Amygdala: is in both the right and left halves of the brain. It
is a crucial control center for the experience of fear. 3.1 Communication in the Nervous System Nervous Tissue: The Basic Hardware Your nervous system is living tissue composed of cells. The cells in the nervous system fall into 2 major categories: glia and neurons. Neurons: - Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information. - Basic links that allow communication within the nervous system. - Most of them communicate only with other neurons. - The minority receive signals from outside the nervous system (sensory organs) or carry messages from the nervous system to the muscles that move the body. Parts of the Neuron: Soma: contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery Dendrites: Part of the dendritic tree. Receive information. From the many dendrites, information flows into the cell body, then travels away from the soma along the axon. Axon: Long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons, muscles or glands. They are wrapped in cells with a high concentration of myelin. Myelin: White and fatty Insulating material that encases some axons. They speed up the transmission of signals that move along axons and prevent them from going to a different direction. They also stabilize the axon’s structure and pattern of connection. If certain axons’ myelin sheaths deteriorate, signals may not be transmitted effectively. Ex: Multiple sclerosis (degeneration of myelin sheaths). Not all axons are myelinated, and those who are have different distributions of it. The axon ends in a cluster of terminal buttons. Terminal buttons: small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters: chemicals that serve as messengers and might activate neighboring neurons. Synapse: A junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another. Points at which neurons interconnect. Glia: - Cells found throughout the nervous system that provide various types of support for neurons. - Much smaller than neurons. - Supply nutrients to neurons - Help remove neurons’ waste products - Provide insulation around many axons. The myelin sheaths that encase some axons are derived from special types of glial cells. Some types of glia can detect neural impulses and send signals to other glial cells and some of them can send signals back to neurons. Some studies say that dysfunction in glial cells may be related to the cognitive impairment seen in schizophrenia or depressive disorders, also their deterioration might contribute to Alzheimer or chronic pain. The Neural Impulse: Using Energy to Send Information The neural impulse is a complex electrochemical reaction. Both inside and outside the neuron are fluids containing electrically charged atoms and molecules called ions. Positively charged sodium and potassium ions (Na+ and K+) and negatively charged chloride ions (Cl-) flow back and forth across the cell membrane (depolarization and repolarization), but they don’t cross at the same rate, there’s a slightly higher concentration of negatively charged ions inside the cell. The resulting voltage means that the neuron at rest is a tiny battery stored with potential energy. Resting potential: the neuron’s energy when the cell is inactive. It is stable and negative. If the voltage of a neuron stays constant, the cell is quiet and no messages are being sent. When the neuron is stimulated, channels in its cell membrane open and allow the positively charged Na ions to get in. For an instant, the neuron’s charge is lees negative, but then it gradually becomes positive, creating an action potential. Action Potential: Brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon. The force of the stimuli doesn’t matter, they all have the same size. After the action potential, the channels in the cell membrane that opened to let in Na close. Some time is needed before they’re ready to open again. Absolute refractory period: Length of time after an action potential where another action potential cannot begin. It takes 1 or 2 milliseconds. The neural impulse is an all-or-none proposition, you can’t half-fire it. Neurons can get information about the strength of a stimulus. They vary the rate at which they fire action potentials. The Synapse: Where Neurons Meet The neural impulse functions as a signal. This signal must be transmitted from the neuron to other cells. This transmission takes place at special junctions called synapses. Sending Signals: Chemicals as Couriers Synaptic cleft: microscopic gap between the terminal button of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron. Signals must cross this gap to permit neurons to communicate. Presynaptic Neuron: neuron that send a s signal across the gap. Postsynaptic Neuron: neuron that receives the signal. Synaptic Vesicles: small sacs where chemicals are stored. Receptor sites: molecules in the postsynaptic cell membrane. They recognizer and respond to specific neurotransmitters. When a neural impulse reaches an axon’s terminal buttons, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters. The neurotransmitters are released when a vesicle fuses with the membrane of the presynaptic cell and its contents spill into the synaptic cleft. After their release, neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the membrane of the receiving cell. There they may bin with the receptor sites. Neurotransmitter only bind in places where they fit. Receiving Signals: Postsynaptic Potentials When a neurotransmitter and a receptor molecule combine, reactions in the cell membrane cause a postsynaptic potential (PSP). Postsynaptic Potential (PSP): voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane. Postsynaptic potentials don’t follow the all-or-none law, they are graded. They vary in size and they increase or decrease the probability of a neural impulse depending on the amount of voltage change. Two types of messages can be sent from cell to cell: excitatory and inhibitory. Excitatory PSP: positive voltage shift that increases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials. Inhibitory PSP: negative voltage shift that decreases the likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action potentials. The direction and nature of the PSP (excitatory or inhibitory) depends on which receptor sites are activated in the postsynaptic neuron. The excitatory or inhibitory effects last a fraction of a second. After that, the neurotransmitters move away from the