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TOPIC -1 SOILS IN INDIA


Meaning of soil- Soil is the thin layer of loose mixture of small rock particles and decaying organic matter.
Types of soil in India

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Soil Formation Areas Characteristics Major crops

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Alluvial These soil are Northern Plain 1. it cover about 40% of the total area of India. Rice, wheat,
Soil formed by the (U.P., Punjab, 2. It is rich in minerals like potash and lime. sugarcane,
sediments Haryana, West 3. it is also called transported soil. gram, jute,

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brought down Bengal, 4. It is poor in Nitrogen and phosphorus. maize.
by rivers. Bihar),Gujarat. 5. It is also ex-situ type of soil.

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Black It is formed by Deccan lava 1. It is also known as Regur and Black cotton soil. Cotton,
Soil the weathering plateau, 2. It is rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. Sugarcane,
of igneous and Maharashtra, 3. Lack in nitrogen, phosphorus & organic matter. Oilseeds,
volcanic rocks. Gujarat, M.P., 4. It has high moisture retention capacity. Vegetables.

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Karnataka. 5. In dry season this soil develops wide cracks.
Red It is formed by Tamil Nadu, 1. It is red in colour due to presence of iron oxide. Wheat, Pulses,
Soil the weathering Telangana, 2. It is poor in nitrogen, phosphorus and humus. Millets,
of the ancient M.P, Nagaland, 3. It is not fertile but responds to fertilizers. Tobacco,
crystalline and Mizoram, 4. It contains soluble salts in small quantities. Groundnut,

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metamorphic Manipur. 5. Red soil is ideal for dry farming because it does Potatoes,
rock not require much moisture. fruits.

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Laterite It is formed due Hill summits of 1. It is also rich in iron. Tea, coffee,
Soil to intense Eastern and 2. It is poor in lime, magnesium and nitrogen. tapioca,

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leaching due to Western Ghats 3. It is acidic in nature. cashewnuts,
alternate wet Odisha, 4. It is less fertile and respond to fertilizers. Rubber, Ragi.
and dry periods. Meghalaya. 5. It is porous and does not retain moisture.

Soil Erosion
Meaning- It is removal of top layer of soil by human activities or by forces of nature such as wind and water.
Causes of Soil Erosion- Sheet erosion, Rill erosion, Gully erosion, Stream bank erosion, by wind, deforestation.
Sheet Erosion- It is caused by running water when a thin layer of soil on the surface is removed over a large area.
Rill Erosion- When sheet erosion continues for long the silt laden run off forms many finger shaped rills.
Gully Erosion- Gully erosion takes place when running water cuts deep soil in absence of vegetation.
Stream Bank Erosion- Streams change their courses by cutting one bank of depositing the silt loads on the others.
Landslide- It is a sudden downward movement of larger portion of land. It is also called Slip Erosion.
Deforestation- Cutting of trees exposes the soil to water and wind, which leads to soil erosion.
Wind Erosion- It is caused by wind. Under this top fertile soil blows away by high speed wind.
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Soil Conservation
Meaning- Soil conservation means the methodology to maintain soil fertility and prevent soil erosion.

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Methods of Soil Conservation- Terrace farming, Shelter Belts, Strip Cropping, Construction of dams, Afforestation.

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 Terrace Farming- It is a method of farming when step-like structures are created on hilly slopes.
 Shelter Belts- Farmer plant trees in several rows on the outer part of their agricultural land to stop soil erosion.

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 Strip Cropping- Crops are grown in alternate strips of land to check the impact of the winds.
 Constructing Dams- River cause soil erosion, Dams are built in upper course of rivers to control soil erosion.

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 Contour Ploughing- It is a farming technique which is used in hilly areas. It involves ploughing along the outline
of the fields in a circular manner.
Give Reasons Questions- Note- (Questions are in normal font and Answers in Italic font from word because)

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1. Alluvial soil can hold moisture and is very fertile because it is made up of fine particles and rich in potash & lime.
2. The percentage of organic matter in desert soil is very low because of the dry climate and absence of vegetation.
3. Red soil is ideal for dry farming because red soil does not require much moisture.

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4. Laterite soil is not suitable for cultivation because it is acidic in nature and lack in minerals.

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5. Alluvial soil is differs in texture because it is transported soil it is coarse in upper and fine grained in lower course.
6. Black soil does get leached because it becomes sticky after rain.

