218 Chapter 3 Introduction to the Derivative

FAQs Recognizing When and How to Compute the Average

Rate of Change and How to Interpret the Answer
Q: How do I know, by looking at the wording of a problem, that it is asking for an average rate of
change ?
A: If a problem does not ask for an average rate of change directly, it might do so indirectly, as
in “On average, how fast is quantity q increasing?” ■

Q: If I know that a problem calls for computing an average rate of change, how should I
compute it? By hand or using technology ?
A: All the computations can be done by hand, but when hand calculations are not called for,
using technology might save time. ■

Q: Lots of problems ask us to “interpret” the answer. How do I do that for questions involving
average rates of change ?
A: The units of the average rate of change are often the key to interpreting the results:
The units of the average rate of change of f(x) are units of f(x) per unit of x.
Thus, for instance, if f(x) is the cost, in dollars, of a trip of x miles in length, and the average rate
of change of f is calculated to be 10, then we can say that the cost of a trip rises an average of
$10 for each additional mile. ■

3.4 EXERCISES

● denotes basic skills exercises 4. ● x −2 −1 0 1

◆ denotes challenging exercises
f (x) −1.5 −0.5 4 6.5
tech Ex indicates exercises that should be solved using technology
Interval: [−1, 1]
In Exercises 1–18, calculate the average rate of change of the
given function over the given interval. Where appropriate, 5. ● t (months) 2 4 6
specify the units of measurement.
R(t) ($ millions) 20.2 24.3 20.1
Interval: [2, 6]
1. ● x 0 1 2 3
6. ●
f (x) 3 5 2 −1 x (kilos) 1 2 3
Interval: [1, 3] hint [see Example 1] C(x) (£) 2.20 3.30 4.00
Interval: [1, 3]
2. ● x 0 1 2 3
7. ● p ($) 5.00 5.50 6.00
f (x) −1 3 2 1
q(p) (items) 400 300 150
Interval: [0, 2]
Interval: [5, 5.5]
3. ● x −3 −2 −1 0 8. ● t (hours) 0 0.1 0.2
f (x) −2.1 0 −1.5 0
D(t) (miles) 0 3 6
Interval: [−3, −1] Interval: [0.1, 0.2]
● basic skills ◆ challenging tech Ex technology exercise
 3.4 Average Rate of Change 219

9. ● hint [see Example 2] 10. ● Year t −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

Apple Computer Stock Price ($) Cisco Systems Stock Price ($)
Employment 126 130 132 132 130 130 131
29 P(t) (millions)
28
27
26 Compute and interpret the average rate of change of P(t)
25 a. over the period 2000–2004 (that is, [0, 4]), and b. over the
23 24 period [−1, 2]. Be sure to state the units of measurement.
21 22 hint [see Example 1]
19 20 26. ● Cell Phone Sales The following table lists the net sales
17 0 1 2 3 4 5 (after-tax revenue) at the Finnish cell phone company Nokia
0 1 2 3 4 5 Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May during the period 1997–200321 (t = 0 represents 2000):
Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May 2003 2004
2003 2004
Year t −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Interval: [2, 5] Interval: [1, 5]
Nokia net sales P(t) 9 14 20 31 31 30 29
11. ● 12. ● (€ Billion)
Unemployment (%) Inflation (%)
Compute and interpret the average rate of change of P(t)
9 3.5
a. over the period [−2, 3], and b. over the period [0, 1]. Be
8 3 sure to state the units of measurement.
7
2.5 27. ● Venture Capital The following table shows the number of
6
5 2 companies that invested in venture capital each year during
4 1.5 the period 1995–200122 (t = 5 represents 1995):
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Budget deficit (% of GNP) Budget deficit (% of GNP) Year t 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Number of 100 150 300 400 1000 1700 900
Interval: [0, 4] Interval: [0, 4]
companies N(t)
13. ● f (x) = x 2 − 3; [1, 3] hint [see Example 3]
During which two-year interval(s) was the average rate of
14. ● f (x) = 2x 2 + 4; [−1, 2] change of N(t) a. greatest b. least? Interpret your answers by
1 referring to the rates of change.
15. ● f (x) = 2x + 4; [−2, 0] 16. ● f (x) = ; [1, 4]
x 28. ● Venture Capital The following table shows the amount of
x2 1 x money that companies invested in venture capital during the
17. ● f (x) = + ; [2, 3] 18. ● f (x) = 3x 2 − ; [3, 4]
2 x 2 period 1995–200123 (t = 5 represents 1995):
In Exercises 19–24, calculate the average rate of change of the Year t 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
given function f over the intervals [a, a + h] where h = 1, 0.1,
0.01, 0.001, and 0.0001. (Technology is recommended for the Investment M(t) $0.05 0.5 1 2 8 16 4
cases h = 0.01, 0.001, and 0.0001.) (billions)

