-- -- -- - ·-·- - - - ---- ---~ - . ·- · .

- - -------- ----------- - ---··--·-

FOURTH eotTION

j.
i

MECHANICS
OF
--
MATERIALS
- - - -- - -·. - -------- -- -- - ---- ----- -- ·- - -------- ---- -- - -· ····-· ·---- ----------- - -. ..-

ARCHIE HIGDON
E.-:.6 :m:ering and Technology Education Con.rnltanr
f.
EDWARD H. OHLSEN
Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics
low_a Slt•le University

WILLIAM B . STILES
Department of Engineering Mechanics
The University of Alabama

JOHN A. WEESE
Scltvol of Engineering
Old Dominion University

WILLIAM F. RILEY
l)(•parrmc111 o/ t ."nJ:i11eeri111< Science um/ ,Wech,111in
Iowa Stare University

' AN WILEY, & SONS [

: ~; YORK ;I . CHfCaESTER
•
BRISBANE TORONTO SINGAPORE
..._ _ I i · !·
--- -- - ---- - - --· - -· - ·-
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Book aesigned by Karin Gerdes l<inchdoe.

~over Photo by P;,,u/ Silverman.
'c0duc1ion supen•ised by Carolyn Goloju c h.
Illu strations by John Balba/is With the os.,is1ance o/'
the Wiley 11/usirarion depanmenr.
of Deborah Herben
Manuscript . P.dtric,a Brech, Under the supervision
edited by
PREFACE

Coo,ri,>,o ' ""· ' "'' • " "· ""· " "· ,,,o,,o w,._, &soo,. '"'·
,\II rights reserved. Pub lished simu1raneou,1y in Canada .
ReprOduction or tran slatio n of any pan of
this wo rk beyond that permitted by Secrions
107 and 108 or the 1976 United States C0Pnigh1
Acr wir hour the Permission of the copyright
owner is unlawful.· Requests for permission
or funher information should be addressed to 1 ne primary objectives of a course in mechanics of materials are : (I) to
the Perm_issions Deparimen( , John Wiley & Son, . develop a working knowledge of the relations between the loads applied to a
no.,rigid body made of a given material and the resulting deformations of the
Library
Main o( Congress
enrry Under titleCataloging
: in Publi~ti,.n Oara ' , (2) to develop a thorough understanding of the relations between the
Mechctnics of makria/s . loa,.s applied to a nonrigid body and the stresses produced in the body, (3) to
Includes index . develop a clear insight into the relations between stress and strain foi:_ a wide
19()5_I. S trength of materials . va .'. y of conditions and materials, and (4) to develop adequate procedures
I. Higdon . l\ rc /uc for finding the required dimensions of a member of a specified material to
TA405 . M51 5 19115
ISDN 0-47/-89044_8 6W. 1· 12
carry a given load subject to stated specifications of stress and deflection .
-~4-758_1 These objectives involve the concepts and skills that form the foundation of
Printed in the United S1a1c s of Amen..:a all ~ · • .;ctural and machine design .
lf)9k 7 654.l1 1 :·he principles and methods used to meet the general objectives are
dn. .argely from prerequisite courses in mechanics , physics, and mathe-
mat together with the basic concepts of the theory of elasticity and the
properties of engineering materials. This book is dMigqed to emphasize the
---- -------- -- - required fundamental principles, with numerous applications to demonstrate
and develop logical orderly meihods of procedure . Instead of deriving nu-
merous formulas for all types of problems , we have stressed the use of free-

~ \
 PREFACE vii
vi PR EFACE

body diagrams a nd the eq uat ions of eq uilibrium , toge th e r with th e geo met ry We a re gra teful fo r comments a nd s uggest io ns recei ved from col-
of the deformed bod y a nd the obse rved relations between st re;s a nd s trai n, leagues a nd from use rs of the earlier edi tion s of thi s boo k . We a ppreciate
for the a na lysis of the fo rce syste m ac ting o n a body. a lso the careful a ppra isal ma de by the publi s he r's co ns ult a nt and have inco r-
This book is des igned for a first course in mec ha nics of deforma bl e pora ted tho se recomme nd ed c ha nges which we co ns id ered impo rta nt.
bodies. Because of the extensive subdi vision into different to pics, the book
Archie Higdon
will provide fl ex ibilit y in the c hoice of ass ig nme nt s to cover courses of
Edwa rd H. Ohlsen
di ffe rent le ngth a nd content. The developme nt s of structura l a ppli cati o ns
Willi a m B. S til es
inc lud e the inelastic as well as the e las tic range of stress; however, the
ma teria l is o rgani zed so tha t the book will be found sati sfactory for e las tic John A . Weese
coverage o nly . Willia m F. Ril ey
Ex te nsive use has been made of prerequisite course m a te ri a l in sta tics
a nd calculus . A working knowledge of these subjec ts is cons idere d a n esse n-
tia l prerequi site to a s uccessful stud y of mec ha nics of ma te ria ls as presented
in this book.
The illustra tive exa mpl es a nd probl e ms have been se lec ted with spec ia l
a tte ntion devoted to prob le ms tha t require a n unde rsta nding of th e prin ciples
of mec ha nics of mate rial s without de ma nding excess ive time fo r computa-
tio nal work. A large numbe r of proble ms are inc luded so tha t proble m as-
s ig nme nt s may be varied fro m te rm to term . Approximately ha lf of the
problem ,· a re given in SI unit s .
The answers to abo ut ha lf the probl e ms are included a t the e nd of thi s
book. We feel that the first assig nme nt on a give n topic sho uld include so me
problems for which th e a nswers a re-give n ; s in ce th e s impl e r problems a re
us ua lly reserved for thi s first ass ignme nt , the a nswers a re provided fo r the
first four or five problems of each a rticle a nd thereafter a re given in ge ne ra l
for a lte rn ate problems . We feel tha t a nswe rs for certai n problems sho uld no t
be given; hence, we ha ve not followed the Hat rule of a nswe rs for a ll eve n-
numbered proble ms. Since the convenient designa tio n of proble ms for which
a nswe rs are provided is of great value to those who make up ass ignme nt
sheets, the proble ms· for which a nswe rs a re provided a re indi cated by means
of a n asterisk a fte r the number.
In general, a ll give n data a re assumed to be composed of three sig nifi-
cant figure s rega rdless of the ~umber of figure s s hown. Answers a re, the re-
fore, given to three significa nt figure s, unless the numbe r lies be twee n I a nd
2 or a ny decima l muitii:,le thereof, in which case four significant figures are
re ported . In Cha pte r 11, the problem s involve ma te ria l properties, which a re
quite variable, and possibly stress concentration factors, which are difficult
to obtain to more than two significant figures from the graphs; therefore, we
hesita te to give results to more than two significa nt figures. Howe ver, in
order to avoid confus ion, the a nswers a re usua lly given to three significant
figure s.
 .
,.(

CONTENTS
·I

I
I

SYMBOLS AND ABBREVlATIONS xv

CHAPTER 1 ANALYSIS OF STRESS-CONCEPTS AND

DEFINITIONS 1
1-1 Introduction
1-2 Load Classification 3
1-3 Concept of Stress 5
l. 1-4 Stresses Under Centric Loading 8
1-5 Concept of Stress at a General Point in an Arbitrarily Loaded
(,
Member 24
1-6 Two-Dimensional or Plane Stress 27
1-7 Principal Stresses-Plane Stress 32
1-8 MOHR'S Circle for Plane Stress 45
1-9 General State of Stress at a Point 55
1-IO Stress Concentration 62 i~
..
~