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7. Khadar soil is more fertile than Bhangar because Khadar is new alluvial soil and it replenished every year.
8. Black soil is suitable for growth of cotton because cotton grows that soil which have good water retention
Capacity which is the main feature of black soil.
9. Desert soil contains high proportion of salts because it is alkaline in nature as there is no rainfall to wash away
Soluble salts.
10. Soil erosion occurs in arid regions of India because in arid regions there is less vegetation cover.
Some Short Notes-
IN SITU SOIL- The soil which are found where they formed is called in situ soil. It is also called Residual soil.
SOIL PROFILE- A soil profile is a section showing the successive layers of the soil .
PEDOGENESIS- Pedogenesis is the science to study of the processes that lead to the formation of soil.
HUMUS- It is the organic matter present in the soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals.
TRANSPORTED SOIL- These are soils which are carried down by agents of gradation such as river. E.g. Alluvial soil.
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TOPIC- 2 NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA
Meaning- Natural vegetation refers to a plant community which has been grown naturally without human aid.

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Types of Natural vegetation in India

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Types Climatic Distribution Main Features Major Trees
Condition

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1. Heavy Rainfall of 1.Rainy parts of 1. Forest are dense with thick Ebony, Rubber,
Tropical more than 200 Western Ghats. undergrowth due to heavy rainfall and Rosewood,
Evergreen cm, Warm and 2.Hills of North humidity, so it is not properly exploited. Mahogany,

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Forest Humid areas, High East India. 2. It appears green throughout the year. Cinchona,
Temperature 3. Andaman 3. Height of trees about 60 mt or above. Chaplas, etc.
average 26 C. Nicobar Island. 4. Trees provide hard, durable Timber.
2. Moist Deciduous- Moist Deciduous 1. Trees shed their leaves during spring M.D. –Teak,

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Tropical 100-200 cm rain Foothills of and early summer season. Sal
Deciduous Dry Deciduous- Himalaya, Odisha 2. They are economically or Shisham,
Forest 70-100 cm rainfall Jharkhand commercially most important forest. Mahua,
Dry Deciduous- 3. Most widespread forest in India. Sandalwood.
Rainier parts of 4. Each species has its own time of D.D.- Tendu,

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Peninsula, shedding leaves. Banyan, Neem,
U.P.,Bihar. Peepal, Palas.

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3. Rainfall less than Rajasthan, 1. The trees are smaller in size with Ber, Cactus,
Tropical 70 cm, average Gujarat, SW parts Scrub like appearance. Neem,

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Thorn temp- 25-27 C, of Haryana, 2. Plant remain leafless or less leaf for Date Palm,
Forest Humidity less than Punjab and U.P., most part of the year. Babool,
50% M.P,Chhattisgarh. 3. They have long roots to tap moisture. Khair, etc.
4. Tropical and Deltas of Ganga, 1. These are common variety with roots Sundari tree,
Littoral or Sub-tropical Mahanadi, of the plants submerged with water. Agar, Amur,
Mangrove Climate. Godavari, Krishna 2. They can survive both fresh and saline Keora,
Forest and Kaveri river Water. Rizophora, etc.
5. As the climatic 1. The Northern 1. Various mixed species of coniferous Oak, Chestnut,
Montane conditions change Himalaya Trees are found at varying height and Chir Pine,
Forest with altitude so Mountains- rainfall regions. Blue Pine,
does the 2. The southern 2. above height of 4000 mt Tundra type Deodar, Silver
vegetation types Mountains. Of vegetation are found. Fir, Cedar,
change. Junipers, etc.
Relation of Forest with environment
1. Forest moderate the climate of the region by affecting temperature, humidity and precipitation in the region.
2. Forest purify the air around us by absorbing the atmospheric Carbon di oxide. It minimizes the air pollution.
3. Trees act as a wind breaker as they break the velocity of wind and running water to minimize soil erosion.
4. Trees reduce run off and increase percolation, it increases ground water level.
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Forest Conservation
Need of Forest Conservation-

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1. To maintain environmental stability and to restore forests where ecological
balances were disturbed.

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2. To prevent soil erosion and reduction of floods and droughts.
3. To increase productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder, food available to rural people.

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Forest Conservation Methods –
1. Increase forest cover by undertaking reforestation and afforestation.
2. Total ban on Shifting cultivation and restriction on overgrazing.