19. ● f (x) = 2x 2 ; a = 0 hint [see Example 4] During which three-year interval(s) was the average rate of
change of M(t) a. greatest b. least? Interpret your answers by
x2 referring to the rates of change.
20. ● f (x) = ;a =1
2
29. Physics Research in the U.S. The following table shows the
1 2
21. ● f (x) = ; a = 2 22. ● f (x) = ;a =1 number of research articles in the journal Physics Review
x x authored by U.S researchers during the period 1993–200324
23. ● f (x) = x 2 + 2x ; a = 3 24. ● f (x) = 3x 2 − 2x ; a = 0
(t = 3 represents 1993):
21
SOURCES: New York Times, February 6, 2002, p. A3, Nokia June 10,
Applications 2003 www.nokia.com.
25. ● Employment The following table lists the approximate 22
2001 figure is a projection based on data through September. SOURCE:
number of people employed in the U.S. during the period Venture Economics/National Venture Capital Association/New York Times,
1998–2004, on July 1 of each year20 (t = 0 represents 2000): February 3, 2002, p. BU4.
23
Ibid.
20 24
The given (approximate) values represent nonfarm employment. SOURCE: The American Physical Society/New York Times May 3, 2003,
SOURCE: Bureau of Labor Statistics http://stats.bls.gov/, June 10, 2004. p. A1.

● basic skills ◆ challenging tech Ex technology exercise

220 Chapter 3 Introduction to the Derivative

t (Year) 3 5 7 9 11 13 a. On average, how fast was the number of women’s college

soccer teams growing over the four-year period starting in
N(t) 5.1 4.6 4.3 4.3 4.5 4.2 the 1992–1993 academic year?
(Articles, thousands) b. By inspecting the graph, determine whether the four-year
average rates of change increased or decreased beginning
a. Find the interval(s) over which the average rate of change in 1994–1995. hint [see Example 2]
of N was the most negative. What was that rate of change? 32. ● Collegiate Sports. The following chart shows the number
Interpret your answer. of men’s college wrestling teams in the U.S. from 1982 to
b. The percentage change of N over the interval [a, b] is 200127 (t = 1 represents the 1981–1982 academic year):
defined to be
350
Change in N N (b) − N (a) 320
Percentage change of N = = 300
First value N (a)

Men’s wrestling teams

280 280 270
260 250
240
Compute the percentage change of N over the interval [3, 13] 220
and also the average rate of change. Interpret the answers.
30. Physics Research in Europe The following table shows the
number of research articles in the journal Physics Review au-
thored by researchers in Europe during the period
1993–200325 (t = 3+ represents 1993):
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
t (Year) 3 5 7 9 11 13 Year (t)
1982–1983 2000–2001
N(t) 3.8 4.6 5.0 5.0 6.0 5.7
(Articles, thousands) a. On average, how fast was the number of men’s college
wrestling teams decreasing over the eight-year period,
a. Find the interval(s) over which the average rate of change starting in the 1984–1985 academic year?
of N was the most positive. What was that rate of change? b. By inspecting the graph, determine when the number
Interpret your answer. of men’s college wrestling teams was declining the
b. The percentage change of N over the interval [a, b] is fastest.
defined to be 33. ● Online Shopping The following graph shows the annual
Change in N N (b) − N (a) number N(t) of online shopping transactions in the U.S. for
Percentage change of N = = the period January 2000–January 200228 (t = 0 represents
First value N (a)
January, 2000):
Compute the percentage change of N over the interval [7, 13]
650
and also the average rate of change. Interpret the answers.
Transactions (millions)