~
11
I

j
l_
CONTENTS CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER 2 ANALYSIS OF STRAIN-CONCEPTS AND 5-7 Torsional Shearing Stress-Inelastic Action 204
DEFINITIONS 65 5-8 Modulu s of Rupture 211
5-9 Statically Indeterminate Members 212
2- 1 introduction 65
5- 10 Noncirc ular Sections 227
2-2 Displacement. Deformation. and the Concept of Strain 65
5- 11 Shear Flow 229
2-3 Normal and Shearing Strains 66
2-4 The State of Strain at a Point 71
2-5 Two-Dimensional or Pla ne Strain 73 237
CHAPTER 6 FLEXURAL LOADING : STRESSES
2-6 Principal Strains-Plane Stress 80
6-1 Introduction 237
6-2 Flexural Strains 242
CHAPTER 3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES AND 6-3 Flexural Stresses 244
STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS 89 6-4 Flexural Stresses-Linearly Elastic Action 246
3-1 introduction 89 6-5 Flexural Stresses-The Elastic Flexure Formula 254
3-2 Stress-Strain Di agrams 91 6-6 Shear and Moment in Bea ms 260
3-3 Generalized Hooke's Law for Isotropic Material s 6-7 Load, Shear, and Moment Relations hips 265
99
3-4 Strain Energy I07 6-8 Shear and Moment Diagrams 267
3-5 Temperature Effects 111 6-9 Shearing Stresses by Equilibrium 281
3-6 De sign Loads , Working Stresses, a nd Factor of 6-10 The Shearing Stress Formula 287-
Safety 116 6-11 Principal Stress for Elastic Flexure 297
6-12 Flexural Stresses-Unsymmetrical Bending 305
6-13 Flexural Stresse s-Ine last ic Action 315
CHAPTER 4 AXIAL LOADING APPLICATIONS AND 6-14 Neglected Effects of Di stributed Loading 325
PRESSURE VESSELS 125 6-15 Shearing Stresses in Thin-Wa ll erl Open Sections-Shear
Center 328
4-1 Introduction 125 6-16 Flexural Stresses in Beams of Two Materials by tl1e
4-2 Deformations in Axially Loaded Bars 126 Transformed Section Method 336
4-3 Deformations in a System of Axially Loaded Ba rs 131 6-17 Flexural Stresses in Reinforced Concrete Beams 340
4-4 Statically Indeterminate Axia lly Loaded Members 136 6-18 Flexural Stresses in Curved Bea ms 345 -
4-5 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessel s 156
4-6 Thick-Walled Cylindrical Press ure Vessels 167
4-7 Shrink Fitting 172 CHAPTER 7 FLEXURAL LOADING:
DEFLECTIONS 355
CHAPTER 5 TORSIONAL LOADING 179 7-1 · Introduction 355
7-2 The Radius of Curvature 356
5-1 Introduction I 79 7-3 The Differential Equation of the Elastic Curve 358
5-2 Torsional Shearing Strain 182 7-4 Deflections by Integration 361
5-3 Torsional Shearing Stress-the Elastic Torsion 7-5 Singularity Functions for Beam Deflections 372
Formula 184 7-6 The Development of the Area-Moment Method 380
5-4 Torsional Displacements 184 7-7 Moment Diagra ms by Parts 383
5-5 Stresses on Oblique Planes 196 7-8 Deflections by Area Moments 389
5-6 Power Transmission 20 I 7-9 Maximum Deflections by Area Moments 395
jlP
xii
- -- -
CONT ENTS

7- 10 De lkctio ns by Supe rpositio n W9 C HAPTER 11 R EPEAT ED L O ADIN G 565

CONTHrr s
-
XII

7- 11 Defl ections by E nergy Methods- Casti gli ano ' s

T heorem 404 11 - 1 Int rod uc tio n 565
7- 12 De flecti ons 11 -2 Resista nce to Failure U nde r Co mpl e te ly Reve rsed
Due to Shearing Stress 4 11
7- 13 C los ure 41 3 Load in g 570
11 -3 Design Fac tors Affectin g Fati gue S tre ngth of St ru ctural
Ele me nt s 573
11-4 Resistance lo Fai lure U nd e r Flu c tu ating Load 583
CHAPTER 8 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
B EAMS 415
CHAPTER 12 DYNAM IC LO ADIN G 593
8- 1 Introduc tio n 41 5
8-2 The Integratio n Method 41 6 12- 1 Introductio n 593
8-3 T he Area- Mo ment Method 423 12-2 E ne rgy of Configuratio n 594
8-4 T he Supe rposition Me thod 428 12-3 The Equi valent S tati c Load 60 1
8-5 E ne rgy Method-Casti gliano ' s Theo rem 436 12-4 So me Ele menta ry Design Co ncepts 6 15
8-6 Plas ti c Analys is of Staticall y Indete rmin ate Bea ms 446
8-7 C los ure 454
CHAPTER 13 CONNECT IO N S 619
13- 1 Ge neral Disc ussio n of Ri ve ted Co nnec tio ns 6 19
13-2 Ana lys is o f Rive ted or Bolted Jo ints-U niform S hear
C HAPT E R 9 COMBINED STATIC LOADING 457 Method 624
9- 1 Int roduc tio n 457 13-3 Analys is or Ri ve ted a nd Boll ed J o in ts - U lt imat e Strength
9-2 Co mbined A xial a nd Torsio nal Loads 457 Method 635
9-3 Co mbined Co rss Shea r a nd T orsio nal Loads 46 1 13-4 We ld ed Co nnectio ns 644
9- 4 Co mbined Centric a nd F lex ura l Loads 465 13-5 Co nnec tio ns Unde r T o rsio nal Loading 65 1
9-5 Co mbined Centric , Torsio na l, a nd Flex ura l Loads 479 13-6 Ecce ntric Load o n a Ri veted o r Bo lted Joint 656
9-6 T heo ries o f Failure 487

AP PENDI C ES 661

CHAPTER 10 COLUMNS 503 AI Average Pro pe rties o f Se lec ted Materi als 662
2 Stress-Strain Diagrams fo r T ypical Metals 666
10- 1 Introduction 503 BI Properties o f Selec ted Areas 669
10-2 S ta bility of Elasti c Mec hani cal S yste ms 504 2 Seco nd Mo me nt oi Plane Areas 67 1
10-3 Buckling of Long St raight Columns 509 C Prope rties of Rolled Steel S ha pes 693
10-4 Effects of Differe nt Ideali zed E nd Conditions 517 D T able o f Bea m De flec tio ns a nd Slopes 707
10-5 The Secant Formula 520 E The Inte rna tio na l Syste m o r Unit s lS I) 709
10-6 E mpirical Column Formulas-Ce ntri c Loading 527
10-7 N o ndimensio na l Column Fo rmulas- Ce ntric Loading 541
10-8 Ecce ntrically Loaded C olumns 545 ANSWER S 713
10-9 Specia l Column Proble ms 554 !NDEX 731
10- 10 Ine las tic Column Theory 557

~
.'.::l tt.....
 -.
r'

SYMBOLS AND
ABBREVIATIONS*

A area
avg. average
b breadth, width
C compression, Celsius
C distance from neutral axis or from center of twist to
extreme fiber
E modulus of elasticity in tension or compression
e eccentricity
Eq. equation
F force, or body force, Fahrenheit
f normal force per unit of length
ft foot or feet
ft-lb foot-pound
G modulus of rigidity (modulus of elasticity in shear)
g acceleration of gravity

* The symbols and abbreviations used in this book conform essentially with
those approved by the International Standards Organization.
xv
......-
xvi SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

h height, depth of beam w weight, wall (N · m/s)

hp horsepower W4 work
I moment of inertia or second moment of area , inter- IV load per unit of le ngth
fe rence X, y, l cartesian coordinates
in. inch y deflection
in.-lb inch-po und z plastic section modulus
J polar mo ment of inertia of area, joule (N · m) a (alpha) coefficient of the rmal expansion
K stress concentratio n factor y (gamma) shearing s train (unit). s pecific weight
k modulus of spring, factor of safety 6 (delta) total deforma tion
kg kilogra m Ii (delta) maximum defl ection under e nergy load
kip or k kilopound (l000 lb) e (epsilon) normal strai n (unit)
ksi kilo pounds (or kips) per square inch T/ (eta) efficiency. portion of e nergy load which is effective
L length 8 (theta) total a ngle of twist in radia ns. slo pe of deflected
lb pound ,, beam
M bending mo ment µ. (mu) micro (I0- 6 )
m me te r 11 (nu) Poisson' s ratio
max maximum p (rho) radius
min minimum u- (sigma) norma l stress (unit)
N no rma l force , newton T (tau) shearing stress (unit)
N · m Newlo n · me ter w (omega) a ngular velocity
0
II ratio o f e la slic modu li , number of cycles degree
p concentrated load , fo rce C l 2 x 30 a 12-in . rolled c ha nne l section with a weight of
p fluid pressure 30 lb/ft
Pa pascal (N / m!) C305 x 45 a 305-mm ro lled c hannel sectio n with a mass of
psf pounds per square fool 45 kg/m
psi pounds per squa re inch L6 x 4 x 1/2 a rolled a ngle section with 6-in. a nd 4-in. legs 1/2 in.
Q first moment of area thick
q shearing force per unit of le ngth LI02 x 89 x 13 a rolled a ngle section with 102-mm a nd 89-mm legs
R radius . modu lus of rupture. resulta nt force 13 mm thick
r ra dius o f gyratio n S 10 x 35 a 10-in. American s ta nda rd rolled section (I-beam)
rad radian with a weight of 35 lb/fl
rpm revolutions pe r minute Sl27 x 22 a 127-mm American sta nda rd rolled section (I-beam)
rps revolutions pe r second with a mass of 22 kg/ m
s surface force, res ultant stress. stress vec tor, sectio n Wl6 x 100 a 16-in . wide-flange rolled section with a weight of
modulus (S = lie ) 100 lb/fl
sec second W9 l4 X 342 a 9 14-mm wide-flange rolled section with a mass of
sq squa re 342 kg/m
T torque , temperature. te nsion WT8 x 50 an 8-in . struc tu ral T-sectio n (cut from a W-section)
I thickness . ta ngential deviation with a weight o f 50 lb/ft
u strain energy WT457 x • 171 a 457-mm s truc tural T-scction (cul from a W-section)
II stra in e ne rgy per uni t volume with a ma ss cir 171 kg/ m
II , U , U' components of di ~placement
\I s hearing force
 J