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3. Increasing people participation in this regard by bringing the necessary awareness among them regarding the
needs and benefits of forest.
Social Forestry- It is management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands for environmental,

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Social and rural development.
It is described as forestry of the people, forestry by the people and forestry for the people.
Agro Forestry- Agro forestry is the part of social forestry and represents the intermediate stage between forestry
and agriculture. It means raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land. The main objective of agro

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forestry is to reduce pressure on natural forests to meet demand for various forest products.
Use of important Trees.

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1. Sandalwood- It is used for making statues, ornaments and its oil used in cosmetics industry and perfumes.
2. Teak- It is used for manufacturing of furniture, ship building. Its wood is hard and durable.

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3. Sal- It is considered most suitable for railway sleepers, doors and windows of houses.
4. Sundari- The sundari trees provide hard durable timber for making boat.
5. Shisham- It is used for constructing purposes for making furniture, bullock carts, musical instruments etc.
6. Mahogany- It is a hard durable timber used for ship building and furniture making.
7. Deodar- It is medium weight wood which is used for making beams, window frames and railway sleepers.
8. Tendu- Tendu leaves are uses as wrappers for Bidi making.
9. Neem- It is a medicinal tree. Its leaves are used to manufacture health and beauty products.
Name the Natural Vegetation
1. Found in western slopes of Western Ghats Tropical Evergreen Forest
2. Found leeward side or Eastern slopes of Western Ghats Tropical Moist Deciduous Forest
3. Found Delta regions of many rivers Littoral or Mangrove Forest
4. Found in the Parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat Tropical Thorn Forest
5. Found in the Plain areas of U.P. and Bihar Tropical Deciduous Forest
6. Hintal, Sundari and Agar trees belongs to- Mangrove or Littoral Forest
7. Chirpine, Bluepine ,Deodar, Fir and Chestnut belongs to- Montane Forest
8. Rosewood, Ebony, Mahogany and Chaplas belongs to- Tropical Evergreen Forest
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TOPIC- 3 WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA
Irrigation- Irrigation refers to the process of watering of agricultural plants through artificial means as well, tanks.
Need for Irrigation in India-

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1. Uncertainty of rainfall 2. Uneven distribution of rainfall 3. Some crops require more water than other
4. Some soils don’t absorb as much water as others 5. To maximize agricultural productivity.

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Means of Irrigation

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a. WELLS - A well is a small hole dug in the surface of the earth to obtain water from subsoil for irrigation.
Suitable conditions- 1. Higher water table, not more than 10-15 mt deep 2. Softer soil which can be easily dug.
Areas- Northern Plains, U.P. Bihar, Haryana etc.

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Why in Northern Plains? a. Underground water table is high.
b. Region has alluvial soil which is soft and easy to dig.
Advantages- 1. Wells can be dug at a very low cost it is helpful for poor farmers.

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2. It occupies less space.
Disadvantages- 1. Evaporation is high for unlined wells.
2. Open well irrigates relatively small area in comparison to tube wells and canals.
b. TUBE WELLS - These are deep bores drilled into the ground manually or with a machine.

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Areas- U.P. Bihar, Haryana, West Bengal etc.
Advantages- 1. Can irrigate larger area of land- 300 hectares at a time.

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2. Salinity level in these wells is low due to zero evaporation.

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Disadvantages- 1. It is costlier than open wells.
2. It Needs electricity.
c. CANAL- There are two types of canals- i. Perennial Canals ii. Inundation or Seasonal Canals
i. Perennial Canals- These canals are taken out from the perennial rivers by constructing barrages.
Advantages- 1. These canal provide water for irrigation throughout the year.
2. They provide a mode of cheap inland water transport.
Disadvantages- 1. Canal construction involves greater construction cost.
2. Lots of cultivable land is wasted by means of constructing canals.
ii. Inundation Canals- These are also known as ‘flood canals’ or ‘Non Perennial canals’.
Advantages- 1. They are useful in controlling floods.
Disadvantages- 1. Water supply is seasonal. They supply water only during flood season.
Areas- Rajasthan, UP, Haryana, Bihar, Punjab.
d. TANKS- A tank is generally a hollow area or depression on the ground where rainwater gets collected.
Areas- Peninsular India especially Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka etc.
Why in Peninsular Plateau? Because in peninsular India-
i. Existence of hard bedrock make it difficult to dig canals and wells.
ii. Limited percolation due to hard rock structure.
Advantages- 1. Tanks conserve rainwater by minimizing surface runoff.
2. Construction cost of a tank is generally low as compared to canals.
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Disadvantages- 1. Tanks are large open spaces where rain water is stored, much of water is evaporated.
2. They depend on monsoon for water. If monsoon fails, tank irrigation fails.

