Materials and Design 32 (2011) 4310–4315

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Materials and Design

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Analysis of temperature and speed effects on the drawing stress for improving
the wire drawing process
A. Haddi a,b,⇑, A. Imad a,c, G. Vega d
a
Univ Lille Nord de France, F-59000 Lille, France
b
Laboratoire Génie Civil et géo-Environnement (LGCgE), Faculté des Sciences Appliquées, Université d’Artois, F-62400 Béthune, France
c
Laboratoire de Mécanique de Lille, CNRS UMR 8107, Polytech’Lille, Université Lille1, Avenue Langevin, F-59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq, France
d
Nexans Research Centre, Boulevard du Marais, BP: 39, F-62301 Lens, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper deals with experimental investigations in order to study the influence of drawing conditions
Received 14 January 2011 on temperature rise and drawing stress in cold drawn copper wires. In the multipass drawing machine,
Accepted 5 April 2011 the temperature rise and drawing stress are measured with thermocouples and load cell systems, respec-
Available online 12 April 2011
tively, for different drawing speeds. The results obtained show that the drawing stress and temperature
rise vary during the drawing process. This certainly comes from the variation of the friction coefficient
Keywords: and the flow stress of the material depending on the drawing speed. From the experimental results, a
A. Non-ferrous metals and alloys
relationship between temperature rise, drawing stress and friction coefficient is built. Based on this, a
C. Drawing
G. Thermal analysis
modification of Avitzur’s model is presented. This new model can help to select the process parameters
which satisfy the conditions of minimum drawing stress for copper material.
Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction applications by measuring the friction coefficient. A method of

In the wire drawing process, the cross-section is reduced by
forcing the wire via a whole series of dies. It should be noted that
the drawing capability process depends on three main parameters:
(i) the wire material properties, (ii) the die geometries (such as die
angle and die length) and (iii) the processing conditions such as
drawing speed and friction at the interface between the die and
the wire. It is well known that in the wire drawing process, the fric-
tion phenomenon has a major influence over the wire quality on
the one hand and the die wear on the other hand. Baker and Wright
[1] have studied the effect of drawing speed on the friction phe-
nomenon during copper wire drawing using bench tests developed
by Evans and Avitzur [2]. The coefficient of friction values coming
from tests is used for the finite element simulation. Dixit and Dixit
[3] have investigated the effect of the process variables such as the
reduction ratio, the die semi-angle, the friction coefficient and the
back tension, on the drawing parameters (the die pressure, the
drawing stress). They observed that an increase in the reduction
or a decrease in the die semi-angle, or friction coefficient induces
a marked homogenization of the wire deformation. Obi and Oyinl-
ola [4] have analysed potentials of vegetable oils for metal forming
⇑ Corresponding author at: Laboratoire Génie Civil et géo-Environnement
(LGCgE), Faculté des Sciences Appliquées, Université d’Artois, F-62400 Béthune,
France. Tel.: +33 321637187; fax: +33 321611780.
E-mail address: abdelkader.haddi@univ-artois.fr (A. Haddi).
identifying the friction coefficient during the metal forming pro-
cess was proposed by Lazzarotto et al. [5] using the upsetting slid-
ing test. Campos and Cetlin [6] have evaluated the effect of die
semi-angle on the final mechanical properties of bars drawn in sin-
gle and multiple passes. These authors concluded that friction has
no influence on the uniform tensile elongation, which is basically a
function of die semi-angle and reduction in area. Also, Cetlin et al.
[7] have studied the effect of the strain path on the work hardening
of metals deformed in axisymmetric drawing. Several studies
about metal forming processes have used the finite element simu-
lation in order to calculate the drawing force and obtain strains,
stresses, or contact pressure distributions. Chen and Huang [8]
have employed the finite element method and Taguchi methods
to optimize the process parameters of the wire drawing process.
The authors have shown that the die semi-angle, the friction coef-
ficient, the length of the bearing part of the die, and the tempera-
ture have significant effects on the drawing process. Eivani and
Karimi Taheri [9] have studied the effect of die angle, friction coef-
ficient and the dead metal zone on plastic deformation using upper
bound method. A comparative study between analytical methods
and FEM results is presented by Luis et al. [10] in order to obtain
forces, energies, stresses and strains which are involved in the wire
drawing process. Two materials, copper and steel, have been tested
under different friction conditions, die angles and drawing veloci-
ties by Majzoobi et al. [11], who observed that the optimum die
angle slightly decreases with the increase of drawing velocity.