CHAPTER 1
ANALYSIS OF
STRESS-
CONCEPTS AND
DEFINITIONS

1-l INTRODUCTION
The primary objecti_v e of a course in mechanics of materials is the develop-
ment of relationships between the loads applied to a nonrigid body and the
internal forces and deformations induced in the body. Ever since the time of
Galileo Galilei (l 564-1642), men of scientific bent have studied the problem
of the load-carrying capacity of structural members and machine compo-
nents, and have developed mathematical and experimental methods of anal-
ysis for determining the internal forces and the deformations induced by the
applied loads. The experiences and observations of these scientists and engi-
neers of the last three centuries are the heritage of the engineer of ~oday. The
fundamental knowledge gained over the last three centuries, together with
the theories and analysis techniques developed, permit the modern engineer
to design, with complete competence and assurance, structures and ma-
chines of unprecedented size and complexity.
The subject matter of this book forms the basis for the solution of three
general types of problems:

I. Given a certain function lo peti·orm (the transporting of traffic

over a river by means of a bridge, conveying scientific instru-
1
2 ANALYSIS OF STRESS- CONCEPTS ANO DEFINITIONS 1-2 LOAD CLASSI FICAT ION

ments to Mars in a space vehicle, the conversion of water powe r duced as required, a nd more complete information can be obtained from ANALYSIS OF ST RE S
into electric power), of what materials should the machine or textbooks and handbooks on properties of materials.
structure be constructed, and what should the sizes and propor- IJ . 1-1
tions of the various elements be? This is the designer's task, and
obv iously there is no single solution to any glvcn problem. 1- 2 LOAD CLASSIFICATIO N
2. Given the completed design, is it adequate? That is, does it Certain terms are commonly used to describe applied loads ; their defini tions
perform the function economically and without excessive defor- are given here so that the terminology will be clearly understood.
mation? This is the checker's problem. Load s may be classified with respect to time :
Given a completed structure or machine , what is its actual
load-carrying capacity ? The structure may have been designed I. A static load is a gradually applied load for which equilibriu m
for some purpose other than the one for which it is now to be is reac hed in a relatively short time .
used . ls 'it adequate for the proposed use? For example, a building 2 . A susta in ed load is a load that is constant over a long period
may have been designed as an office building, but is later found of time , such as the weight of a structure (called dead load ). Thi s
to be desirable for use as a warehouse. ln $UCh a case, what type of load is treated in the same manner as a static load ; how-
maximum loading may the floor safely support? This is the rating ever, for some materials and conditions of temperature and
problem . stress , the resistance to failure may be different under short-time
loading and under sustained loading . p
Since the complete scope of these problems is obviously too comprehensive 3. An impact load is a rapidly applied load (an energy load).
for mastery in a single course , this book is restricted to a study of individual Vibration normally results from an impact load , and equilibrium (a)
members and very simple structures or machines . The design courses that ·.s not established until the vibration is eliminated, usuall y by
follow will consider the entire structure or machine , and will provide essen- natural damping force s. pa,,ses throu ~
tial background for the complete analysis of the three problems . 4 . A rep ea ted loa d is a load that is applied and remo ved many is termed ax
The principles and method s used to meet the objective stated at the thousand s of times. The helical springs that close the valves on p:bses lhrouf
beginning of this chapter depend to a great extent on prerequisite courses in automobile engines are subjected to repeated loading. centric fo r s
mathematics and mechanics, supplemented by additional concepts from the through the r
theory of elasticity and the properties of engineering materials. The equa- Loads may also be classified with respect to the area over which the force Vo n tl
tions of equilibrium from statics are used extensively, with one major change load is applied: large (the us
in the free-body diagrams ; namely , most free bodies are isolated by culling sumed to be
through a member instead of removing a pin or some other connection. The 1. A concentrated load is a load or force applied at a point. Any centric load .
force s transmitted by the cut sections are internal forces. The intensities of load applied to a relatively small area compared with the size of shear, and ti
these internal forces (force per unit area) are called stresses. the loaded member is assumed to be a concentrated load: for sandwiched
It will frequently be found that the equations of equilibrium (or motion) example, a truck wheel load on the longitudinal members of a through all ;
are not sufficient to determine all the unknown loads or reactions acting on a bridge. sheari ng for e
b_ody . In such cases it is necessary to consider the geometry (the change in 2. A distribwed load is a load distributed along a length or over represents a1
size or shape) of the body after the load s are applied. The deformation per an area. The distribution may be uniform or nonuniform . The ~ an exampl
unit length in any direction or dimension is called strain . ln some instances, weight of a concrete bridge floor of uniform thickness is an exam- A tor,w
the specified maximum deformation and not the specified maximum stress ple of a uniformly distributed load . member to ,
will govern the maximum load that a member may carry. pla nes trans
Loads may be classified with respect to the location and method of member is s
Some knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties of materi- 3. A bend
als is required in order to create a design, to properly evaluate a given design application:
applied tran
or even to write the correct relation between an applied load and the re sult- applied load
I. A centric load is one in which the resultant force passes
ing deformation of a loaded member. Essential information will be intro- axis of the r
through the centroid of the resisting sec tion. lf the resultant
 ANALYSIS OF STRESS-CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
IG . 1- 1
p 4. A combin ed lqading is a combination of two o r mo re o f the
p previou sly defined type s of loadi ng.
(a) (b) (c)
~asses through the centroids of all resisting sections , the loading
ts termed axial. In Fig. 1-1 a, th e line of ac tion of the load p
passes through the centroid of section a-a; the refore, the load is
centric for section a-a . The force P in Fig. I-lb is applied
through the plate to the sha nk of the rivet and is res isted by the
force Von the shaded section b-b. If the thickness t is not too
large (the usual case for ri veted joints). the force P can be as-
sumed to be collinear with V, thus sati sfy ing the definition of a
centric load . The loading illustrated in thi s figure is called single
shear, and the force V is a shea ring force . If the plate A was
sandwiched between two plates B with the rivet extending
through all three plates, the rivet would be subjected to two
shearing forces. Such loading is called double shear. Figure 1-1 c
represe nts an eyebar used for trusses, tie rod s, and linkages. This
is an example of axial loading .
2. A torsionu! load is one that subjects a shaft or some other
member to couples that twist the member. If the couples lie in
planes transverse to the axis of the member , as in Fig. 1-2, the
member is subjected to pure torsion .
3. A bending or flexural load is one in which the loads are
applied transversely to the longitudinal axis of the member. The
applied load may include couples that lie in planes parallel to the
axis of the member. A member subjected to bending loads bend s
1-3 CO NCE PT OF STRESS 5
p FI G . 1- 2
~ ~esu lta nt of
f!!!!!!lliii!~~~~- • ~/1,
J . bolt forces
. / is a couple
, (
or bows along its le ngth . Figure 1-3 illu s trate s a beam ~ubjec ted
to flexural loading consi s ting of a co nce ntra ted load , a uni fo rml y
distributed load , and a couple.
1-3 CON CE PT OF STRESS
In every subject area th <"' re a re certa in fundamental concepts of param ount
import a nce to a sa ti sfac tory co mprehe nsio n of the subj ect ·matter. For the
subject mec hanic s of ma terials. a thorough maste ry of the r,h ysical signi fi -
cance of stress and strain is paramount. The di sc ussio n of st re ss \\ il l be
undertake n first , and the study of stra in will be taken up in later article, .
The eyebar AB from the pile extractor of Fig . 1-4 (used to rec laim ~tee!
sheet piles from cofferdams and similar in stalla tio ns) will sen·e as a n exam -
ple for the introduction of the concept of stress. Although the bar is sub-
jected to dyna mic loading in use. a n equi vale.1 t s tatic load (a sta tic load that
will produce the same s tre sses a nd s trains as th e dynamic load ) may be used
in the design . Since the eybar is a two-force member. the pin re::i.ction s ::it .-\
and Bare collinear with the axis of the bar. A rev iew of two-force mem bers
and their application in trusses , as presented in a course in statics. is
strongly recommended . When the bar is cut by a ny plane. s uch as pla ne c - c .
and the free-body diagram of Fig. 1-5 is drawn, equilibrium m::i. v be estab -
lished by placing on the cut sec tion a series of parallel force s (s tre.ssesl. e::i.c h
of which acts on a unit area. The term srrcss is so metime s used to denote th.:
resultant force on a sec tion ; in other in stances it is used to indicate the force
l Ji::
~

6 ANALYSIS OF STRESS-CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

1-3 CONCEPT OF STRESS

F \ (j . 1--1 (Courtesy of Vulcan Iron

F lC, \ - ' tion of the equations of equilibrium (or motion). one_always replaces a stress
Works Inc., Chicago, Illinois)
with a total force (stress multiplied by the appropriate area), thus reducing
y the problem to one involving ordinary force vectors . However, stresses that
act on a Earticular plane can be treated as vectors (see .Art. 1-5) . since they
I mall a ssociated with the same area.
A ..&1~t~ ···- Because the stress indicated on plane c-c of Fig. 1-5 , if evaluated ,

_J-t~,- . ~-p
l° -- - X
would convey little information regarding the adequacy of design, it is cus-
tomary to replace this stress with two components: one perpendicular to the
plane, called the normal stress (which may be tension Tor compre ssion C)
and designated by the Greek letter a-; and the other parallel to the plane ,
called the shearing stress and designated by the letter T . These stresses,
when evaluated, may be compared with experimentally determined values
\t_:·_.,, ~- for the strength of the material in tension, compression, and shear. thu~
, ~ C yielding significant information . Such stresses are indicated in Fig. l-6a.