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FURROW IRRIGATION- water is made to flow through narrow channel made between the rows of cultivated crops.
Advantages- 1. Ensure even distribution of water 2. More scientific method

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Disadvantages- 1. Takes more time to construct. 2. It is costlier method.

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SPRINKLER IRRIGATION- It comprises a long hose whose one end is joined to a water resource while the other end
is joined to the sprinklers.

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Advantages- 1. Less wastage of water. 2. Field leveling is not necessary
Disadvantages- 1. It can irrigate lesser area. 2. It is costlier mode of irrigation.
DRIP IRRIGATION- Water is provided directly to the roots of the plants by means of thin pipes.

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Advantages- 1. It is most advanced and efficient method. 2. Least evaporation and wastage of water.
Disadvantages- 1. Can be only used for commercial farming. 2. Very costly.
Need for Water Conservation-

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1. The over exploitation of underground water often results in the lowering of water table.

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2. Irrigation utilizes more than 90% of the total fresh water.

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Watershed Management- Watershed management refers to the efficient management and conservation of both
the surface and groundwater resources. It includes prevention of runoff water and
storage and recharge of groundwater by various methods like recharge wells, bore wells.
Rainwater Harvesting- A technique of increasing the recharge of ground water by capturing and storing rain water.
Methods of RWH- 1. Surface runoff harvesting 2. Rooftop rainwater harvesting
Objectives or Need for RWH- 1. To meet increasing demand for water 2. To raise underground water tables.
3. To reduce ground water pollution 4. To reduce soil erosion.
Advantages of RWH- 1. Provide self-sufficiency to water supply.
2. Reduces soil erosion in urban areas.
3. Improves the quality of groundwater through dilution when recharged to ground water.
4. It reduces the loss of fresh water by surface run-off.
Methods of Groundwater Recharge- 1. Recharge Pits 2. Borewells Dugwells recharge
3. Percolation Pits 4. Recharge Trenches
Major states where Rainwater Harvesting is practiced-
Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Meghalaya, Karnataka etc.
Note- RWH= Rain Water Harvesting
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TOPIC-4 MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES
MINERAL USES MAJOR PRODUCER STATES

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IRON 1. It is used in manufacturing of iron and steel. 1. Odisha (Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj)
ORE 2. It is used for making machines, agricultural implements. 2. Jharkhand (Singhbhum)

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3. Iron plays an important role in transport industry 3. Chhattisgarh (Bastar, Durg)
MANGANESE 1. Manganese is used to make steel tough. 1. Maharashtra (Nagpur)
2. Manganese is used in dry cell batteries. 2. Madhya Pradesh (Balaghat)

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COPPER 1. It is used in automobile and defence industry. 1. Rajasthan (Alwar)
2. It is used for making wires, cables and electrical machinery 2. Madhya Pradesh ( Balaghat)

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BAUXITE 1. Bauxite is main source of aluminium, which is light weight, 1. Odisha (Koraput)
Strong and durable. 2. Chhattisgarh (Bilaspur)
2. Aluminium is used in aircrafts and automobiles industry. 3. Maharashtra (Kolhapur)

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Types of Iron Ore- 1. Magnetite (It has more than 70 % iron content and has highest magnetic properties)
2. Haematite (It is red in color and called reddish ore. It has 60-70% iron)
3. Limonite (Yellow color ore, 35-50% iron)
4. Siderite (Lowest quality of iron ore, less than 35 % iron content)

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CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY
SOURCE ADVANTAGES/USES DISADVANTAGES MAJOR AREAS

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COAL 1.Coal is used to produce thermal 1. The burning of coal releases 1. Chhattisgarh
Electricity. 100 pollutants. 2. Jharkhand