0261-3069/$ - see front matter Ó 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2011.04.010
 A. Haddi et al. / Materials and Design 32 (2011) 4310–4315
Heng-Sheng et al. [12] have investigated the effect of the mean
diameter of the workpiece and the contact length between the
deforming workpiece and the die on inhomogeneous deformation
and residual stress of mid-carbon steel through various combina-
tions of area reduction and die semi-angle. The numerical simula-
tion and experimental analysis of the mechanical behavior
experienced by a steel wire during multiple-step wire cold-draw-
ing processes have been presented Celentanoa et al. [13]. They
have shown that the force and stress curves were found to not
be affected by the drawing velocity for wiredrawing velocity values
lower than 1 mm/min, a rate-dependent material response during
the whole sequence can be clearly observed for larger values. Maj-
zoobi et al. [14] have employed the experiments and numerical
simulations to determine the optimum conditions for bar drawing.
The results shown that the optimum die angle for bar drawing is
assumed to obtain when the strain and stress distribution across
the diameter of the bar becomes uniform and that the load reaches
its minimum in the load–die angle curve. Recently, the wire draw-
ing process of copper has been studied by Vega et al. [15,16] using
experimental and numerical approaches. The obtained results have
shown that the die angle, the friction coefficient and the bearing
length significantly influence the drawing stress during the draw-
ing process of copper.
Note that the temperature distribution in the wire drawing pro-
cess depends on the initial temperature of the material and die,
heat generation due to plastic deformation and friction at the die
material interface, heat transfer between the wire and the die
and surrounding environment. Siebel and Kobitzsch [17] have
evaluated the heat generated in wire drawing. They have assumed
that the plastic deformation work per unit volume and the fric-
tional work have been converted into heat. The extension of Siebel
and Kobitzsch’s theory was presented by Snidle [18] who added
the acceleration of the wire and considered a linear variation of
the die pressure. Lucca and Wright [19] estimated the temperature
rise resulting from frictional heating in wire drawing formulating
some conjectures. They concluded that the friction coefficient, at
wire die interface, can be assumed to be constant and independent
of both pressure and temperature. The predictions of temperature
rise as a function of the friction coefficient, the reduction ratio and
the die angle have been carried out on different materials by Dom-
iaty and Kassab [20]. Their findings show a linear correlation be-
tween the temperature rise and the friction coefficient for a
constant value of the reduction ratio. No longer, Lee et al. [21] have
proposed a model to compute the wire temperature during the wet
wire drawing process. They showed that an excessive rise in the
temperature can not only cause wire-breaks during the drawing
process but also decreases the ductility of the drawn wire due to
static or dynamic strain aging. Ripoll et al. [22] have proposed a fi-
nite element model to analyse the effect of the new drawing die on
the drawing process. They concluded that with this new geometry,
no additional heating is required for the small diameter reduction
and the increase of the drawing force required by the new geome-
try is less than 3%. This means that there is no greater risk of a wire
rupture with the new die.
The main objective of this paper is to propose a new approach to
evaluate the drawing stress by leaning on a relationship between
the friction coefficient and the temperature rise resulting from
the combination of experimental and analytical methods. The tem-
perature rise is measured by thermocouples for different drawing
speeds and for a constant value of process parameters. Taking into
account the friction coefficient which is assumed to be tempera-
ture-dependent, Avitzur’s model [23,24] is modified in order to
predict the drawing stress as a function of temperature and strain
rate.
The remainder of this paper is organized as fellows. Section 2
presents the experimental procedure of the problem under
4311
consideration. Section 3 is devoted to the presentation of results
and comments. In section 4, the modified Avitzur’s model is
introduced. Finally, the major conclusions are summarized in sec-
tion 5.
2. Experimental procedure
In this section, a multipass drawing machine is used to carry out
tests involving industrial conditions. First, temperature measure-
ments as a function of die angle a, reduction ratio r, and friction
coefficient l, are carried out at different drawing speeds. This
needs the instrumentation of the process on the industrial machine
and measurement of the process parameters during the copper
wire deformation. In addition, the range of the copper wires tested
corresponds to geometries used in the wire drawing industry (the
wire-diameter used is lower than 8 mm) and the proposed test re-
quires manufacturing of dies (PCD: Poly Crystal Diamond) which
are used for specific applications, especially for fine wire drawings
and special schedules. In this work, the machine consists of 19 cap-
stans, around which the wire is wound between two consecutive
drawing operations and the 21 dies. The friction between the wire
and the capstan is created by this winding. The whole drawing sys-
tem (capstans, dies) is fully immersed in a pure oil lubricant. A cop-
per wire is drawn from a 0.524 mm diameter to 0.450 mm
(reduction ratio r = 0.264) with a velocity which varies from 1 to
7 m/s. Table 1 summarises the die geometrical parameters corre-
sponding to studied configuration in this investigation. Fig. 1
shows the geometry of the drawing die and the experimental de-
vice for measuring temperature in the deformation zone. The
experimental investigations of the wire drawing process involved
the measurement of the following process parameters: (i) die tem-
perature; (ii) drawing speed and (iii) drawing stress. Temperature
is measured using thermocouples of 0.5 mm diameter, inserted in
the die, which are located in three positions: first one near the
deformation zone (above the working cone), second one close to
the wire–die interface (above the bearing) and the third one placed
at the interface of the PCD blank and the cast. The thermocouple
locations regarding distance from the tool/workpiece interface
are about 0.2 mm for thermocouple T1 and 0.07 mm for thermo-
couple T2. Drawing stress is determined by measuring the drawing
load using a load cell system disposed on the die.
3. Results and discussion
In this section, we present experimental results coming from
the measurement made on an industrial copper wire drawing pro-
cess. Fig. 2 depicts the evolution of temperatures, T2 and T3 vs. T1 in
the die. It shows the dependence between the three temperature
evolutions which are represented by dash points and tendency
curves. An examination of this figure shows the existence of linear
correlations between these temperatures. These correlations are
formulated as follows:
T 3 ¼ T 1  0:9 ð1Þ
T 2 ¼ 1:2 T 1  3:8 ð2Þ
for which the square of the correlation coefficient R2 is 0.99.
Through, the relationship (1), we find that the temperature T3 is
almost the same as that measured at point A denoted T1, while the
Table 1
Wire–drawing parameters.
r0 (MPa) P (%) a (°) r (%) Ri (mm) Rf (mm)
430 38 8 26.24 0.262 0.225
4312 A. Haddi et al. / Materials and Design 32 (2011) 4310–4315