600
31. ● Collegiate Sports The following chart shows the number 550
of women’s college soccer teams in the U.S. from 1982 to
500
200126 (t = 1 represents the 1981–1982 academic year):
450
800 820 400
680
Women’s soccer teams

350
300
500 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
380 Year
300
220 240 a. Estimate the average rate of change of N(t) over the
160
100 intervals [0, 1], [1, 2], and [0, 2]. Interpret your answers.
b. How can the average rate of change of N(t) over [0, 2] be
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 obtained from the rates over [0, 1] and [1, 2]?
Year (t) 34. ● Online Shopping The following graph shows the percent-
1982–1983 2000–2001 age of people in the U.S. who have ever purchased anything

25 27
SOURCE: The American Physical Society/New York Times May 3, 2003, SOURCE: N.C.A.A./New York Times, May 9, 2002, p. D4.
p. A1. 28
Second half of 2001 data was an estimate. Source for data: Odyssey
26 Research/New York Times, November 5, 2001, p. C1.
SOURCE: N.C.A.A./New York Times, May 9, 2002, p. D4.

● basic skills ◆ challenging tech Ex technology exercise

 3.4 Average Rate of Change 221

online for the period January 2000–January 2002 (t = 0 rep- d. Estimate, to two significant digits, the average rate of
resents January 2000):29 change of government funding for the arts over the period
[0, 8]. (Be careful to state the units of measurement.) How
40
does it compare to the slope of the regression line?
35
36. Funding for the Arts The following chart shows the total an-
30
Percentage

nual support for the arts in the U.S. by foundation endowments

25 in 1995–2002 as a function of time in years (t = 0 represents
1995) together with the regression line:31
20
Foundation Funding for
15
the Arts
10 4.5
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Funding ($ billion)
4
Year 3.5
3
a. Estimate the average rate of change of P(t) over the inter- 2.5
val [0, 2], and interpret your answer. 2
b. Are any of the one-year average rates of change greater 1.5
than the two-year rate? Refer in your answer to the slopes 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
of certain lines.
1995 2002
35. Funding for the Arts The following chart shows the total an- Year (t)
nual support for the arts in the U.S. by federal, state, and local
government in 1995–2003 as a function of time in years Multiple choice:
(t = 0 represents 1995) together with the regression line:30 a. Over the period [0, 2.5] the average rate of change of gov-
Government Funding for ernment funding for the arts was
the Arts (A) less than (B) greater than (C) approximately equal
1.45 to the rate predicted by the regression line.
Funding ($ billion)