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2. Good quality of coal is used to 2. It is the largest source of sulfur 3. Tamil Nadu
smelt iron ore. di oxide which cause acid rain. 4. Jammu Kashmir
PETROLEUM 1.It is used as fuel in various forms 1. The burning of petroleum emits 1. Mumbai High
Such as petrol, diesel, kerosene etc. large amounts of green house 2. Digboi (Assam)
2. Petroleum is also used for power gases e.g. Carbon di oxide. 3. Ankaleshwar
generation in India. 2. It is non-renewable fuel source. (Gujarat)
NATURAL 1. It is used in domestic, industrial and 1. It is highly inflammable and 1. Mumbai High
GAS Transport segments as a fuel. Cause dangerous fire accidents. 2. Gujarat
(C.N.G. and 2. It is environmentally clean. 2. It is non-renewable source of 3. Assam
L.P.G.) 3. It is not expensive as other burning Energy. 4. Andhra Pradesh
fuels. 3. Gives lesser mileage than petrol 5. Tamil Nadu.

TYPES OF COAL- Coal is also called Black gold. The major types of coal are as follows-
1. Anthracite (90% carbon)- It gives maximum heat and less smoke. In India mostly found in Jammu & Kashmir.
2. Bituminous (60-80% carbon)- This type of coal is more found in India than others. (Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh).
3. Lignite (40-60% carbon)- It is third in quality. It is also known as brown coal. (Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan).
4. Peat (less than 40% carbon)- It is inferior to the other three varieties of coal.
Major Coal sites - Jharia, Bokaro and Dhanbad (Jharkhand), Raniganj (West Bengal), Nevaly (Tamil Nadu).
Major Oil Refineries- Jamnagar (Gujarat), Barauni (Bihar), Guwahati (Assam), Mumbai (Maharashtra).
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Multipurpose project- A Multipurpose project is that which serves several purposes at same time. For example,
Flood control, irrigation, hydroelectricity generation, navigation, fishing and tourism.
MAJOR DAMS

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DAMS 1. BHAKHRA NANGAL DAM 2. HIRAKUD DAM
River It is located on Sutluj river. It is located on Mahanadi river.

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State Partners Punjab and Himachal Pradesh Odisha
States Benefiting Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi Odisha, Chhattisgarh and M.P.

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Irrigation Capacity It irrigates 15 lakh hectare land. It irrigates 10 lakh hectares land
Power Generation 1480 Megawatt 270 Megawatt
Power Houses Gangual, Kotla and Rupnagar Hirakud Power House and Chiplima

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NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ENERGY
SOURCES POWER GENERATION ADVANTAGES
1. Solar Solar energy can be converted into thermal energy using 1.It can be stored and used even at

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Energy Solar photovoltaic technology. night.
When sunlight strikes a silicon semiconductor it causes 2. It does not cause any pollution as there
electrons to flow, creating electricity. is no residue generated in this process.
2. Wind The wind-mill turbines are rotated by the force of wind 1. It can be produced even at night and

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Energy blowing across. The wind turns the blades of turbine, during all seasons depend upon wind.
which spins a shaft, which connects to a generator and 2. It does not cause any pollution as there

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makes electricity. is no residue generated in this process.
3. Geo- Geo-Thermal energy is the energy produced by using the 1. The maintenance cost of geo-thermal

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Thermal heat from the interior of the earth. plants is very less.
Energy Geo-thermal plants are located in Kullu (Himachal 2. It does not cause any pollution as there
Pradesh), Puga Valley (Jammu and Kashmir). is no residue generated in this process.
4. Tidal The kinetic energy produced by the ebbing and surging 1. It is renewable energy source.
Energy of ocean tides moves the turbines as it passes through 2. It does not cause any pollution as there
them. This results in the generation of electricity. is no residue generated in this process.
5. Nuclear Nuclear energy is obtained by the process of 1. It can produce even in night and
Energy Nuclear Fusion. throughout the year.
The main two source are Uranium and Thorium. 2. It can generate huge quantity of power.
6. Biogas Biogas is the energy obtained from organic waste which 1. It is a clean source of energy which
Energy is converted into energy by direct combustion or by helps in reducing waste accumulation
conversion of such wastes into methane or other in the environment.
storage fuels. 2. It is a cheap source of energy.