Die

Capstan
Copper
wire

(a)
Die

Copper wire Steel cast

α/2 PCD blank

μ
μ
σf
Heat generation of
friction
B
A C
Heat generation due to
deformation

Load cell
0.2 mm Temperature sensors
A (T1, T2, T3) Data
acquisition
Thermocouple
0.07 mm
locations
B
PC Analysis

(b)
Fig. 1. Multipass drawing machine (a) and experimental device for measuring temperature and drawing stress (b).

temperature T2 is always greater than T3. Globally, the results illus-
trated by Fig. 2 show that temperature (T2) at the measuring point
(B) appeared to be higher than temperatures at points (A) and (C)
because of the maximum plastic deformation and friction. This
means that the temperatures measured are proportional, and thus,
only one thermocouple T2 seems to be sufficient to account for
temperature field in the die. Furthermore, temperatures T1, T2
and T3 measured by thermocouples, and inserted in PCD die have
similar trends. This phenomenon shows that temperature eleva-
tions in the PCD die are more homogeneous. Therefore, the PCD
is the most die material used in the industry for copper wire
drawing.
Fig. 3 presents the evolution of the temperature (T2) and the
drawing stress vs. drawing speed. Overall, we can see that the
two curves have similar behavior. Indeed, the evolution of the
drawing stress and temperatures in function of drawing speed
highlights three main zones:
– in a first zone (0 < time < 130 s), the drawing stress and the
temperature increase substantially, from 0 to 310 MPa and from
15 °C to 50 °C, due to combination of the mechanical friction
and the oil lubricant. In this zone, the drawing speed is ranging
from 0 to 1 m/s. The rapid increase of temperature and drawing
stress brings with it major lubrication problems which are not
optimum at the start in wire drawing process. This phenome-
non may cause severe die wear at the working cone and bearing
zone. The quality of the finished wire can be reduced.
– in a second zone for which 130 s < time < 840 s, the drawing
stress and the temperature increase progressively varying from
310 to 435 MPa and from 50 °C to 68 °C. This is due to the fact
that the lubricant film thickness is present between the wire
 A. Haddi et al. / Materials and Design 32 (2011) 4310–4315 4313

60 1,6
55

Drawing stress / yield stress

1,4
50 T2 1,2
45
1
40
Temperature [°C]

0,8
35
T3
30 0,6
Experimental data
25 0,4 Linear regression

20 0,2
15
T0 = 15,4 °C 0
10 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
5 T / T0
0
Fig. 4. Drawing stress vs. temperature.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Temperature T 1 [°C]

Fig. 2. Evolution of temperature T2 and T3 vs. T1 measured by thermocouples.