1.4 b. Over the period [2, 6] the average rate of change of gov-
1.35 ernment funding for the arts was
1.3 (A) less than (B) greater than (C) approximately equal
1.25 to the rate predicted by the regression line.
1.2 c. Over the period [3, 7] the average rate of change of gov-
1.15 ernment funding for the arts was
0 2 4 6 8
(A) less than (B) greater than (C) approximately equal
1995 2003
Year (t)
to the rate predicted by the regression line.
d. Estimate, to two significant digits, the average rate of
Multiple choice: change of foundation funding for the arts over the period
a. Over the period [0, 4] the average rate of change of gov- [0, 7]. (Be careful to state the units of measurement.) How
ernment funding for the arts was does it compare to the slope of the regression line?
(A) less than (B) greater than (C) approximately equal 37. Market Volatility A volatility index generally measures the
to the rate predicted by the regression line. extent to which a market undergoes sudden changes in value.
b. Over the period [4, 8] the average rate of change of gov- The volatility of the S&P 500 (as measured by one such
ernment funding for the arts was index) was decreasing at an average rate of 0.2 points per year
(A) less than (B) greater than (C) approximately equal during 1991–1995, and was increasing at an average rate of
to the rate predicted by the regression line. about 0.3 points per year during 1995–1999. In 1995, the
c. Over the period [3, 6] the average rate of change of gov- volatility of the S&P was 1.1.32 Use this information to give a
ernment funding for the arts was rough sketch of the volatility of the S&P 500 as a function of
(A) less than (B) greater than (C) approximately equal time, showing its values in 1991 and 1999.
to the rate predicted by the regression line.

31
29
January 2002 data was estimated. Source for data: Odyssey Research/ Figures are adjusted for inflation. SOURCES: Giving USA, The Foundation
New York Times, November 5, 2001, p. C1. Center, Americans for the Arts/New York Times, June 19, 2004, p. B7.
30 32
Figures are adjusted for inflation. SOURCES: Giving USA, The Foundation Source for data: Sanford C. Bernstein Company/New York Times, March
Center, Americans for the Arts/New York Times, June 19, 2004, p. B7. 24, 2000, p. C1.

● basic skills ◆ challenging tech Ex technology exercise

222 Chapter 3 Introduction to the Derivative

38. MarketVolatility The volatility (see the preceding exercise) of
the NASDAQ had an average rate of change of 0 points per year
during 1992–1995, and increased at an average rate of
0.2 points per year during 1995–1998. In 1995, the volatility of
the NASDAQ was 1.1.33 Use this information to give a rough
sketch of the volatility of the NASDAQ as a function of time.
43. Ecology Increasing numbers of manatees (“sea sirens”) have
been killed by boats off the Florida coast. The following graph
shows the relationship between the number of boats registered
in Florida and the number of manatees killed each year:
100
80

Manatee deaths
39. ● Market Index Joe Downs runs a small investment company
from his basement. Every week he publishes a report on 60
the success of his investments, including the progress of
40
the “Joe Downs Index.” At the end of one particularly memo-
rable week, he reported that the index for that week had the 20
value I (t) = 1000 + 1500t − 800t 2 + 100t 3 points, where t
0
represents the number of business days into the week; t ranges 4 5 6 7 8 9
from 0 at the beginning of the week to 5 at end of the week. Boats (100,000)
The graph of I is shown below.
The regression curve shown is given by
I (Joe Downs Index) f (x) = 3.55x 2 − 30.2x + 81 manatees (4.5 ≤ x ≤ 8.5)
where x is the number of boats (in hundreds of thousands)
registered in Florida in a particular year, and f (x) is the num-
ber of manatees killed by boats in Florida that year.36
a. Compute the average rate of change of f over the intervals
1,000 [5, 6] and [7, 8].
b. What does the answer to part (a) tell you about the mana-
tee deaths per boat?
44. Ecology Refer to Exercise 43,
t (days) a. Compute the average rate of change of f over the inter-
0 1 2 3 4 5 vals [5, 7] and [6, 8].
On average, how fast, and in what direction, was the index b. Had we used a linear model instead of a quadratic one,
changing over the first two business days (the interval [0, 2])? how would the two answers in part (a) be related to each
hint [see Example 3] other?
40. ● Market Index Refer to the Joe Downs Index in the preced- 45. Advertising Revenue The following table shows the annual
ing exercise. On average, how fast, and in which direction, advertising revenue earned by America Online (AOL) during
was the index changing over the last three business days (the the last three years of the 1990s:37
interval [2, 5])?
41. ● Currency The value of the euro (€) since its introduction in Year 1997 1998 1999
January, 1999 can be approximated by Revenue ($ million) 150 360 760
e(t) = 0.036t 2 − 0.10t + 1.0 U.S. dollars (−1 ≤ t ≤ 4.5)
where t = 0 represents January, 2000.34 Compute the average These data can be modeled by
rate of change of e(t) over the interval [0.5, 4.5] and interpret R(t) = 95t 2 + 115t + 150 million dollars (0 ≤ t ≤ 2)
your answer. where t is time in years since December 1997.
42. ● Interest Rates The prime lending rate (the lowest short-term a. What was the average rate of change of R over the period
interest rate charged by commercial banks to their most 1997–1999? Interpret the result.
creditworthy clients) for the period January 1982 – June 2004 b. Which of the following is true? From 1997 to 1999, an-
can be approximated by nual online advertising revenues
p(t) = 0.028t 2 − 0.52t + 9.3 percentage points (−8 ≤ t ≤ 14) (A) increased at a faster and faster rate.
where t = 0 represents January, 1990.35 Compute the average (B) increased at a slower and slower rate.
rate of change of p(t) over the interval [−4, 4] and interpret
your answer. 36
Regression model is based on data from 1976 to 2000. Sources for data:
Florida Department of Highway Safety & Motor Vehicles, Florida Marine
33
Ibid. Institute/New York Times, February 12, 2002, p. F4.
34
SOURCES: Bank of England, Reuters, July, 2004. 37
Figures are rounded to the nearest $10 million. SOURCES: AOL; Forrester
35
SOURCES: Bloomberg News, www.icmarc.org July 6, 2004. Research/New York Times, January 31, 2000, p. C1.

