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IRRIGATION
Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the
product of many cultures. Historically, it was the basis for economies and societies
across the globe, from Asia to the Southwestern United States.
Irrigation is the artificial application of water to land for the purpose of agricultural
production. Effective irrigation will influence the entire growth process from seedbed
preparation, germination, root growth, nutrient utilization, plant growth and regrowth,
yield and quality.
The key to maximizing irrigation efforts is uniformity. The producer has a lot of control
over how much water to supply and when to apply it but the irrigation system
determines uniformity. Deciding which irrigation systems is best for your operation
requires a knowledge of equipment, system design, plant species, growth stage, root
structure, soil composition, and land formation. Irrigation systems should encourage
plant growth while minimizing salt imbalances, leaf burns, soil erosion, and water loss.
Losses of water will occur due to evaporation, wind drift, run-off and water (and
nutrients) sinking deep below the root zone.
Proper irrigation management takes careful consideration and vigilant observation.
The availability may be of different types, but proper examination is required before
construction.
o If there is any river flowing in that area, we should know the type of river whether
it is perennial or inundation type. If it is perennial, then the water is available throughout
the year. If it is Inundation River, then study its previous yearly discharges.
Examine Topography
After investigating the water availability, topography map of the area is studied. This
study is more useful when marking the tentative alignment for irrigation project. The
behavior of agricultural lands are examined in this stage.
o The soil survey is conducted by boring and pile testing to know about the
foundation depth required.
o Sufficient basin area should be available and the capacity must fulfill the required
demand.
o The site should be easily accessible. Materials and labor should be readily
available.
o The allowable bed slope should be maintained as far as possible in the canal.
River Gauging
River gauging is measuring of water discharge at point. The point in this case where
river gauging is conducted is the site selected for project.
o The discharge of river is calculated on daily basis and the yearly discharge
records are studied.
o The HFL (high flood level) and LWL (lowest water level) are recorded based on
the old observations.
o To find out the possible silting of river bed, silt analysis is conducted, and
manorial value of fine silt is recorded.
Marking of CCM
CCM is the cultivable command area which is mainly fit for cultivation of crops. The area
under this category should be marked on the topographic map. So, the construction
should not disturb or damage this area and required demand discharge can also be
known.
o The alignment marked should cover the whole area when it is cut into canal.
o The alignment should minimize the earth filling and cutting costs.
o It should not pass through valuable agricultural lands, religious places etc.
o Magnetic bearings of lines of the traverse along the alignment are recorded.
o If there is any river across the alignment, the alignment should cut the river
across its shortest width.
Preliminary Survey of Irrigation Projects
After completion of reconnaissance survey, a good alignment is selected, and they are
allowed to conduct preliminary survey.
o Pillars are constructed on both banks of river and they represent the center line
of irrigation project.
o Similarly pillars are constructed to mark the center lines of head works for both
bank canals.
o Boring is done along the center line of irrigation structure to determine the depth
of foundation.
Final Location Survey
After preliminary survey, most economical alignment among all is selected and final
location survey is conducted. In this final stage following steps are involved:
o Center line of final alignment is marked with pillars and pegs.
Purpose of Irrigation
to grow more pastures and crops
to have more flexibility in their systems/operations as the ability to access water
at times when it would otherwise be hard to achieve good plant growth (due to a deficit
in soil moisture) is imperative. Producers can then achieve higher yields and meet
market/seasonal demands especially if rainfall events do no occur.
to produce higher quality crops/pastures as water stress can dramatically impact
on the quality of farm produce
to lengthen the growing season (or in starting the season at an earlier time)
to have 'insurance' against seasonal variability and drought.
to stock more animals per hectare and practice tighter grazing management due
to the reliability of pasture supply throughout the season
to maximize benefits of fertilizer applications. Fertilizers need to be 'watered into'
the ground in order to best facilitate plant growth.
to use areas that would otherwise be 'less productive'. Irrigation can allow
farmers to open up areas of their farms where it would otherwise be 'too dry' to grow
pasture/crops. This also gives them the capability to carry more stock or to conserve
more feed.
to take advantage of market incentives for unseasonal production
to have less reliance on supplementary feeding (grain, hay) in grazing operations
due to the more consistent supply & quality of pastures grown under irrigation
to improve the capital value of their property. Since irrigated land can potentially
support higher crops, pasture and animal production, it is considered more valuable.
The value of the property is also related to the water licensing agreements or 'water
right'.
to cost save/obtain greater returns. The cost benefits from the more effective use
of fertilizers and greater financial benefits as a result of more effective agricultural
productivity (both quality and quantity) and for 'out of season' production are likely.
Surface irrigation
Water is distributed over and across
land by gravity, no mechanical pump
involved. Surface irrigation is the oldest
form of irrigation and has been in use
for thousands of years.
In surface ( flood, or level basin)
irrigation systems, water moves across
the surface of an agricultural lands, in
order to wet it and infiltrate into the soil.
Surface irrigation can be subdivided into
furrow, border strip or basin irrigation. It is
often called flood irrigation when the
irrigation results in flooding or near
flooding of the cultivated land. Historically, this has been the most common method of
irrigating agricultural land and is still used in most parts of the world.
Localized irrigation
Water is distributed under low pressure,
through a piped network and applied to
each plant.
Drip irrigation
A type of localized irrigation in which
drops of water are delivered at or near
the root of plants. In this type of irrigation, evaporation and runoff are minimized. Drip
(or micro) irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests. In
this system water falls drop by drop just at the position of roots. Water is delivered at or
near the root zone of plants, drop by drop. This method can be the most water-efficient
method of irrigation,[33] if managed properly, evaporation and runoff are minimized. The
field water efficiency of drip irrigation is typically in the range of 80 to 90 percent when
managed correctly.
