiler horse power is equivalent to an evaporation of 15.63 kg
of water per hour from and at 100°c into dry steam at 100°c and at normal atmospheric pressure
of 1 bar.
The difference of heat liberated in the furnace and heat utilized in producing steam is known as
heat lost in the boiler [10]. The loss of heat may be divided into various heads, but following are
important:
(a) Heat loss due to dry chimney (flue) gases: The heat lost by the dry flue gases is usually
the maximum loss. This losses accounts for the heat lost up the stack in the dry product of
combustion, that is, CO2, O2, N2, SO2 & CO. The dry products carry away the sensible
heat. The concentration of SO2 & CO is in PPM & energy loss due to them is very less &
can be neglected. It may be calculated as:
h1 = mg*cp* (Tg–Ta)
Where h1 = heat lost per kg of fuel
mg = mass of dry flue gases per kg of fuel
cp = mean specific heat of dry flue gases
Tg = temperature of flue gases leaving the chimney
Ta = temperature of boiler room
(b) Heat loss due to moisture in fuel: In combustion of hydrocarbon fuel, water vapor is
produced in significant amount due to the hydrogen component of the fuel. This
combustion of hydrogen leaves the boiler as water vapor, taking with it the heat content,
corresponding to its temperature and pressure. The vapor is a steam with very low
pressure but high stack temperature. It can be calculated as follows:
h2 = mw*(hsup– hb)
Where h2 = heat loss per kg of fuel
mw = mass of free moisture per kg of fuel
hsup = enthalpy of superheated steam at flue gas temperature and pressure
hb = sensible heat of water at boiler room temperature
With modern design boiler, this may represent only 1.5% on the GCV at full rating, but may
increase to around 6% when it operates at only 25% output. Operating the boiler at full load
optimize this loss.
It is usually more efficient, to distribute demand among the available boilers and on a whole, to
operate fewer number of boilers at higher load, then to operate large number at low loads
(1) Heat loss due to un-burnt gaseous combustible. This heat loss is generally small & is
caused by an insufficient supply of air, some of the carbon in the fuel being burnt to
carbon monoxide.
(2) Heat loss due to unconsumed combustible in refuse. Some of the carbon in the fuel,
either un-burnt or partly burnt, may fall into the ash-pit. The loss depends on the type
of grate, rate of combustion and size and kind of fuel. It can be calculated as:
Heat loss= ma*c
Where ma = mass of carbon in ash-pit per kg of fuel
c = calorific value of carbon
(3) Unaccounted losses
The energy demand in India, not surprisingly, is amongst the lowest in the world on per capita
basis. However, for a developing country like ours, we run a very high energy bill. That all
efforts must be made to conserve energy, is an understatement and even the most modest attempt
in this direction is laudable.
Indian industry, in general, has put in little effort to analyze and practice means for efficient
energy utilization. As a result we have lagged too far behind the other developing nations in the
field of effective management of energy [7]. The need of the hour is to accord a very high
priority to the subject of energy management to ensure that our business become globally
competitive.
India suffers a power deficit of the order of 10% (22% at peak loads) for the last several years,
and the availability of energy will have a substantial impact on our country’s future growth. In
order to manage bulk supply of energy, we to accurately know ‘Where’ & ‘How much” energy is
being consumed.
India’s Industrial sector consumes nearly 45% of total power produced. Most Industrial
processes in India consume anywhere between 20-40% more energy per unit of output compared
to the specific energy consumed in many advanced countries. Industries in India spend between
Let us take an example of thermal power plants. Thermal power plants are a major source of
electricity supply in India. The conventional method of power generation and supply to the
customer is wasteful in the sense that only about a third of the primary energy fed into the
power plant is actually made available to the user in the form of electricity (Figure 4.1). In
conventional power plant, efficiency is only 35% and remaining 65% of energy is lost. The major
source of loss in the conversion process is the heat rejected to the surrounding water or air due
to the inherent constraints of the different thermodynamic cycles employed in power
generation. Also further losses of around 10-15% are associated with the transmission and
distribution of electricity in the electrical grid.
4.2. COGENERATION
Cogeneration or Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is defined as the sequential generation of
two different forms of useful energy from a single primary energy source, typically mechanical
energy and thermal energy [3]. Mechanical energy may be used either to drive an alternator for
producing electricity, or rotating equipment such as motor, compressor, pump or fan for
delivering various services. Thermal energy can be used either for direct process applications or
for indirectly producing steam, hot water, hot air for dryer or chilled water for process cooling.
Along with the saving of fossil fuels, cogeneration also allows to reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases (particularly CO2 emission). The production of electricity being on-site, the
burden on the utility network is reduced and the transmission line losses eliminated.
Cogeneration makes sense from both macro and micro perspectives. At the macro level, it
allows a part of the financial burden of the national power utility to be shared by the private
sector; in addition, indigenous energy sources are conserved. At the micro level, the overall
energy bill of the users can be reduced, particularly when there is a simultaneous need for both
power and heat at the site, and a rational energy tariff is practiced in the country.
Cogeneration helps in increasing the overall efficiency of the plant, but our main aim is to
increase the efficiency of the boiler. We will now discuss the different ways by which the
energy can be saved in boilers.