~~
For this simple case of axial loading. the sense of the normal and shearing

~
stresses has been determined by inspection. Again , the aspect of the plane as
an additional characteristic possessed by a stress must be emphasized . In

c/i p+"
6
Fig. \-6b the stresses are replaced by their resultants, the force vectors N
and V; therefore, the equations of equilibrium may be applied to this free-
body diagram. In the preceding discussion. the assumption is made that the
stress is uniformly distributed over the cut section. A necessary (but not
sufficient) condition for the distribution to be uniform is that the loadino be
centric. Nonuniform stress distribution under centric loading will be "dis-
cussed in Art. 1-10. In this book. unless otherwise indicated, a uniform
stress distribution is to be assumed for all centric (or assumed centric )
loading.
e,J.J '
A - -=--
~ e :: f\-Y-u;..___ j .J 7

l' - - - 1
------
ip 8~ - -:"· ·-.:-._ · '
----- -
-, _•. ____.~=~--=- ;:./
A
rea ~
= case _11
per unit area. In this book stress will always refer to the for ce per unit area,
unless otherwise stated. The equilibrium equation 2.F,, = O gives the ex- A
pression Cross-sectional area =A
(a) '> ~~ ~ ~
applied force = (stress)(area) f ~ -~-

Iv
It is immediately apparent that the magnitude of the stress on plane c-c is a
n

~ .,,Sil\_'.'\ g '
function of the angle of inclination 0 of the plane with respect to the applied
load. This fact distinguishes a stress from an ordinary force vector. Since
,stress is not a vector, the laws of vector addition do not apply to stresses that
' 1
act on different planes. This need not be cause for concern if, in the applica- ~ '
✓ (b) 11

' Q
~ :J}
I..('

......
.....
 ANALYSIS OF STRESS-CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION S 1-4 STRESSES UNDER CE NTRIC LOADING 9
I
1-4 STRESSES UNDER CE NTRIC is ze ro . In Art. 1-7 it is s hown that the shearing stre ss is always ze ro on the
" LOADING
If th e equations of equilibrium are applied to the free-body diagram of Fig.
pla nes of maximum or minimum normal s tre ss.
Laboratory experiments indicate that both s hearing and norma l
I-6b . the following e_x pressions are obtained: stres se s under axial loading are importa nt s ince a brittle materia l loaded in
ten s ion will fail in tension on the tra ns verse plane , whereas a ductile material
For 2-F,, = 0 D /V::() loaded in ten,~jon will fail i □ ~ Q D the 45° ~
fx- crA ·-- One observes that when 0 of Fig. 1-7 is greater than 90°, th e s ign of th e
p cos0 = N = co s0
r shearing stress in Eq . b changes . The magnitude of the s hearing s tress for
any angle 0, however, is the same a s that for 90° + 0. The s ign cha nge merely
from which indicates that the s hear force vector changes se nse , being directed toward
i,
p ' p the top of the element instead of toward the bottom as in Fig . 1-6. Normal
er = A cos -0 = 2
A ( I + cos20) (a) and shearing stresses on pla nes having as pect s 0 1 and 90° + 0 1 are s hown in
Fig . 1-8.
a nd for 2-F, =0 The equality of shearing stresses on orthogonal planes can be demon-
TA strated by applying the equations of equilibrium to the free-body diagram of
p sin0 = V = cos0 a small rectangular block of thickne ss d z. s hown in Fig . 1-9. If a shearing
force 1 V , = Tyxdx dz is applied to the top surface of the block, the equation
from which IF, = 0 will dictate the application of an oppositely directed force V. to the
p p bottom of the block , thus leaving the block s ubjected to a clockwise couple;
T = A sin0 cos0 =
2
A (sin20) (b) ;his couple mu st be balanced by a counterclockwi se couple composed of the
oppositely directed force s Vy a pplied to th e vertical faces of the bloc k .
"'y The graph of these expressions in Fig . 1-7 indicates that er is max imum Fina lly , application of the equation 2-1\110 = 0 y ie ld s the following :
when 0 is 0° or 180°, tha t r is max imum when 0 is 45° or 135°, and also that T_,x(dx d z )dy = • .r_,.( dy d:)dx
•max = ½er max. Therefore , the max imum stresses a re given by the expressions
from which
<Tma., = PIA ( 1-1 )
T\'X = T .ry ( 1-3 )
a nd
T max = P /(2A) ( 1-2)
y
I
It mu st be emphasized that Eq. 1-2 is valid only for centric tensile or com- I
pressive loading in one direction. For convenience, the max imum normal
stress under axial loading is called the axial stress . Note that the norma l
stress is either maximum or minimum on pla nes for which the shearing s tress

.,.,
~1 ,:,
i.!82 = 90 + 81
l□
~j',,"
~ - - -
,,,d., o,
- - x
[' :G FIG . 1-8 FIG . 1-9
A i5
I /'
2A 1
The double subscript on the shearing stress is used to de signate both the
0 go·,, 135 ....- --- 180 Angle, ff'
plane on which the stress ac ts and the direction of the stress. The first subscript
45
FIG. 1-7 . . . . ____ J ___ , ., . , , , indicates the plane (or rather the normal. to the plane), and the second subscript
indicates the direction of the stress.
 ..,....-
'~!
10 ANALYSIS OF STRESS-CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 1
1-4 STRESSES UNDER CENTRIC LOADING
Therefore, if a shearing stress exists at a point 0 11 any plane, there 11111st also
exist at this point a shearing stress of the same magnitude on an orthogonal
1
111 ii
plane . This statement is also valid when normal stresses are acting on the N o re : /11 all 11rohl!'111s in this t e.rrhnu/., 1l1e 11·1·i!;li11" 0(1l1c 111c111hcr.,
planes, since the normal stresses occur in collinear but oppositely directed 11·il/ hi' ll i'g lect f'll . 1111les.1 otli i'rll'isc rpeci(ied
pairs , and thus have zero moment with respect to any axis.
It will be observed that loads on a structure or machine are transmitted
to the individual members through some sort of connection, as, for example,
the riveted connection of Fig. 1-(/5", the pins at the ends of the eyebar of Fig.
j
-,/
EXAMPLE l-l
A hoist is made from a 4 x 4-in . wood p_o,s t BC a nd a I-in . diameter steel
1-4, and even so simple a detail as the head (or nut) of a bolt (Fig. 1-10) eye bar AB as shown in Fig. 1-1 la . The hoi s t s upport s a load W of 7000 lb.
loaded axially in tension . In all these connections, one of the most significant Determine the axial stresses in members AB a nd BC a nd the c ross shearino
stresses induced is a shearing stress; hence, these members are often said to stress in the I-in. dia meter bolt at A which is in doubl e shear. · "
be subjected to centric shear loading. lf the loading is as indicated in Fig.
I- lb, the average shearing stress on plane b-b is the significant shearing SOLUTION
stress (although it is not the maximum stress since the shearing stress cannot
The members AB and BC are two-force members subjected to ax ial loadin e.
be uniformly di stributed over the area) and is referred to as the cross shear-
When the equations of equilibrium are applied to th e free-body diag ram ~f
ing stress . Another type of shear loading is termed punching shear, as, for Fig. 1-1 lb , th e following results are obtained:
example, the action of a punch in forming rivet holes in a metal plate, the
tendency of building columns to punch through footings, and the tendency of @ I.Mc= 0
a tensile axial load on a bolt to pull the shank through the head. Under a 7000(5) - (5/ 13)(F,i)(7) = o. FA
punching shear load , the significant stress is the average shearing stress on 13 .000 lb T
the surface described by the periphery of the punching member and the
thickness of the punched member;" for example, the shaded cylindrical area
of Fig . 1-10 .
The following example wili serve to illustrate the concepts discussed in
II Arts . 1-3 and 1-4. ,:,.,
A

f (~-~ t - .•"f"".-_. .
(a)

r~. ~ ~
·"-•~t ---,: f
~~..··' -.
.,.
F, ": S~
~
p \ ~

0
.'..

12
~i \ \;

I
' 7Cit\llb
A = ··_- - _ ___ _ C .- 0;. = 4 ( I\ ,

"(b/
y
1· = ,( ;r/ 4)(1) 2 1_ .,.

