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Published 04/01/2014
Copyright © 2014 SAE International
doi:10.4271/2014-01-1209
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ABSTRACT
The progressive trend towards the GDi engine downsizing, the focus on better fuel efficiency and performance, and the
regulatory requirements with respect to the combustion emissions have brought the focus of attention on strategies for
improvement of in-cylinder mixture preparation and identification and elimination of the sources of combustion emissions,
in particular the in-cylinder particulate formation.
This paper discusses the fuel system components, injector dynamics, spray characteristics and the single cylinder engine
combustion investigation of a 40 [MPa] capable conventional GDi inwardly-opening multi-hole fuel injection system. It
provides results of a study of the influence of fuel system pressure increase between 5 [MPa] to 40 [MPa], in conjunction
with the injector static flow and spray pattern, on the combustion characteristics, specifically the particulate and gaseous
emissions and the fuel economy.
The combustion data shows the marked effect of fuel pressure increase on reduction of the combustion emissions and
improvement of fuel consumption. It also illustrates an influence of the injector specifications that is evident at all system
pressures.
The data highlights the complex relation of the fuel system pressure, the injector specifications and the combustion
characteristics, which must be taken into consideration for GDi homogeneous combustion system optimization.
CITATION: Hoffmann, G., Befrui, B., Berndorfer, A., Piock, W. et al., "Fuel System Pressure Increase for Enhanced
Performance of GDi Multi-Hole Injection Systems," SAE Int. J. Engines 7(1):2014, doi:10.4271/2014-01-1209.
combustion performance for GDi homogeneous systems [3, 4]. Fig. 2 shows schematically the entire GDi fuel system, from the
The future emission legislation of Euro 6C [5, 6], becoming fuel tank through to the injector.
effective in Europe in 2017, is another major driver for a GDi
fuel system pressure increase. Especially in the case
particulate emissions - mass as well as number - a higher fuel
pressure is capable to sustainably reduce the engine
emissions [7, 8].
Figure 1. Pressure Evolution for GDi Systems and Future Trend The fuel is delivered from the fuel tank by the fuel pump to the
inlet the GDi high pressure pump. The fuel enters the high
In the following chapters, the requirements and implications of
pressure pump through the damper body, passes the inlet
a system pressure increase to 40 [MPa] for the GDi
metering valve, and is then pressurized by the plunger and
conventional multi-hole fuel system components are discussed.
exits via the outlet check valve into the high pressure side of
Then, the influence of fuel injection increase between 5 [MPa]
the fuel system. A fuel pipe connects the pump outlet fitting
and 40 [MPa] on the injector hydraulic performance and the
with the high pressure (common) rail which distributes the fuel
spray structure, penetration and atomization are illustrated with
to the individual injectors. The fuel pressure sensor is also
the aid of experimental data. The effect of fuel system pressure
typically mounted on the fuel rail to enable an accurate
on the combustion characteristics is of primary interest: in this
measurement and control. In the following chapters the
context the single-cylinder engine combustion data for three
implications of a fuel system increase from the current 20
GDi multi-hole injectors -with different spray patterns and static
[MPa] to 40 [MPa] are reviewed.
flows - operating at different fuel pressures are presented and
discussed. Finally, a summary of the main findings of this study
is provided. Low Pressure System
Today's high pressure pumps with an “on demand” fuel delivery
generate pressure pulsations that are reflected into the low
FUEL SYSTEM ASPECTS pressure fuel supply system. The amplitude and frequency of
One reason for introduction of GDi systems is to improve the these pressure waves are determined by the pump swept
fuel economy of gasoline powered vehicles. Therefore it is volume and the maximum cam-shaft rotational speed. As long
necessary to carefully assess all required measures, with as this key fuel pump characteristic is not altered, no high
respect to the fuel system, and implications for total engine pressure system excitation is expected and no specific
outputs in order to meet this overall objective. A fuel system measures need to be considered for the fuel system pressure
pressure increase can be expected to elevate the parasitic increase.
losses and, on this ground alone, will be counterproductive for
engine CO2 reduction. A comprehensive review and
optimization of the entire fuel system - from the fuel tank to the High Pressure Pump
injector - needs to performed. This must include all pertinent The high fuel pressure is produced by the high pressure pump.
aspect of a fuel system pressure increase, for instance the Consequently, an increase of the fuel system pressure requires
structural, hydraulic as well as the system component sufficient structural integrity of the high pressure pump. The
interactions, in order to guarantee a safe and efficient components of the pump that are responsible for the fuel
operation in engine applications. pressurization - or in the high pressure circuit - need special
Hoffmann et al / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 7, Issue 1 (May 2014)
attention. In particular, interfaces on the high pressure side that (FEA) needs to be performed to assess the fatigue and
are normally welded must be rigorously design optimized in overstress situation and provide appropriate guidelines for
order to withstand a significant higher fatigue stress levels. design improvements.