receptor sites or are inactivated by enzymes that convert them into inactive forms. Most are reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron through reuptake. Reuptake: process in which neurotransmitters are absorbed from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane. Integrating Signals: A Balancing Act A neuron not only gives and receives messages, it also uses excitatory and inhibitory signals that arrive to decide whether to fire a neural impulse or not. The links between neurons are fluid, there are new synaptic connections being made and some old synaptic connections being removed. The elimination of old synapses is more important than the creation of them. The nervous system usually forms more synapses than needed and then gradually eliminates them. Synaptic pruning: elimination of old or less-active synapses. Neurotransmitters and Behavior Neurotransmitters play a key role in everything form muscle movements to moods and mental health. Specific neurotransmitters function at specific kind of synapses. Specific transmitters can deliver signals at only certain locations on cell membranes. There’re many different neurotransmitters because it reduces collisions of neurons and makes the nervous system more precise. (Pags 74-77)
3.2 Organization of the Nervous System
The brain is divided into 3 regions: the hindbrain, the
midbrain, and the forebrain. The reticular formation runs through both the midbrain and the hindbrain on its way up to the brainstem. The peripheral nervous system is made up of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system, The somatic controls voluntary muscles and sensory receptors and the autonomic controls the involuntary activities of smooth muscles, blood vessels, and glands. The Peripheral Nervous System The peripheral nervous system is made up of all those nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. It extends to the periphery (outside) of the body. It can be subdivided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. Nerves: bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed together in the peripheral nervous system. The Somatic Nervous System: It’s made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors. These nerves carry information from receptors in the skin, muscles, and joints to the central nervous system and biceverse. These functions require 2 kinds of nerve fibers: 1. Afferent nerve fibers: axons that carry information inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of the body. 2. Efferent nerve fibers: axons that carry information outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body. The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): It’s made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles, and glands. It’s a separate system but it’s controlled by the central nervous system. It controls involuntary functions. It mediates much of the physiological reactions when people experience emotions. Ex: fear. The autonomic nervous system can be subdivided into 2 branches: 1. Sympathetic Division: branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes the body’s resources for emergencies. When activated, the digestive processes slow down and the blood from the periphery drains (this to reduce the bleeding in case of an injury). Key sympathetic nerves send signals to the adrenal glands, triggering the release of hormones that prepare the body for effort. 2. Parasympathetic Division: branch of the autonomic nervous system that generally conserves bodily resources. It activates processes that allow the body to save and store energy. Actions by parasympathetic nerves slow heart rate, reduce blood pressure, and promote digestion, The Central Nervous System (CNS) The central nervous system is the portion of the nervous system that lies within the skull and spinal column. It consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is bathed in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): Nutritive fluid that nourishes the brain and provides a protective cushion for it. The CSF is carefully filtered, to enter, substances in the blood must cross the blood-brain barrier. Blood-brain barrier: semipermeable membrane that stops some chemicals, including drugs, from leaving the bloodstream to enter the brain. The Spinal Cord: - Connects the brain to the rest of the body through the peripheral nervous system. - It’s part of the central nervous system. - Runs from the base of the brain to just below the level of the waist. - Has bundles of axons that carry the brain’s commands to peripheral nerves and that transmit sensation from the periphery of the body to the brain. Spinal cord damage can cause paralysis. The spinal cord is important because it transmits signals from the brain to the neurons, signaling the body’s muscles to move. The Brain: - Anatomically, it is part of the central nervous system located in the upper portion of the skull. - Contains billions of interacting cells that integrate information from inside and outside the body - Coordinate the body’s actions. (talk, think, remember, plan, create, and dream) (Pags 89-90)
3.5 The Endocrine System: Another Way to
Communicate: The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily functioning. The messengers in this communication network are called hormones. Hormones: chemical substances released by the endocrine glands. They are like the neurotransmitters but less fast and less specific. Hormone release tends to be pulsatile. Pulsatile: released several times per day in brief bursts that last only a few minutes. Hypothalamus: much of the endocrine system is controlled by it. It’s in the base of the forebrain and connect to the pituitary gland. Pituitary gland: releases different hormones that move through the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine glands. The “master gland”. The endocrine system is connected to the nervous system. When stressed, the hypothalamus sends signals to the adrenal glands through 2 pathways: the autonomic nervous system and the pituitary gland. In response, the adrenal glands secrete hormones that move across the body and prepare it for an emergency. Oxytocin: hormone that’s released by the pituitary gland and regulates reproductive behaviors. It triggers contractions during birth and stimulate the mammary glands to release milk for breastfeeding. They also affect social behavior, like fidelity, openness, trust, empathy or engagement with others.