'
·--1__ _ F1
FIG. I - Ill
( c)
FI G. I
3
2 This is modified in the case of building columns on concrete footings. Refer-

~
Struc tural timbers specified as rough sa wn will be approx irnal.:i)' full size.
ence should be made to reinforced-concrete design specifications. Cross-sectional dimen sions of dre ssed timbers will be be1 ween and j in . smaller
th an nominal. For convenience. all limbers in 1his book will be co nsidered full size

...
 -7
12 ANALYSIS OF STRESS-CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
1-4 STRESSE S UNDER CENTRIC LOADING 13
I lb = 4.448 N I N = 0 .2248 lb
F,1 13.000 = !6.550 psi T ,-\ 11' . I in. = 25.40 mm I mm = 0.03937 in .
<T,w = A = (7T/4l(t):
I ft. = 0 .3048 m Im = 3 .281 ft
Observe th a t it is not nec ..:ssary to solve the equation expli c itl y for the force I ksi = 6 .895 MPa I MPa = 0 . 1450 ksi
F,1 in the member if onl y the stre ss is required . He nce. for th e next equation
thi s s tep will b e o mi!ted: thu s. Note that one MPa is approximately one-seventh of one k s i. This one-
seventh "rule of thumb" is convenient for interpreting the ph ys ical s ignifi-
@ "i M,1 =0 cance of an s wers in SI unit s for those more accustomed to Englis h unit s.
I
7000(12) - ~ (I6)(<T 1ir l(7) = 0 Acceleration due lo gravity is 9.81 meters per second per second. From
\/ 2 Newton's second law, the force due to gravita tional attraction on a mass of I
<.r11c = 1061 psi C . \ ih.
kg is 9.81 N. Consequently. when a I-kg mass is s upported by a c ord in th e
earth ' s gravita tional field , the tension in the cord is 9.81 N . Similarl y th e
From the free-bod y diagram of Fig . I-I l e . which is a free-body diagram of
tension in a cable su s taining a mass of m kg is 9.8 I m N . A ,~ore detailed
the connection at A. and using the value of force F~ as determined above. discussion of SI units is given in App. E .
the cros s shea ring stress is obtained as follow s:
EXAMPLE 1-2
~ "iF,= 0
The crane structure shown in Fig. l-12a supports an automobile of m as s
F,1 -2 \l= 0 1800 kg. If member AB is a steel bar 15 mm in diameter .
V = ,,.(I )2/4 = 6500
T = 8280 psi .<\ 11' 4m ~ 4m

Stress , being the inten sity of internal force, has the dimen sion s of force
per unit area (FL - :) . Until recentl y. the commonly used unit for stress in th e
United States was the pound per square inch , abbreviated as psi . Since
metals can sustain stresses of several thousand pounds per square inch, the
unit ksi (kips per square inch) is also frequently used ( I ksi = 1000 psi) . With
the advent of the Internationa l S ys tem of Units (usually called SJ units),
units of stress based on the metric system are beginning to be used in the
El
O'>
I

I
).-

K
F
Kt1
United State s a nd will undoubtedl y come into wider use in the next few [_
.~~
yea rs. (a) @~
During the transition , both systems will be encountered , so some prob-
lems in this book are given using the English system (pound s and inches) and
others with Sf units (newtons and meters). For problems with SI units ,
force s will be given in ne wton s (N) or kilonewton s (kN) , dimensions in
meters (m) or millimeters (mm) , and mass~ in kilograms (kg)·. The SI unit
for stres s or pres s ure is a newton per square meter (N i m~) . a lso known as a
F,~ W ~
pascal (Pa). Stre ss magnitudes norma lly encountered in engineering applica-
tion s are expressed in megane~tons per square meter (MN /m 2), or megapas-
cals (MPa). ·
\V .-°=17 ~6 } N

Data will us ually be given in either the English or the SI system ; a / F

combination of the two systems will not be used for a given problem . When I·,.., :
it is necessary to convert units from one system to the other, the following
conversion factors will be useful : (b)
FIG . 1- I~
rr - ---
/

1 -4 STRESSES U~IOER CE NTRI C LO ADI NG

14 ANALYSIS OF STRESS- CO NCEPTS /\N O OEFINI \"IONS IS

r la)
l\:I)
D..:tcnninc the \\,rec trnnsmittcd \, y mcmhcr A II .
Determine the axial stress m member ,\/l .
I\

2 / 0kN - r )
::-.. 1~1

2 4 ';; ~.N -
IJ
__,.~"
~
Ora·,...

700 HI
--=-
r;
~

-
-IF
Aluminum D

- -
1
225 , N
I· ll , I' 1-

SOLuT lON
The tension in the cnble at Dis l'> -~\)\ \~00) l'I' 17 ,h6tl N . Frnm the frce -lm~l y
l O 5 rn
t 0 <; '"
- rJ 5__!T"

diagram of Fig. 1- 12 /J. the force in member AH i, ,,btained hy sum min ~

moments about pin F. Thus.
ax ial stresses are 125 MPa in the s teel , 70 MPa in the b ras'> . a nd 85 MPa in
(a) ':::.i\1 1• = l l7.660)l~) - 6F 111 = ll the aluminum . determine the required di a mete rs for each of the sections.
Solving for F,...r, yields 1-3 * A 2024-T4 aluminum tube with a wall thickness of 0 .120 in . and an
F.,,, = U7 .660\\l:\/6) = ::'.:o.:--\7 N ~"' 2:-5 kN :\\\,. out side diameter of 1.000 in . i'> used as a compre ssion me mber. Determme
the axial load o n the membe r when the axial stre<;s is 30 ksi C.
(b) a = F.~8 /A = ::'.:o.5-\7/l'rr/4)l0.0 1Sl: = 133 .2(101') N/m:
= 13:o.2 MPa T A n ~. 1-4* Axial loads a re applied with rigid bearing plate s to the concrete struc-
ture shown in Fig. Pl-4 . The cross-sect io nal areas for the concrete section.,
are 15 ,000 mm 2 for AB, 3000 mm 2 for BC . and 10 ,000 mm~ for CD . Determiae
the axial stress in the concrete
(a) On a cross sec tion in the interval AB .
(b) On a cross section in the interval BC.
PRO BLE\\S (c) On a cross section in the interval CD.
1-5* A punch press is u sed to punch a 1.25 -in. dia meter hole in a O 5f":
,\'ore: U n less o rh en,·isc sp,,citinl. u/1 11 11' ntl>L'l'S 11rc (1., s 11111 ('{ / ro thick steel plate. Determine the force exerted b y the press on the pl.ate Li ·'-:
lw ue neglig ibl e 11·e ig lu . lllld llil pins us ed _r; 11 · c1 •111 1ecr io11s W'(' average punching shear resistance of the steel plate is 50.00() p,,i_
ass 11111 ed robe s 111 oor/i. An o sre ris/, "" r/1 ,• prul>le111 1111111/il'I' i11,li- 1-6* Two strips of a plastic material are bonded together. as sbo,, n m fo
ca res 1/iar 1/1c c11 1s11·c r is ~i t•c 11 i11 rl,c hild, ,,f rl, c """"- Pl-6. The average shea ring stre ss in the glue must be limited to 5(;:-1 ~ -

I- I* The loads of Fig. Pl- I a re axiall y applied al sections A. B, C , a nd D .

If the bar has a cross-sectional a rea of 3 sq in .. de termine the axial stre ss in
the bar \ All loads are
m\.i. N

(a) O n a sec tion 10 in. to the right of A.

(b) On a sec tion 60 in. to the right of A .
1-2* 1'he round bar of Fig. P l-2 h as steel, brass , and alumin um sections.
Axial load s are applied at cross sec tions A. B. C. and D. lf the allowable

45" AO"
30" -
I .I
--\
I- T
Sl K,p, +A B o---- _,, c D + 4 ~ Kip;