Sprinkler irrigation
Water is distributed by overhead
high-pressure sprinklers or guns
from a central location in the field
or from sprinklers on moving
platforms. In sprinkler or overhead
irrigation, water is piped to one or
more central locations within the
field and distributed by overhead
high-pressure sprinklers or guns. A
system using sprinklers, sprays, or
guns mounted overhead on
permanently installed risers is often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system. Higher
pressure sprinklers that rotate are called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear
drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle.
Guns are similar to rotors, except that they generally operate at very high pressures of
275 to 900 kPa (40 to 130 psi) and flows of 3 to 76 L/s (50 to 1200 US gal/min), usually
with nozzle diameters in the range of 10 to 50 mm (0.5 to 1.9 in). Guns are used not
only for irrigation, but also for industrial applications such as dust suppression
and logging.
Sub-irrigation
Water is distributed across land by raising
the water table, through a system of
pumping stations, canals, gates, and
ditches. This type of irrigation is most
effective in areas with high water tables.
Subirrigation has been used for many years
in field crops in areas with high water
tables. It is a method of artificially raising
the water table to allow the soil to
be moistened from below the
plants' root zone. Often those systems are
located on permanent grasslands in
lowlands or river valleys and combined with drainage infrastructure. A system of
pumping stations, canals, weirs and gates allows it to increase or decrease the water
level in a network of ditches and thereby control the water table.
Manual irrigation
Water is distributed across land through manual labor and watering cans. This system is
very labor intensive.
CANALS
Types of canals
There are two broad types of canal:
Those connecting
existing lakes, rivers, other
canals or seas and oceans.
Those connected in a city
network: such as the Canal
Grande and others
of Venice Italy; the gracht of Amsterdam, and the waterways of Bangkok.
Aqueducts: water
supply canals that are
used for the conveyance
and delivery
of potable water for human
consumption, municipal us
es, hydro power
canals and agriculture irrig
ation.
Panama Canal
Ferdinand de Lesseps
President Roosevelt
The United State’s plan was to adopt a stratified workforce, with high-level skilled labor
jobs going to white Americans, and the low-level manual labor jobs being given to
cheap immigrant workers. They initially chose workers from Spain, Greece and Italy,
however, most of these workers were radical militants and were eventually replaced by
a British and French workforce.
George Washington
After all the preparation and mending of the leftover French equipment was
complete, George Washington Goethals took over the construction of the canal. He
divided the work into three major divisions: Atlantic, Central and Pacific. The work in the
Atlantic division was overseen by William L. Sibert, the Central by David du Bose Gillard
and the Pacific by Sydney B.Williamson.
Ships moves through the Miraflores Lock of Panama Canal. Photo credit:
shutterstock
By 1907, 1 million cubic yards of land were being excavated per month, and at the peak
of production a whopping 3 million cubic yards were being moved. Four dams were also
being constructed during this time, with lengths between 150m and 2,300 meters, to
create the all important Gatun and Miraflores Lakes. The next step in this mammoth
construction was the locks. The first lock was built on August 24, 1909 in Gatun. The
locks were each made of over 1 million cubic meters of solid concrete, a huge feat at
the time of construction.
The Panama Canal was an extremely important asset to the United States, both
strategically and economically. The canal rendered the Drake Passage and Cape
Hornuseless, and cut 7,800 miles off the important shipping route from New York to San
Fransisco. A total of 75,000 people worked on the construction of the Panama Canal,
and over $375 million was spent to bring this technological marvel to life.
The Panama Canal, the connection between the Atlantic and the Pacific Ocean, is one
of the highlight of Panama. Enjoy the remarkable environment of Panama without the
hoards of tourists. Explore the rest of Central America during one of our
amazing Central America Tours.
With the canal ready to open, an April 1914 executive order abolished the ICC and
established the Panama Canal with George W. Goethals as the first governor of the
Canal Zone. Although the start of the war in Europe overshadowed it, the canal
officially opened on 15 August 1914 when the liner Ancon passed from the Atlantic to
the Pacific side. While most of the Army engineers who had worked on the canal were
there in 1914, one was missing. Lieutenant Colonel David DuBose Gaillard left
Panama in 1913 to seek medical attention in the United States. He died in Baltimore
on 5 December 1913 of a brain tumor, and in April 1915 President Woodrow Wilson
renamed Culebra Cut as Gaillard Cut in his honor.
There were rewards and honors for all for completing the canal, highlighted by the
March 1915 promotions of George W. Goethals and Harry F. Hodges to major general
and William Sibert to brigadier general. The completion of the Canal in 1914 made
Goethals an American hero and international celebrity. After serving as the Canal
Zone's first governor, he retired in 1916 as a major general. He returned to active duty
during World War I, at which time he became acting quartermaster general and head
of the War Department's Division of Purchase, Storage, and Traffic, in which
capacities the hard-driving Goethals performed logistical miracles. Returning to
civilian life he served as consulting engineer for a number of important operations,
including the Port Authority of New York.
America celebrated the opening of the canal at the 1915 Panama-Pacific Exposition in
San Francisco. The event marked both the triumph of the waterway's engineering and
the emergence of modern San Francisco newly rebuilt after the devastating 1906
earthquake and fire. The fair attracted more than 18 million people during its eleven-
month run.
Suez Canal
Construction (1859–1869)
Work started on the shore of the future Port Said on 25 April 1859.