The pumping force is determined by the plunger diameter and The fuel pressure sensor requires an extended measurement
the pressure in the pumping chamber. By simply increasing the capability as well as structural strength beyond the fuel system
fuel pressure a nearly linear increase of the pumping force is burst limit. Today's 200 [bar] sensor technology can be
observed. This higher force needs to be provided by the cam upgraded to the higher pressure requirements and no new
shaft via the cam lift and the cam lifter. In Fig. 3 the simulated technology needs to be implemented.
pump cam load as function of fuel pressure and plunger
diameter is shown for a given specific cam lift profile. It is very The typical connection system between injector and fuel rail
obvious that the force is a strong function of the plunger consists of a chemically resistive and low temperature capable
diameter. Depending on the camshaft drive situation, a fuel O-ring in combination with a backup ring. Careful redesign of
pressure increase may result in a reduced plunger diameter in this critical interface by optimizing the rail socket diameter, the
order to limit the contact stress between cam and cam lifter gap between injector upper housing and refining the tolerances
and the maxima in the pump driving torque. is required to withstand a potential extrusion of the backup ring.
The O-ring size and material as well as the backup ring
dimensions and material are adapted to provide a leak-free
function over the engine life. Overpressure tests and extended
pressure cycling tests confirm the feasibility of this interface
concept and sealing package. The requirement for an
expensive screwed interface with an intermediate fuel pipe
between the rail and injector, as typically applied in Diesel
injection systems, is not deemed necessary for the fuel system
pressures up to 40 [MPa].
parameters like press / slip fit tolerances, wall thickness, weld Finally, the combined optimization of the injector hydraulic and
penetration and targeting, and material properties. Also, the magnetic injector should ensure that the injector electrical
effective loads on the injector due to mounting conditions need requirements - with respect to the drive scheme voltage and
to be considered as these can have an important influence on peak/hold currents - remain as the current conventional GDi
the critical stress levels. system. Last, but not least, the component and assembly cost
increase needs to be moderate in order to maintain price
competitiveness of the high pressure injection system.
In order to improve engine warm-up and/or reduce emissions, Figure 6. Experimental flow curve data for fuel system pressures of
injection strategies with multiple pulses at small dwell times 5,10, 20 and 40 [MPa]
and a precise control of small injected fuel quantities are
required also for high operating pressures. This leads to more As visible in Figure 5, the increase of injection pressure
stringent flow requirements in the ballistic operation zone of the corresponds to an increase of the injection rate, which results
injector as well as drives optimization of the injector dynamic in a shorter pulse length to deliver the same quantity of fuel.
behavior in order to reduce undesirable effects due to armature The data shows no undesirable post-injection, caused by the
and pintle impact on opening and closing performance. higher pintle closing speed associated with the injection
pressure increase.
Hoffmann et al / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 7, Issue 1 (May 2014)
Figure 6 presents the flow curves, for the injector 6H-LF, for
different fuel systems pressures between 5 [MPa] - 40 [MPa]. It
is noteworthy that through specific design, the injector
dynamics are similar for the small pulse durations, in the range
bellow 0.4 [ms], thus enabling easy control of small injected
quantities.
Spray Atomization
Figure 9 shows the effect of fuel system pressure on the spray
atomization quality, as illustrated by the spray droplet size
parameters Dv10, D32 (i.e. Sauter mean diameter) and Dv90.
In accordance with the SAE J2715 standard [11] guidelines,
the laser diffraction measurement is performed at 50 [mm]
downstream of the nozzle exit with the n-Heptane fuel. The
injection pulse-width was adjusted in order to maintain an
injected quantity of 7 mg/pulse for all fuel pressures. This
Figure 7. Mie spray images for fuel system pressures of 5, 10, 20 and
40 [MPa], t = visible end of injection, quantity = 11 mg/pulse (Pulse injected quantity rendered a dilute spray (at the measurement
width adjusted according to fuel system pressure) location) as per requirements of the laser diffraction
measurement system.
Figure 8 presents the transient development of the spray front
penetration for various fuel system pressures, extracted from Figure 9 illustrates the marked effect of fuel pressure on the
high-speed imaging of a single injection event. For all cases, spray atomization, especially in the pressure range of 5 - 20
the injected quantity for is 11 [g/pulse], thus the data permits [MPa]. The effect of pressure on spray atomization diminishes
direct comparison of the spray penetration pertinent to a for fuel pressures higher than 20 [MPa], but without reaching
specific engine operating condition (in this case, the 2000 [rpm] an asymptotic condition at 40 [MPa].
/ 300 [kPa] point).
Hoffmann et al / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 7, Issue 1 (May 2014)
Table 1. GDi Single-Cylinder Engine Specifications The layout of the injector and spark plug results in charge
transport from injector towards the spark plug by the persisting
tumble motion during late compression and early expansion
strokes. A high speed camera [12] is connected to the
endoscope which enables a sampling rate of 8,000 frames per
second with sufficient optical resolution. Exhaust gas
particulate mass is measured by AVL-483 Micro-soot sensor
[13] and the particulate number is measured by Cambustion
DMS500 MKII fast particle analyzer [14].