4. Modification of Avitzur’s model

In this section, a new approach is proposed to evaluate the

and the die. Throughout this phase, the drawing speed increases drawing stress by modifying Avitzur model assumptions. Avitzur
to its maximum value of 7 m/s. Moreover, as the copper wire is [23,24] considers that the friction coefficient and the flow stress
deformed at an elevated temperature, better lubrication is are constant during the wire drawing process. However, our exper-
required at the interface wire–die. To fulfil this condition, a imental results show that the friction coefficient and flow stress
cooling system is used in order to maintain the temperature depend on temperature and strain rate respectively. These two
of lubricant around 15.4°. assumptions contribute to improve the drawing stress formulation
– as for the third zone where time > 840 s, it corresponds to the proposed by Avitzur.
end of the trial for which the drawing speed decreases.
4.1. Assumption 1: influence of temperature on friction coefficient
In conclusion, we can say that choosing a suitable lubrication is
required in order to optimise the drawing process and to design a The present investigation is based on Avitzur model for the
die for one specific wire drawing operation. evaluation of friction coefficient for wire drawing process. The
Of these zones, the second zone is the most important phase for coefficient of friction (l) is taken as constant for a given die geom-
the wire drawing process. The experimental results clearly show a etry under constant flow stress (r0) and independent of drawing
r
linear evolution between the relative drawing stress r0f and the speed. Based on the relationship between drawing stress and tem-
T
temperature ratio T 0 (see Fig. 4). Such a development can be de- perature (Eq. (3)), the coefficient of friction for wire drawing can be
scribed by the following linear relationship: expressed as follows:
rf T n
r0 rf ðTÞ
 o
¼ 0:44  0:5 ð3Þ þ 2f ðaÞ ln RRi þ p2ffiffi3 sina2 a  cot a
r0 T0
h 0
r f
l¼ rf ðTÞ
   i ð4Þ
It is noteworthy that this relationship highlights the effect of 2 R 1 þ r0  cot a 1  rr0b  ln RRi ln RRi
P
f f f
temperature close to the die–wire interface on the drawing stress.
It should be noted that this correlation provides a good basis for where rf(T) is the drawing stress, r0 is the flow stress, Ri is the wire
improving the Avitzur’model that predicts the stress drawing. radius in front of the die, Rf is the wire radius behind the die, a is the

80 500
Temperature T2
450
70 Drawing stress
400
60
350
Drawing stress [MPa]
Temperature T2 [°C]

50
300

40 250

200
30
150
20
0<time<130s 100
10 time>840s
130s<time<840s 50

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0

Drawing speed [m/s] End of the trial

Fig. 3. Temperature and drawing stress vs. speed.

4314 A. Haddi et al. / Materials and Design 32 (2011) 4310–4315

0,4 450
440
0,35
430

Flow stress [MPa]

0,3 Equation 4
420
Friction coefficient µ

σ0 = constant
0,25 410
σf = f(T)
400
0,2
390
0,15 380
370
0,1
σ0 = f( ε)
. 360
0,05 σf = f(T) 350
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
3,4 3,5 3,6 3,7 3,8 3,9 4 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 Drawing speed [m/s]
Temperature ratio T/T 0
Fig. 6. Flow stress vs. drawing speed.

Fig. 5. Friction coefficient vs. relative temperature for flow stress constant and
function of strain rate e_ . 4.2. Assumption 2: influence of strain rate on flow stress