\ ~ r
A
:)4 l"\ IU ')S
F l(j_ l'l-1

L
 pt
t,~ .- .
' • t r

i\NALYSIS OF STRESS-CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

,_

- ·-- --- 1-4 STRE SSES UNDER CENTRic LOADING ' 17

6
p I
- ~ /
~,.,;::_, - ---;i
{I
I'
'(
1
p FI G . Pl - 9 Ttmbefbeam FIG ., Pl-10

8'..am,i
~
L

What length of splice plate is needed if the axial lo.ad carried by the joint is
25 kN?
1-7 A brass tube with an outside diameter of2 .00 in. and a wall thickn!a!SS of
~
-~~f ~;t~i![;i~_
0.375 in. is connected to a steel tube with an inside diameter of 2.00 in. and a
wall thickness of0.250 in. by usiog a 0.750-in . diameter pin as shown in Fig.
Pl-7. Determine the cross shearing stress in the pin when the joint is carry- 1-11 · The tie rod shown in Fig. Pl-I I has a diameter of 40 mm and is used
ing an axial load of 8000 lb. ~ to resist the lateral pressare against the walls of a grain bin. If the tensile
stress in the rod is 70 MPa, determine
1-8 lf the pin of Problem 1-7 is replaced by a glued joint. determine· the
(a) The diameter of the washer that must be used if the bearing stres.s
·length of joint required if the shearing stress in the glue must be limiteu- to
on the wall is not to exceed 3.0 MPa.
300 psi.
(b) The average punching shear stress in the head of the rod if the
1-9* A device for determining the shearing strength of wood is shown in head has a diameter of 80 mm and a thickness of 60 mm.
Fig. Pl-9. The dimensions of the wood specimen are 150 mm by 150 mm by
50 mrn. If a load of 50 kN is required to fail the specimen, determine the 1-12* The inclined member AB of a timber truss is framed into a 4 x 6--in.
shearing strength of the wood. douglas fir bottom chord ; as shown in Fig. Pl-12. Determine the ax.ia,.I com-
pressive force in member AB when the average shearing stress parallel to the
1-10 The steel pipe column shown in Fig. Pl-10 has a n outside diameter of 't
grain in the end of the bottom chord is 150 psi.
4 in. and a wall thickness of l/2 in . The load imposed on the column by the
timber beam is 25,000 lb. Determine · · 1-13* Member AD of the timber truss of Fig. Pl-13 iY!~cd into the
100 x 150-mm white oak chord ABC as shown in the insert. Determine the
(a) The average bearing stress at the surface between the column and
dimension a that must be used if the average shearing stress Q:aI'3l)cl to the
the steel bearing plate .
grain in the end of AB is not to exceed 1.50 MPa.
(b) The length of a side of a square bearing plate if the average bearing
stress between the steel plate and the wood beam is not to exceed
400 psi .
Grain bin wa t:

,.., ,
- r

,4- ~
Steel
Brass Tie rod
~ I t
lai::;;:

}-r -~ l
Pl-7 FIG. Pl-I I FIG. Pl-12

1
 ---
r"" 1· j
18 ANALYSIS OF STRESS- CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS .- - - - ---..::
, 1-4 STRESSES UNDER C!:NTRIC LOADING

FIG . Pl -13
D Fl

2m
SL
I 2m
~t 1f' \ \ ~\\ 2

IB \\N ~~~~ 9 100 lb

10·

1- \ 4 A \ever is attached to the steel gate valve operating shaft of Fig. P \- \ 4

by means of a \/2 x \ /2 x 3/4-in. key . Determine the average cross shearing \-\6* The tie rod AB of Fig. Pl-16 has a cross-sectional area of 1.00 sq. in.
stress in the key when a load of 200 lb is applied to the \ev·e r. Pins A and B have diameters of 1.50 in . Pin C has ·a diameter of 2.00 in.
\- \ 5 A vertical shaft is supported by a thrust collar and bearing plate , as Determine
shown in Fig. Pl-15. Determine the maximum axial load that can be applied (a) The axial stress in tie rod AB.
to the shaft if the average punching shear stress in the co\\~r and the average (b) The cross shearing stress in pin A.
bearing stress between the collar and the plate are \inrtted to 60 and 75 MPa , (c) The cross shearing stress in pin C.
respectively.
\- 17* The axial stresses are ti MPa C in the wood post Band 150 M.Pa Tin
the steel bar A of Fig. Pl-\7. Determine

, ~r
l..., 24" • I
... (a) The load P .
(b) The minimum diameter for pin C if it is in single shear and the
\
cross shearing stress is limited to 70 MPa.
(c) The minimum diameter for pin D if it is in double shear and the
cross shearing stress is limited to 70 MPa.

FIG. Pl-14 . 1-18 The turnbuckles in Fig. Pl-18 are tightened until the compression
~!)0 lb
block D exerts a force of 25,000 lb on the beam at B . Member Dis a hollow
tube with an inside diameter of 1.00 in . and an outside diameter of 2.00 in.

E
E
"'N
I
T
I

150 mm 250 mm

p
Wood area = 4500 mm 2 I! F
FIG . Pl-15

___.....

~
 1-4 STRESS ES UNDER CENTRIC LOADING 21
20 ANALYSIS OF STRESS- CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
FIG . Pl-20
FI G. Pl - 18 E

A
C ~j
~

A I 2' Bl 2' IC
i' >-r-- >i
G

Rod s AE a nd EC each have c ross-sectional areas of 2.00 sq. in. The pins at A
and C each have a diameter of 1.25 in . Determine
(a) The axial stress in me mber D .
(b) The axial stress in rod AE.
(c) The cross shearing stress in pin A.
1-19 The pin-connected frame ABC of Fig. P 1-19 is subjected to a load P of
450 kN . Member AC is a rectangular bar with a depth of 80 mm and a
thickness of 25 mm. Determine
(a) The axial stress in member 1\.C
(b) The cross shearing stress in pin B if it has a diameter of 50 mm and
is loaded in double shear.
1-20* Member CF of the pin-connected truss of Fig. Pl-20 has a cross-
sectional area of 2.4 sq . in. Determine the axial stress in member CF.
1-21 For the pin-connected truss of Fig. P 1-20, determine
(a) The axial stress in member CD if it is a 7/8-in. diameter steel rod .
(b) · The axial stress in member CF if it is composed of two steel a ngle s
having a total cross-sectional area of 1.24 sq. in.
1-22* Member CF of the pin-connected tru ss of Fig . P 1-22 has a cro ss-
sectional area of 4500 mm 2 • Determine the axial stress in member CF.
1-23 For the pin-connected truss of Fig. Pl-22 . determine
(a) The axial stress in member BG if it is composed of two steel
angles having a total cross-sectional area of 2500 mm 2•
(b) The axial stress in member AB if it is a 70-mm diameter steel rod .
1-24 For the pin-connected structure of Fig. Pl-24, det ermine th e mini-
mum diameter for the pin at joint D if the cross shea ring stre ss in the pin
must be limited to 7500 psi.
1-25 Member BE of the pin-connected -structure of Fig. Pl-25 is a 25 x 8-
mm rectangular bar. The force P is applied to the pin at E outside members
BE and DE as shown in the insert. The pin at E has a diameter of 30 mm.
Determine

p
1.25 m

~ -
A¥ ~ 4m 3m
2m
J120 hN
FIG . Pl-2:
FI G Pi-19

•
f=,: ANAL YS IS OF STRESS- CONCEPT S AND DEFINITIONS

I ' l - ~-1

/" Smooth
10,,,1 I'•
F

/'
ct.-~~=~
~
-:;;;;i;---,
. -
1-4

'
•'
STRESSES UNDER CENTRIC LOADING

f
/'
I ll I

I
Ab=--4
__ 3'
I_.,
l30•
5'
-7"

® ;-,,

_j'_ axial tensile stress not exceed 12.0 ksi and the cro ss shearing '> lre'>\ not
exceed 8 .0 ksi . Determine th e max imum load P that can be applied to the
eyebar without exceeding eithe r s pecification. The cross-sectional area of
the bolts at the roo t of the threads is 0. I 26 sq . in .
(a) The axial stress in member BE .
✓ 1 -29 The normal stress on pla ne AB of the rec tangular bloc k of Fig . Pl - 29
(b) The maximum cross shearing stress in the pin at £.
is 5.00 MPa C when the load Pi s applied . If angle 0 is 30°. determine
Ji -26* A structural steel bar 1.00 in . in diameter is subjected to an axial
(a) The load P .
tensi le load of 12,000 lb . Determi~e
(b) The shearing stress on plane AB.
(a) The ,norm·at and shearing stresses o n a plane through the bar that
makes an angle, of 30° with the direction of the load . (c) The ma ximum normal and shearing stre sses in the block.
(b) The maximum normal and shearing stresses in the bar. 1-30 Specificatio ns for the 3 x 3 x 21 -in . block of Fig. Pl-30 require that
the normal a nd shearing stres~es o n pla ne A-A not exceed 400 psi and 120
.I 1-2r A structural steel eyebar with a 50 x 150-mm rectangular cross sec-
psi, respectively . Determine the max imum load P that can be applied ,,ith-
tion is subjected to an axial tensile load of 1200 kN. Determine
out exceeding the specifications .
(a) The normal and shearing stresses on a plane through the bar that
makes an angle of 40° with the direction of the 1oad. 1-31 Specifications for the wood block of Fig. Pl-31 require that the
stresses not exceed the following: shear parallel to the grain 0.75 MPa..
(b) The maximum normal and shearing stresses in the bar.
compression perpendicular to the grain 1.20 MPa . and maximum shear 1.00
1-28 The two parts of the eyebar of Fig. Pl-28 are connected with 1/2-in.
diameter bolts (one on each side) . Specifications for the bolts require that the