The efficiency of boiler is usually in between 70-90%. This 10-30% loss is mainly due to
incomplete combustion, excess air, thermal loss due to water vapor in flue gas etc. [2]. The
various energy efficiency opportunities in boiler system can be related to combustion, heat
transfer, avoidable losses, high auxiliary power consumption, water quality and blowdown.
Examining the following factors can indicate if a boiler is being run to maximize its efficiency:
The stack temperature should be as low as possible. However, it should not be so low that water
vapor in the exhaust condenses on the stack walls. This is important in fuels containing
Typically, the flue gases leaving a modern 3-pass shell boiler are at temperatures of 200-300 °C.
Thus, there is a potential to recover heat from these gases. The flue gas exit temperature from a
boiler is usually maintained at a minimum of 200 °C, so that the sulphur oxides in the flue gas do
not condense and cause corrosion in heat transfer surfaces. When a clean fuel such as natural gas,
LPG or gas oil is used, the economy of heat recovery must be worked out, as the flue gas
temperature may be well below 200 °C.
The potential for energy saving depends on the type of boiler installed and the fuel used.
For a typically older model shell boiler, with a flue gas exit temperature of 260 °C, an
economizer could be used to reduce it to 200 °C, increasing the feed water temperature by 15 °C.
Increase in overall thermal efficiency would be in the order of 3%. For a modern 3-pass shell
boiler firing natural gas with a flue gas exit temperature of 140 °C a condensing economizer
would reduce the exit temperature to 65 °C increasing thermal efficiency by 5%.
Modern burners can withstand much higher combustion air preheat, so it is possible to consider
such units as heat exchangers in the exit flue as an alternative to an economizer, when either
space or a high feed water return temperature make it viable.
First let us understand what exactly combustion is. Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of
fuel accompanied by the production of heat, or heat and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is
possible only in the presence of an adequate supply of oxygen.
Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or surplus of fuel or poor distribution of
fuel results in unburned fuel and carbon monoxide generation. It is usually obvious from the
color or smoke, and must be corrected immediately. A very specific amount of O2 is needed for
perfect combustion and some additional (excess) air is required for ensuring complete
combustion in all cases [4].
However, too much excess air will result in heat and efficiency losses.
FIGURE 4.4 [8]: STIOCHIOMETRIC RATIO V/S % GAS BY VOLUME OF DRY FLUE
GAS
With coal firing, unburned carbon can comprise a big loss. It occurs as grit carry-over or carbon-
in-ash and may amount to more than 2% of the heat supplied to the boiler. Non uniform fuel size
could be one of the reasons for incomplete combustion. In chain grate stokers, large lumps will
not burn out completely, while small pieces and fines may block the air passage, thus causing
poor air distribution. In sprinkler stokers, stoker grate condition, fuel distributors, wind box air
regulation and over-fire systems can affect carbon loss. Increase in the fines in pulverized coal
also increases carbon loss.
Excess air is required in all practical cases to ensure complete combustion, to allow for the
normal variations in combustion and to ensure satisfactory stack conditions for some fuels.
The optimum excess air level for maximum boiler efficiency occurs when the sum of the losses
due to incomplete combustion and loss due to heat in flue gases is minimum. This level varies
with furnace design, type of burner, fuel and process variables. It can be determined by
conducting tests with different air fuel ratios.
3
Fuel kg of air req./kg kg of flue Theoretical CO % in flue gas
m of flue/kg of 2
of fuel gas/kg of fuel CO % in dry flue
fuel 2 achieved in
gas practice
Solid Fuels
Liquid Fuels
Furnace Oil
13.90 14.30 11.50 15.0 9-14
LSHS
14.04 14.63 10.79 15.5 9-14
(% by wt)
Pulverised coal Completely water-cooled furnace for slag-tap or dry-ash removal 15-20
Wood Dutch over (10-23% through grates) and Hofft type 20-25
Controlling excess air to an optimum level always results in reduction in flue gas losses; for
every 1% reduction in excess air there is approximately 0.6% rise in efficiency.
The external surfaces of a shell boiler are hotter than the surroundings. The surfaces thus lose
heat to the surroundings depending on the surface area and the difference in temperature between
the surface and the surroundings. The heat loss from the boiler shell is normally a fixed energy
loss, irrespective of the boiler output.
With modern boiler designs, this may represent only 1.5% on the gross calorific value at full
rating, but will increase to around 6%, if the boiler operates at only 25 percent output. Repairing
or augmenting insulation can reduce heat loss through boiler walls and piping.
One of the most important potential energy saving options in the boiler system is the air leakage
losses in the rotary type air heaters. In practical life, it is impossible to completely avoid air
leakage in rotary type air heaters. In this type of heaters, air leakage increases as time passes
because of the corrosion due to the combustion gases. Then, the total boiler efficiency decreases
as a result of increased air leakages. Expected air leakage value in the design of this boiler is 7%
of the burning air.
The amount of air leakage can be determined easily by the measurements of O2 at the outlet of
the boiler and the outlet of the flue gas.