die semi-angle, l is the friction coefficient, rb is the back tension (here In Fig. 5, with flow stress r0 constant, the friction coefficient
rb = 0), P is the bearing length and f(a) is an function given by values varies between 0.1 and 0.3. But, in our experimental condi-
8
> rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi tions, the oil is used as lubricant where generally a friction coeffi-
>
1 < 11 2 cient above 0.1 seems unrealistic. This is not correct physically and
f ðaÞ ¼ 2
1  cosð aÞ 1 sin a can be explained by the fact that the effect of strain rate is
sin a >
>
:
12
neglected. Therefore, it is necessary to improve this assumption
2 qffiffiffiffi 39 considering the effective flow stress as a function of strain rate.
>
>
7=
11
1 6 1 þ 12
For this, Johnson Cook law [26] has been chosen to describe this
þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ln 6 qffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi 7 ð5Þ evolution whose equation can be written as follows:
11:12 4 11
cosðaÞ þ 1  11 sin ðaÞ >
2
5>
;
12 12   
e_
r0 ðe_ Þ ¼ ðr0 ðe_ 0 ÞÞ 1 þ 0:025  ln _ ð7Þ
In this equation (Eq. (4)), drawing stress rf can be determined using e0
Eq. (3) from the knowledge of the temperature T2 measured close In our test conditions, the flow stress value varies from 300 MPa
the wire–die interface. In first approximation, the wire material (reference value for a quasi-static tensile test) to 430 MPa for wire
properties were considered to be independent from the strain rate. drawing speed of 7 m/s.
Indeed, in Eq. (4), the effective flow stress r0 is considered as a con- Fig. 6 shows the effect flow stress as a function of strain rate
stant parameter. From these assumptions, Eq. (4) allows to show ðr0 ¼ f ðe_ ÞÞ on friction coefficient. The results show a significant
dependence between the coefficient of friction and temperature. influence of the strain rate on the friction coefficient values which
Fig. 5 illustrates the evolution of the friction coefficient vs. temper- are lower for ðr0 ¼ f ðe_ ÞÞ than for r0 = constant, when similar pro-
ature ratio for flow stress constant (r0 = constant). In these condi- cess parameters are used. In such condition, the friction coefficient
tions, it is noted that the friction coefficient l increases with decreases in the range from l = 0.12–0.34 to l = 0.03–0.11. It should
increasing temperature which can be described by a power be noted that Avitzur’s model gives an overestimation of friction
function: coefficient values usually observed in the case of industrial oil used
 m in this investigation which are varying between 0.05 and 0.1.
l T
¼a ð6Þ
l0 T0
4.3. Modified Avitzur’s model
where l0 is the friction coefficient at the reference temperature T0
measured before drawing (here T0 = 15.4 °C), m and a are constant According to the assumptions described above, the modified
parameters. In our case, a = 0.01, m = 3.80 and l0 = 0.1. Avitzur model can thus be written as:

h           i
rb
rf
Ri
r0 ðe_ Þ þ 2f ðaÞ ln Rf þ p2ffiffi3 a
sin a
 cot a þ2lðTÞ cotðaÞ 1  rr0b  ln RRi ln RRi þ RP
f f f
¼ h i ð8Þ
r0 ðe_ Þ 1 þ 2lðTÞ RP
f

A similar relationship between temperature rise and friction The modified model is based on interface conditions which are
coefficient has been proposed by Lee et al. [25]. This model has assumed to be dependent of the drawing speed and temperature
been used to calculate the wire temperature during the wet wire rise caused by the wire drawing process and also are functions of
drawing process. The model has been developed in light of the the wire–die geometries and material properties.
temperature rise in the deformation zone as well as the tempera- Fig. 7 shows the result of the drawing stress according to the
ture drop in the lubricant. An excessive rise in the temperature semi-angle obtained for bearing length P = 38%, reduction ratio
during wire drawing process has not only direct impact on the r = 26.24% and for various values of l. Using modified model, it
mechanical properties of the drawn wire but also decrease the vis- can be seen that the drawing stress increases with increasing coef-
cosity of lubricate. Therefore, the thickness of the oil film is re- ficient of friction compared to Avitzur model which assumes that
duced leading to an increased coefficient of friction. the friction coefficient is taken as constant.
 A. Haddi et al. / Materials and Design 32 (2011) 4310–4315 4315

900 – The combination of the mechanical friction and the oil lubricant
T2 = 30°C implies a significant increase in the temperature.
800
T2 = 40°C – The maximum temperature is reached near the wire–die inter-
700 T2 = 50°C face because of the maximum plastic deformation and friction
Drawing stress [MPa]

T2 = 60°C phenomenon.
600
Avitzur model – The new approach exhibits accurate results demonstrating that
500 the friction coefficient depends on temperatures and the flow
stress depends on strain rate. Furthermore, the modified model
400
provides access to the optimum drawing stress through care-
300 fully selected parameters.

200

100 References

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250
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150
100
50
0
2 4 6 8
Die semi-angle α-degrees
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observe that the modified model is in good qualitative agreement
with findings of Domiaty and Kassab [20]. This suggests that the
modified Avitzur’s model provides a useful tool to select the process
parameters. These selected parameters satisfy the conditions of
minimum temperature rise and drawing stress in order to optimize
the die design and allowing to obtain the best wire quality.
5. Conclusions
A new approach has been developed to characterize interface
conditions between the copper wire and the die. This was carried
out by proposing a relationship between the friction coefficient
and the temperature rise. The important points emerging from this
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