I' /'

l \

u
B

Et

~1 to
';'
I

/,F//#,h,.
/~

F\l • I

FIG. Pl - ~.'i /'_, = 25 kN Side End

24 ANALYSIS OF STRESS- CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
1-5 CONCEPT OF STRESS AT A GENERAL POINT 25
FIG. Pl -.,0
3•
FIG . 1'1 - 31

r o·
Directjpn ~
of gram
G(
area LlA, an average force per unit area (average resultant stress) is obtained.
As the area LlA is made s maller and sma ller, the couple t::i..M" vanishes as the
force di stribution becomes more and more uniform. In the limit a qu an tit y

Lf=='■ .
known as the stress uector 4 or resultant stress is obtained. Thus,

a .c" ~ . . l00 ;m
f / , . _ , _ : _' , _joo mm

l _j /

'
Length= 320 mm, I
Depth = 120 mm ~
I
I

~··,
" I
LiF,, 1

~ n
0 ' /
'
' , ,I I
_,
MPa. Determine the maximum axia l load P that ca n be ap plied without
'
exceeding the specifications.
'
1-5 CONCEPT OF STRESS AT A
GENERAL POINT I N AN ARBITRARILY
-1-M,.,
LOADED MEMBER
In Arts. 1-3 and 1-4 the concept of stress was introduced by considering the
inrernal force distribution re quired to satisfy equilibrium in a portion ofa bar
r.o~---- ~t"
6.:r~-~--n
f \_J t!.Fnn
under centric load. The nature of the force distribution led to uniformly 0
distributed normal and shearing stresses on transverse planes through the
bar. In more complicated structural members or machine components the (b)
stress distributions will not be uniform on arbitrary internal planes; there-
fore, a more general concept of the s ta te of s tress a t a point is needed.
y
Consider a body of arbitrary shape that is in equilibrium under the Applied force
action of a system of applied forces. The na ture of the interna l force distribu-
tion at an arbitrary interior point O can be studied by exposing an interior
plane through Oas shown in Fig. l-l3a . The force distribution required on
A~L~ -~
I,,.,,, S,
',
such an interior plane to maintain equilibrium of the isolated part of the ,,~,l~---
;Tx)! -~-----~-- - X
body, in general, will not be uniform ; however. any distributed force acting
on the small area LlA s urrounding the point of interest O can be replaced by a
L,,r
Tzz 0./ u,

statically equivalent resultant force l::,,F,, through O and a couple !:,,Mn. The
subscript n indicates that the resultant force and couple are associated with a (c) I 1c; 1-1 .~
part icula r plane through -O-namely, the one having an outward normal in
then direction at 0. For any other pla ne through O the values of t:,,F and l::,,M
could be different. Note that the line of action of !::..F,, or t::i.M. may not
coincide with the direction of 11. If the resultant force t::i.F,, is divided by the • The component of a tensor on a plane is a vector; therefore. on a particular
plane, the stresses can be treated as vectors .
 ,
r- 26 ANALYSIS OF STRESS-CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

6.F,,
y
: <Ty
1-6 TWO-DIMENSIONAL OR PLANE STREss

FIG. 1- 14 u,
nr
2

~
-t-~,t,,·
r,,
S ,1 = Lim
M-0
A,
U/1.
\A
\
\ T1. _Y
ln Art. 1-3 it was pointed out that mate rials respond to components of
the stress vector rather than the stress vector itself. ln particular, the com-
<Ia
__>-.
r,,1 \ 6
\

\
.,
\
ponents normal and tangent to the internal plane were important. As shown r~-:.t :-. -,. ,_
in Fig. l-l3b the resultant force 6.F" can be resolved into the components
6.f"" and 6.Fn,. A normal stress u-" and a shearing st ress T,, are then defined as
f

~-..•.
l"<[!:o
"'1 ,.
~ ry_,
6.F,,,, <T:x;

a" -- Lim
~-o A,
U/1. -x

and
T:x:y =;: Ty:x:
6.F,,, Tyz = Tzy
T _ Lim A,
,i M - 0 U/1. 1 zx = Txz
For purposes of analysis it is convenient to reference stresses to some
coordinate system. For example, in a Cartesian coordinate system the plane parallel to the z axis. A positive shearing stress points ip the positive
stresses on planes hav ing outward normals in the x, y, and z directions are direction of the coordinate axis of the second subscript if it acts on a surface
usually chosen. Consider the plane having an outward normal in the x direc- with an outward normal in the positive direction. Conversely. if the outward
tion. ln this case the normal and shear stresses on the plane will be u_, and T x, normal of the surface is in the negative direction , then the positive shearing
respectively . Since Tx, in general, will not coincide with the y or z axes, it stress points in the negative direction of the coordinate axis of the second
must be resolved into the components Tx y and T,, , as shown in Fig. l-13c . subscript. The stresses shown on the element in Fig. 1-14 are all positive.
Unfortunately the state of stress at a point in a material is not com-
pletely defined· by these three components of the stress vector since the
stress vector itself depends on the orientation of the plane with which it is 1-6 TWO-DIMENSIONAL OR PLANE
associated . An infinite number of planes can be passed through the point, ST RESS
resulting in an infinite number of stress vectors being associated with the Before proceeding to a consideration of the general three-dimensional s1a1e
point. Fortunately it can be shown (see Art. 1-9) that the specification of of stress, we can gain considerable insight into the nature of stress distribu-
stresses on three mutually perpendicular planes is sufficient to describe com- tions by considering a less complicated state known as two-dimensional or
pletely the state of stress at the point. The rectangular components of stress plane stress. For this case two parallel faces of the small element of Fig.
vectors on planes hav ing outward normals in the coordinate directions are 1-14 are assumed to be free of stress . For purposes of analysis, let these
shown in Fig. 1-14. The six faces of the small element are denoted by the faces be perpendicular to the z axis. Thus,
directions of their outward normal s so that the positive x face is the one
whose outward normal is in the direction of the positive x axis. The coordi-
U- z = T = Tzy = 0
t.<

nate axes x, y, and z are arranged as a right-hand system. From Eq. 1-3, however, this also implies that
The sign convention for stresses is as follows . Normal stresses (indi-
cated by the sy mbol u- and a single subscript to indicate the plane on which T.<Z = Tyz = Q
the stress acts) are positive if they point in the direction of the outward
normal. Thus, normal stresses are positive if tensile . Shearing stresses are The components of stress present for plane str.ess analysis will be <l, • <l, •
denoted by the sy mbol T followed by two subscripts; t_~e first _~ubscript and T,y = T yx. For convenience this state of stress is usually represented by 7\(

designates the plane on which the shearing stress acts and the second the the two-dimensional sketch shown in Fig. 1-15 . The three-dimensional ek-
coordinate axis to which it is parallel. Thus, Tx c is the shearing stress on an x

....
l
28 ANALYSIS OF STRESS-C ONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 1-6 TWO-DIMEN S IONAL OR PLANE STRESS 29
ment of which the ske tc h is a plane projection should be kept in mind at all Fig. l-16c will be adequate. Summing force s in the n direction yield s the
times . Normal a nd shearing stresses on an arbitrary plane such as plane A-A following :
in Fig. I- I 5 can be obtai ned by using the free-body diagra m method dis-
cussed for centric load ing in Art. 1-4 . The solution to the following example
8 "iF,, = 0
illustrates thi s method of approach under plane stress conditions. a- dA + 0.6 dA (4000)(0.6) - 0.8 dA (8000)(0 .8) = 0

EXAMPLE 1-3 from which

At a given point in a mac hine element, the following stresses were evalu- a- = 3680 psi T /\n,.
ated: 8000 psi T and zero shear on a hori zo ntal plane and 4000 psi C on a
Wh en forces are summed in the I direction, the shea ring stress is found to be
vertical plane. Determine the stresses at thi s point on a plane -having a slope
of 3 verlic~I to 4 horizontal. T = 5760 psi .-\n,.