(Pags 77-85)
3.3 The Brain and Behavior:
Research Methods Lesioning: destroying a piece of the brain. Typically done by inserting an electrode into a brain structure and passing a high-frequency electric current through it to burn the tissue and disable the structure. Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB): sending a weak electric current into a brain structure to stimulate it. The current is delivered through an implanted electrode, but a different type of current is used. CT (Computerized tomography) Scan: computer- enhanced X-ray of brain structure. Many X-rays are shot from many angles and the computer combines the readings to create an image of a horizontal slice of the brain. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Scan: uses magnetic fields, radio waves, and computerized enhancement to map out brain structure. Provide better images of brain structure than do CT scans (3D, high resolution). fMRI (Functioning Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Scan: variation on MRI that monitor blood flow and oxygen consumption in the brain to identify areas of high activity. Map actual activity in the brain over time with precision. PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan: uses radioactive markers to map chemical activity in the brain over time. Color-coded map of the brain. Radioactive gas mixed with glucose is injected. The brain is divided into 3 major regions: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain. The Hindbrain: Includes the cerebellum, the medulla, and the pons. Medulla: attaches to the spinal cord, controls essential unconscious functions (breathing, circulation, etc) Pons: includes a bridge of fibers that connects the brainstem with the cerebellum. Also contains several clusters of cell bodies involved with sleep and arousal. Cerebellum: large and folded structure adjacent to the back surface of the brainstem. Coordinates movement and gives the sense of equilibrium. Also help in sensing the position of our limbs. It’s one of the structures first depressed by alcohol and damage to it can affect fine motor skills. The Midbrain: - Segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain. - Contains an area that integrates sensory processes like vision and hearing. - Has a system that releases dopamine neurons and sends them to higher brain centers. This dopamine system is involved in the performance of voluntary movements. The Parkinson’s disease (decline in dopamine) is caused by degeneration of a structure located in the midbrain. Reticular formation: located in the central core of the brainstem. Contributes to the modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing, and pain perception. Regulates sleep and wakefulness. The Forebrain: The largest and most complex region of the brain. Includes the cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system. Thalamus: relay station. Structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get to the cerebral cortex. Made up of clusters of somas. Also plays an active role in integrating information from various senses. Hypothalamus: regulator of biological needs. Structure found near the base of the forebrain that regulates basic biological needs. It controls the autonomic nervous system. Also plays a major role in the regulation of basic biological drives related to survival. (Fighting, fleeing, feeding). Limbic System: seat of emotion. A network of structures located along the border between the cerebral cortex and deeper subcortical areas. It’s in charge of motivation, emotion, learning, and memory. It influences the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system. Cerebrum: in charge of complex thought. The wrinkled surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex, it’s the outer layer of the brain. It’s divided into 2 hemispheres. Cerebral hemispheres: right and left halves of the cerebrum. Corpus callosum: major structure that connects the 2 cerebral hemispheres. Each cerebral hemisphere is divided by deep fissures into 4 lobes. Each lobe is dedicated to specific purposes: Occipital lobe: primary visual cortex. Where most signals are sent and processed. Parietal lobe: registers the sense of touch. It receives signals from different parts of the body. It integrates visual input and monitories the body’s position in space. Temporal lobe: contains the area in charge of auditory processing, the primary auditory cortex. Frontal lobe: largest lobe. Contains the principal areas that control movement of muscles, the primary motor cortex. Prefrontal lobe: portion of the frontal lobe. Organize and direct thought processes. (Pags 85-89)
3.4 Right Brain / Left Brain: Cerebral Specialization:
Broca’s area: plays an important role in the production of speech. Wernicke’s area: plays an important role in the comprehension of language. Split-brain surgery: the corpus callosum is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures. Each hemisphere’s primary connections are to the opposite side of the body. Both hemispheres are in close communication with each other. Information received by one is shared with the other via the corpus callosum. Left side /// Right side Language /// Visual-spatial