The combustion test procedure entails the following: starting emissions. This is a consequence of the augmented spray-
with a clean (free of deposit) injector, the appropriate SOIs for front propagation speed with the increase of fuel system
all fuel system pressures are established through SOI sweep pressure, illustrated in Figure 8.
tests. Then, a 10 [hr] injector conditioning at 20 [MPa] fuel
pressure is performed, succeeded by the fuel pressure sweep
test. Table 2 presents the combustion test sequence: it
comprises a 10 [hr] injector conditioning at fuel pressure of 20
[MPa], followed by the fuel pressure variations of 5, 10, 20, and
40 [MPa]. The pressure sweep involves 1 [hr] operation at
each pressure step The goal is to investigate the effect of fuel
pressure, in conjunction with nozzle design and injector static
flow characteristics.
Experience has shown that strict control of the injector tip initial
clean condition, its engine conditioning process and the
combustion test parameters / procedure is critical for
comparative study of the engine particulate emissions. These
were closely monitored and followed in the present
investigation.
Figure 13. SCE hydrocarbon emission data for three injectors 6H-LF,
5H-LF and 6H-HF, at 3 fuel system pressures of 5, 20 and 40 [MPa]
Fuel Economy
Figure 14 presents the single cylinder engine net specific fuel
consumption (NSFC) data, displaying the effect of fuel system
pressure and the seat-nozzle specifications on the engine
specific fuel consumption. The trends are similar as in the
cases of PM/PN and NSFC, and show systematic reduction of
NSFC mean and cycle-to-cycle variations with the increase of
fuel pressure. There is also evidence of the influence of seat
- nozzle specification that is not diminished with the increase of
the fuel system pressure.
Figure 14. SCE net specific fuel consumption data for three injectors
6H-LF, 5H-LF and 6H-HF, at three fuel system pressures of 5, 20 and
40 [MPa]
Hoffmann et al / SAE Int. J. Engines / Volume 7, Issue 1 (May 2014)
SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK 5. Regulation (EF) No 715 /2007 of the European Parliament and
the Council of 20 June 2007, http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
The single cylinder engine combustion data shows a LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2007:171:0001:0001:EN:PDF
pronounced influence of fuel pressure on reduction of the PM 6. Commission Regulation (EU) No 459/2012 of 29 May 2012, http://
eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32012R0
and PN emissions, both the mean and the cycle-to-cycle 459:en:NOT
variations, concurrent with parallel improvements of the 7. Berndorfer, A., Breuer, S., Piock, W., and Von Bacho, P.,
gaseous emissions and fuel consumption. The data also offers “Diffusion Combustion Phenomena in GDi Engines caused by
Injection Process,” SAE Technical Paper 2013-01-0261, 2013,
evidence of significant influences of the injector static flow and doi:10.4271/2013-01-0261.
the spray pattern on the combustion and emission 8. Klauer N., Klüting M., Schünemann E., Schwarz C., Steinparzer
characteristics. F.:“BMW TwinPower Turbo Gasoline Engine Technology -
Enabling Compliance with worldwide Exhaust Gas Emissions
Requirements,” 34th Vienna Motor Symposium, 2013
The data underscore the complex relation of the injector 9. Husted, H., Spegar, T., and Spakowski, J., “The Effects of GDi Fuel
specifications, fuel system pressure and the combustion Pressure on Fuel Economy,” SAE Technical Paper 2014-01-1438,
2014, doi:10.4271/2014-01-1438.
characteristics. It is noteworthy that although the magnitude of 10. Mexus diesel and gasoline light duty shot-to-shot injection
the fuel pressure influence on the combustion characteristics measuring system, Loccioni Group, http://mobility.loccioni.com/pdf/
varies for individual injectors, overall, the effect of injector MexusDLD-GLD.pdf
11. Hung, D., Harrington, D., Gandhi, A., Markle, L. et al., “Gasoline
specifications is not diminished by the increase of the fuel Fuel Injector Spray Measurement and Characterization - A New
system pressure. SAE J2715 Recommended Practice,” SAE Int. J. Fuels Lubr.
1(1):534-548, 2008, doi:10.4271/2008-01-1068.
12. Technical documentation: MotionBLITZ EoSens ® mini1, Mikrotron
The single cylinder combustion tests were carried out with due GmbH, Germany, 2011.
care to ensure the injectors were subjected to identical 13. Technical Documentation: Micro Soot Sensor, AVLGmbH, Austria,
conditioning and tests procedure. This is an absolute 2008.
requirement to ensure the PN/PM emissions data are not 14. Technical Documentation: DMS500 MkII Transient Engine
Particulate Analyzer, Cambustion LTD, UK, 2011.
influenced by uncontrolled parameters.
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