Let us first understand what is blowdown. When water is boiled and steam is generated, any
dissolved solids contained in the water remain in the boiler. If more solids are put in with the
feed water, they will concentrate and may eventually reach a level where their solubility in the
water is exceeded and they deposit from the solution. Above a certain level of concentration,
these solids encourage foaming and cause carryover of water into the steam. The deposits also
lead to scale formation inside the boiler, resulting in localized overheating and finally causing
boiler tube failure.
Note: Refer guidelines specified by manufacturer for more details *parts per million
TABLE 4.4 RECOMMENDED TDS LEVELS FOR VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL PROCESS BOILERS
2
2. Smoke and water tube boilers (12 kg/cm ) 5,000 PPM
3. High Pressure Water tube boiler with super- 3,000 - 3,500 PPM
heater etc.
(a) Automate and accurately control a task that is usually left to judgement
(b) Blowdown will be only as much as is required and will maintain the value of the
parameter close to set point, resulting in substantial fuel savings.
(c) Saving in fuel (loss of heat energy as the water is heated to its saturation temp)
(d) Saving in DMW. (Treatment cost of water)
In oil and coal-fired boilers, soot buildup on tubes acts as an insulator against heat transfer. Any
such deposits should be removed on a regular basis. Elevated stack temperatures may indicate
excessive soot buildup. Also same result will occur due to scaling on the water side. High exit
gas temperatures at normal excess air indicate poor heat transfer performance. This condition can
result from a gradual build-up of gas-side or waterside deposits. Waterside deposits require a
review of water treatment procedures and tube cleaning to remove deposits. An estimated 1%
efficiency loss occurs with every 22 °C increase in stack temperature.
Stack temperature should be checked and recorded regularly as an indicator of soot deposits.
When the flue gas temperature rises about 20 °C above the temperature for a newly cleaned
boiler, it is time to remove the soot deposits. It is, therefore, recommended to install a dial type
thermometer at the base of the stack to monitor the exhaust flue gas temperature. It is estimated
that 3 mm of soot can cause an increase in fuel consumption by 2.5% due to increased flue gas
temperatures. Periodic off-line cleaning of radiant furnace surfaces, boiler tube banks,
economizers and air heaters may be necessary to remove stubborn deposits.
The maximum efficiency of the boiler does not occur at full load, but at about two-thirds of the
full load [6]. If the load on the boiler decreases further, efficiency also tends to decrease. At zero
output, the efficiency of the boiler is zero, and any fuel fired is used only to supply the losses.
In general, efficiency of the boiler reduces significantly below 25% of the rated load and as far as
possible, operation of boilers below this level should be avoided
Since, the optimum efficiency of boilers occurs at 65–85% of full load, it is usually more
efficient, on the whole, to operate a fewer number of boilers at higher loads, than to operate a
large number at low loads.
The potential savings from replacing a boiler depend on the anticipated change in overall
efficiency. A change in a boiler can be financially attractive if the existing boiler is:
- Old and inefficient
- Not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel
- Over or under-sized for present requirements
- Not designed for ideal loading conditions
The feasibility study should examine all implications of long-term fuel availability and company
growth plans. All financial and engineering factors should be considered. Since boiler plants
traditionally have a useful life of well over 25 years, replacement must be carefully studied.
PARAMETER VALUE
Steam flow rate (Ms, kg/s) 24.44
Steam inlet enthalpy (is, kJ/kg) 3,304.54
Water inlet enthalpy (iw, kJ/kg) 477.66
Heat given to water (QW=Ms*( is − iw), Kw) 69,002.25
Natural gas flow rate (m, Nm3 s) 2.24
The lower heating value of natural gas 35,204.20
(kJNm3)
Total heat of fuel (QF= m* hu, kW) 78,691.23
Efficiency (QW/QF, %) 87.69
PARAMETER VALUE
Energy saving (Qt, kw) 4271.86
Energy that will be given to water after energy 73274.11
saving
(Qw+Qt, kW)
Fuel heat (QF, kW) 78,691.23
Efficiency _( Qw+Qt QF) 93.115%
Thus as a result of potential saving, the boiler efficiency increases from 87.69%
to 93.12%.
Energy saving potentials has been discussed. When the potential energy saving
methods is applied in an industrial facility having a boiler capacity of about 120TPH, it
has been found that:
Thus it can be concluded that there is a huge energy saving opportunity in boiler
systems and the potential energy saving methods should be used in all the industries to
reduce their annual spending, saving conventional fuel and use it efficiently and also to
reduce the emission of hazardous gases in environment.
5. A basic course in mechanical engineering by S.P. Dubey, A.A. Memon and M.K.
Bhatt
6. http://www.energyefficiencyasia.org/energyequipment/ene_effi_opportu.html
7. http://www.scribd.com/doc/17054146/Energy-Conservation-and-Optimization-of-
Boiler-Performance
8. http://greennav.wordpress.com/2008/02/12/understanding-%E2%80%93-how-a-
boiler-works-%E2%80%93-boiler-efficiency/
9. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/boiler-class-d_907.html
10. http://www.pdhonline.org/courses/m166/m166content.pdf
11. http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Boiler