● basic skills ◆ challenging tech Ex technology exercise

 3.4 Average Rate of Change 223

(C) decreased at a faster and faster rate.
(D) decreased at a slower and slower rate.
c. Use the model to project the average rate of change of R
over the one-year period ending December 2000. Interpret
the result.
46. Religion The following table shows the population of Roman
Catholic nuns in the U.S. during the last 25 years of the
1900s:38
Year 1975 1985 1995
Population 130,000 120,000 80,000
These data can be modeled by
48. tech Ex Poverty vs Unemployment Based on data from 1988
P(t) = −0.15t 2 + 0.50t + 130 thousand nuns (0 ≤ t ≤ 20)
where t is time in years since December 1975.
a. What was the average rate of change of P over the period
1975–1995? Interpret the result.
b. Which of the following is true? From 1975 to 1995, the
population of nuns
(A) increased at a faster and faster rate.
(B) increased at a slower and slower rate.
(C) decreased at a faster and faster rate.
(D) decreased at a slower and slower rate.
c. Use the model to project the average rate of change of P
over the 10-year period ending December 2005. Interpret
the result.
b. Interpret your answer for the interval [40, 40.5], being
sure to indicate the direction of change and the units of
measurement.
c. Multiple choice: As the median household income rises,
the poverty rate
(A) Increases
(B) Decreases
(C) Increases, then decreases
(D) Decreases, then increases
d. Multiple choice: As the median income increases, the
effect on the poverty rate is
(A) More pronounced
(B) Less pronounced
through 2003, the poverty rate (percentage of households
with incomes below the poverty threshold) in the U.S. can be
approximated by
p(x) = −0.12x 2 + 2.4x + 3.2 percentage points (4 ≤ x ≤ 8)
where x is the unemployment rate in percentage points.40
a. Use technology to complete the following table which
shows the average rate of change of p over successive
intervals of length 21 . (Round all answers to two decimal
places.)
Interval [5.0, 5.5] [5.5, 6.0] [6.0, 6.5] [6.5, 7.0] [7.0, 7.5] [7.5, 8.0]