SOLUTION
As an aid to visualization of the da ta , it is suggested that the differential
block of Fig. l-16a be drawn (a stress picture, not a free-body diagram). The
next step is to draw a free-body diagram subjected to ordinary force vectors.
Various satisfactory free-body diagrams can be used ,' such as the wedge-
shaped element defined by the three given planes in Fig. l-16b, in which the
shaded area indicates the plane on which the stresses to be evaluated are
acting. To this area is assigned arbitrarily the magnitude dA, and the corre-
sponding areas of the horizo ntal and vertical faces of the element are 0.8 dA
and 0.6 dA, respectively. The forces acting on these areas will be as indi-
cated in the diagram . It must be emphasized thatforce vectors act on these
areas. For practical purposes , the two-dimensional free-body diagra m of
Note that the norinal stress should be designated as tension or compression.
The presence of shearing stresses on the horizont,.al and vertical plane s, had
there been any, would merely have required two more forces on the free-
body diagram : one parallel to the vertical face and one parallel to the hori-
zontal face . Note, however, that the magnitude of the shearing stresses (not
the forces) must be the same on any two orthogonal pl a ne s (see Art. 1-4) a nd
that the vectors snould be directed as in Fig .. 1-9 or both vectors reversed ,
depending on the given data .
•
PROBLE MS

1-32 * Because of internal pressure in a boiler, the stresses at a point in the

800f psi i-:f( £, boiler plate were found to be as shown in the stress picture of Fig. Pl-3 2.
4
D_,e(ermine the normal and shearing stresses at this point on the inclined

7Y
plane shown in the figure .
£, / - 4 0 0 0 ps, 1-33 * At a point in a stressed body, there are normal stresses of 95 MPa T
on a vertical plane and 150 MPa Ton a horizontal plane as shown in Fig.
0 shear
Pl-33 . Determine the normal and shearing stresses at this point on the in-
clined plane shown in the figure .
(a)

0.8dA (8000) 12.500 ps, 1 :10 \iC',1

0.8dA (8000)

l / ~ ~ 20··
0.6c!A (4000!1i

adA
( n
..,...-------- 0'
24 6250 ps , 95 \ 1PJ

£, /
adA
(c)
FIG . 1-16 (b) F IG . PI-J2 F I G . Pl-.~3

•
~
30 ANALYSIS OF STRESS-CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION S
1-6 TWO-DIMENSIONAL OR t='LANE STRESS
F IG . 1'1 - 3-.
F IG. P l - JS FI G. PI - JX FIG i'J
4 A
----.!!__ { 7-' 25 MPa IQ (

/
B ,_J3 /.J ~ C
J' ,...,,,,..,.,,,,,,,.,,,,,,
c,.

" A! _..-r;· 4
0
0
.,,
0
/
,,..,- .::,
0
0
-0
l~-...-~r2-' "• -~
i5 -
"'
00 -<

/
A,.,. A
I,

1-34* The stresses on hori zontal and vertical pla nes at a point are shown in 1-38* At a point in a machine component, the stresses on a n inclined plane
Fig. Pl-34. The normal stress on plane A-A at thi s point is 8000 psi T. are u = 2400 psi Tand T = 600 psi as shown in Fig. Pl-38 . The normal stress
Determine
on a vertical plane through the point is zero. Determine
(a)
The magnitude of the shearing stresses Th and Tu . (a) The shearing stresses on horizontal and vert ical planes.
(b)
T he magnitude a nd direction of the shearing stress on the inclined (b) T he normal stress o n a horizontal plane through the point.
plane A-A.
1-39* An incomplete free-body diagram fo r the determinat ion of stresses at
1-35"' T he stresses on horizontal and vertical planes at a point are shown in a point in a machine component is shown in Fig. Pl-39. Complete the
Fig. Pl-35. The normal stress on plane AB is 15 MPa T. Determine diagram and determine the normal and shearing stresses on plane AC. The
(a) T he no rmal stress u, on the vertical pla ne . stresses indicated on the diagram are presented in MPa.
(b) The magnitude and direction of the shearing stress on the inclined 1-40 At a poi nt in a structural me mber, there are stresses on horizontal and
plane AB.
vertical planes as shown in Fig. P 1-40. The magnitude of the compressive
1-36 At a point in a structural member, the re arc stresses on horizontal and stress <rc is three times the magnitude of the te nsile stress u, . Specifications
vertical planes as shown in Fig. Pl-36. Determine the normal a nd sheari ng require that the shearing stress on pla ne AB not exceed 4000 psi. and the
stresses on inclined plane AB. normal stress · o n plane AB not exceed 7800 psi. Determine the maximum
value of stress <rc that will satisfy the specificat ions.
1-37 At a point in a structura l member. there are stresses on horizontal a nd
vertical pla nes as shown in Fig. PI-37. The normal stress on the inclined 1-4 1 Known stresses at point A in a structural member (see Fig. P 1-41) are
plane AB is 25 MPa T. De termine 150 MPa T and zero shear on pla ne B-B and 250 MPa C on plane C- C.
(a) The• normal stress u, o n the vertical plane. Determine the stresses on a vertical plane at the point.
(b) 1-42 Determine the stresses on a horizonta l pla ne at point A of Prob. 1-41.
The magnitude and direction of the shearing stress on the inclined
plane AB. \

~"
.,;
\
I

> IA
~
2000 P~1

Ops,

~
a.
g
'?
_JJ 11:B
-7 1 r
~
40 1.1Pa

3
r,1Pa'

<T , .
I
l{
~
A
<J,.

'~J "•
I r,
'
' \,
,✓
.-\ ,,>--,
/
/(J
,- 4
/
n

,A 1 - '''
FfC i P / - 1(, T F IC, . 1'1 - 37 T FI Ci . 1'1 - -.0
/J /
/

·l 3' c l·ll; I

I ..II
 ,: ~ -/Jr.tu\C..
32 AN AL YSIS OF STRESS-CONCEPTS AND DE FINITIONS

1-7 PR INC IPAL STR ESS ES -PLAN E

i; 17,.
1-7 PRINCIPAL STRE SSE S-PLANE STRE SS 33
F IG . 1- 17
STR ESS 1 '?(·- ~~ ' \'I"
t\ ~
y /
n
As me ntio ned in Art. 1-3 . a th oro ugh unders ta ndi ng of the phys ical signifi- \ / 0 -:,

ca nce of stress is fund ame nt al in mec hanics of materi als. The conce pt of -. > I\~ \ _,,,_,., X u

s1ress (interna l fo rce per unit area) at a point in a body o n a plane th rough th e
point mu st be kept constantl y in mind. The fac t that th e stresses are , in
ge neral. different for diffe rent planes th ro ugh any one point has been empha-
"•·---t1_.....,\
iry 11 e
\
,
L_
I-"· ,.,..,.;Ir.
0. ' -1 '1
\ J\
sized previo usly. ·
Three impo rta nt fac ts a bout stresses we re developed in Art. 1-4: ff F; ~
d.l

Ji IT\ ~ / 1 -
I. The max imum no rma l stress for a ce ntric tensile or compres-
sive load in one direc tio n is in th e direc tio n of the load on a plane
t (a )

+ r," / i"
rT \rf 1 .r· 1

!a::
1 _:rsi (bi
~ fo
no rma l to the load , a nd it s mag nitude is rr = PIA .
f~or1 f~
:i. . The max imum shearing stress fo r a ce ntric tensile or com-
pre ssive load in one direc tion is on a pla ne at a n a ngle of 45° to the
I

8 i
•fl
\
load , and its magnitude is r = rr/2 = P /( 2A ).·
3. For all types of loads , a shearing stress at a ny one point on
any plane is accompa nied by a shearing stress of equ al magnitude
fB ::.
1.,
I} tc /ffe-4.I!
- . - - - - + ~_._
-
,]
[ xy
<fs. - Cf y
on an orthogo na l plane through the po int.
t, I
~ ,- - + - 2-
I , ,I
I
Once the norm al a nd shearing stresses on orthogonal planes through a point I
I
in a bod y are kno wn, the normal and shea ring stresses on a ny 2Qecific
oblique pla ne through th e same pg int can be de term ined by th e free-bod y
(c)
diag ra m meth od of Art. 1-6. Usua ll y, the c ritical stresses are the max imum
tensile and compressive stresses and the max imum shearing stresses. The re-
fore , th e method of Art. 1-6 is inadequate, unless the slopes of the planes o n
which the max imum stresses ac t a re kno wn. For a centric load in one di rec-
tio n, the pla nes o n which maximum a nd minimum normal stresses and maxi- l tion of equilibrium in th e n direction gives
mum shearing stresses act a re readil y ava ilable from the developments of -~
Art. 1- 4. As more complicated loads are stud ied , more ge neral methods for a-.dA - ry,(dA sin8)co s8 - r,y(dA co s8)sin0 - rr,(dA cos8)cos8
fi nding the critical stresses become necessary. T wo such methods will be
- rry(dA sin0)sin8 =0
presented .
Equations relating the desired normal and shearing stresses rr. and r., from which ' since T y., = T xy'

on an arbitrary pla ne through a point orie nted at an angle 8 with respect to a a-. = a-, co s28 + a--" sin 28 + 2r,,. sin8 cos8 I / - -l , 1)
reference x axi s and the known stresses rr, , vy, and r,y = T y, on the reference
pla nes can be developed using the free-body diagram method of Art. 1-6. or, in terms of the double a ngle,
Con sider the plane stress situation indicated in Fig. l-17a, where the dotted
line A-A represents the trace -of a ny pla ne through the point (all planes are
perpendicular to the plane of zero stress-the plane of the paper) . In the
l
·'·
a-. =
a-, (1 + cos28)
2 +
rry(I - cos28)
2
2r,y(sin20)
+ ---

following derivation, a counterclockwise angle O is positive. a-, + a-y + rr, -2 a-y cos28 -t r ,,. sin28
Figure I-17b is a free-body diagram of a wedge-shaped element in =~2~ ( 1- .l/,J
which the areas of the faces are dA for the incl ined face (plane A-A), dA cos
8 for the vertical-face, and dA sin 8 for the horizontal face. The force equa- For the free-body diagram of Fig . 1-17 b, the force equation of equilib-