47. tech Ex Poverty vs Income Based on data from 1988 Average

Rate of
through 2003, the poverty rate (percentage of households change of p
with incomes below the poverty threshold) in the U.S. can be
approximated by
p(x) = 0.092x 2 − 8.1x +190 percentage points (38 ≤ x ≤ 44) b. Interpret your answer for the interval [5.0, 5.5], being
sure to indicate the direction of change and the units of
where x is the U.S. median household income in thousands of measurement.
dollars.39 c. Multiple choice: As the median household income rises,
a. Use technology to complete the following table which the poverty rate
shows the average rate of change of p over successive (A) Increases
intervals of length 21 . (Round all answers to two decimal (B) Decreases
places.) hint [see Example 4] (C) Increases, then decreases
(D) Decreases, then increases
d. Multiple choice: As the unemployment rate increases,
Interval [39, 39.5] [39.5, 40] [40, 40.5] [40.5, 41] [41, 41.5] [41.5, 42] the effect on the poverty rate is
Average (A) More pronounced
Rate of (B) Less pronounced
change of p

38
Figures are rounded. SOURCE: Center for Applied Research in the
Apostolate/New York Times, January 16, 2000, p. A1.
39
The model is based on a quadratic regression. Household incomes are
in constant 2002 dollars. The poverty threshold is approximately $18,000
for a family of four and $9200 for an individual. SOURCES: Census Bureau
Current Population Survey/New York Times, Sept 27, 2003, p. A10, U.S.
Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics http://stats.bls.gov June
17, 2004.
40
The model is based on a quadratic regression. Household incomes are
in constant 2002 dollars. The poverty threshold is approximately $18,000
for a family of four and $9200 for an individual. SOURCES: Census Bureau
Current Population Survey/New York Times, Sept 27, 2003, p. A10, U.S.
Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics http://stats.bls.gov June
17, 2004.

● basic skills ◆ challenging tech Ex technology exercise

224 Chapter 3 Introduction to the Derivative

56. ● A certain function has the property that its average rate of
Communication and Reasoning change over the interval [1, 1 + h] (for positive h) decreases
Exercises as h decreases. Which of the following graphs could be the
49. ● Describe three ways we have used to determine the average graph of f ?
rate of change of f over an interval [a, b]. Which of the three
ways is least precise? Explain. (A) (B)
50. ● If f is a linear function of x with slope m, what is its average y y
rate of change over any interval [a, b]?
51. ● Sketch the graph of a function whose average rate of change
over [0, 3] is negative but whose average rate of change over
[1, 3] is positive.
52. ● Sketch the graph of a function whose average rate of change
over [0, 2] is positive but whose average rate of change over
[0, 1] is negative.
53. If the rate of change of quantity A is 2 units of quantity A per x x
0 1 2 0 1 2
unit of quantity B, and the rate of change of quantity B is 3
units of quantity B per unit of quantity C, what is the rate of
change of quantity A with respect to quantity C?
54. If the rate of change of quantity A is 2 units of quantity A per (C)
unit of quantity B, what is the rate of change of quantity B y
with respect to quantity A?
55. A certain function has the property that its average rate of
change over the interval [1, 1 + h] (for positive h) increases
as h decreases. Which of the following graphs could be the
graph of f?

(A) (B)
y y
x
0 1 2

57. Is it possible for a company’s revenue to have a negative

three-year average rate of growth, but a positive average rate
of growth in two of the three years? (If not, explain; if so,
illustrate with an example.)
x x 58. Is it possible for a company’s revenue to have a larger two-year
0 1 2 0 1 2
average rate of change than either of the one-year average rates
(C) of change? (If not, explain why with the aid of a graph; if so,
illustrate with an example.)
y
59. ◆ The average rate of change of f over [1, 3] is
(A) always equal to (B) never equal to
(C) sometimes equal to the average of its average rates of
change over [1, 2] and [2, 3].
60. ◆ The average rate of change of f over [1, 4] is
(A) always equal to (B) never equal to
(C) sometimes equal to the average of its average rates of
x change over [1, 2], [2, 3], and [3, 4].
0 1 2

● basic skills ◆ challenging tech Ex technology exercise