Difference between Conventional and Non-Conventional sources of energy


Conventional sources of energy Non-Conventional sources of energy
1. These are non-renewable source of energy. e.g. coal. 1. These are renewable source of energy. e.g. wind.
2. They will end after hundreds of years. 2. They will never end. They will be forever.
3. These cause air and water pollution. 3. These do not cause any pollution.
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TOPIC- 5 AGRICULTURE IN INDIA
Types of Agriculture:
A. Shifting Cultivation- In this type of agriculture a clearing is made in the forest by cutting and burning the trees.

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When the fertility of the soil decreases farmers shifts to new region. It is wasteful method.
B. Subsistence Farming- In this method farmers use traditional method of cultivation. Land holdings are small

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and scattered. The output is not very high and it is consumed within the family.
C. Plantation Farming- In plantation agriculture a single crop is grown on a large farm or estate throughout the

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the year. e.g. Tea, Coffee, Rubber etc.
D. Mixed Farming- Cultivation of crops along with livestock rearing is practiced in this type of farming. For
Example- Dairy farming, poultry, sheep rearing etc.

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E. Commercial Farming- In this type of farming crops are grown mainly for sale in the market. These crops are
known as Cash crops. e.g. Sugarcane, cotton, oilseeds etc.
Crop Seasons in India:
A. Kharif (Rainy)- Crops are sown in June- July and harvested in October- November. E.g. Rice, maize, millets.

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B. Rabi (Winter)- Crops are sown in November- December and harvested in March-April. E.g. Wheat, Mustard.
C. Zaid (Summer)- Crops are sown in April and harvested in June. E.g. Watermelon, Cucumber, Melon .
Characteristics of Indian Agriculture:
1. Indian agriculture is a gamble of Monsoon. It means Agriculture is dependent upon monsoon.

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2. Old methods of cultivation are used in most parts of the India.
3. India have three major crop seasons- Rabi, Kharif and Zaid.

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Problems of Indian Agriculture:
1. Lack of adequate research in the agricultural sector.

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2. Erosion of soil by rain, floods, insufficient vegetation cover.
3. Inadequate use of manures and fertilizers.
FOOD CROPS OF INDIA
CROPS TEMP. RAINFALL SOIL MAJOR STATES MAIN FEATURES
Rice 20-26 C 150-300 cm Alluvial soil with 1.West Bengal 1. It is grown by Broadcasting, Dibbling,
(Kharif) clayey subsoil 2. U.P. Transplant and Japanese methods.
Wheat 10- 15 C 80- 100 cm Well drained Alluvial 1. U.P. 1. It is grown by Dibbling and
(Rabi) and Black soil. 2. Punjab Broadcasting method.
Millets 25-30 C 50-80 cm Can be grown in less 1. Karnataka 1. It is known as ‘Dry crops’.
fertile soil e.g. Red soil 2. Tamil Nadu 2. Jowar, Bajra and Ragi are main types.
Pulses 20- 30 C 50-75 cm Dry, light soil 1. U.P. 2. M.P. 1.These are main sources of Protein.
3. Maharashtra 2. Arhar, moong, urad, masur are main.

Methods of Cultivation-
a. Broadcasting- In this method seeds are scattered all over the field by hand after ploughing the field.
b. Dibbling- It refers to sowing of seeds at regular intervals in ploughed field.
c. Drilling- In this method, seeds are sown in the furrows with the help of drill made of a bamboo.
d. Transplanting- In this method seedling are first grown in nurseries and after 4-5 weeks when saplings attain
25-30 cm height they are removed and transplant into ploughed and flooded field.
e. Japanese- It is improved version of the transplantation method. It is mainly used in Rice cultivation.
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CASH CROPS IN INDIA
CROPS TEMP. RAINFALL SOIL PRODUCERS MAIN FEATURES
Sugar- 21-27 C 100-150 cm Well drained Alluvial

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1.Uttar Pradesh a. By products are Mollases, bagasse.
Cane Soil, Black soil 2.Maharshtra b. Main products are Gur, Sugar, Khandsari.
Cotton 21-30 C 50-75 cm Black soil 1.Gujarat a.The seeds which are obtained from cotton

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(Kharif) Clayey in nature 2.Maharashtra after Ginning are used to obtained oil.
Jute 24-32 C 150-200 cm Khadar soil 1. West Bengal a. The main products of jute are rope, sacks,

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(Kharif) (Rich Alluvial Soil) 2. Bihar strings etc.
Tea 22-30 C 150-250 cm Laterite soil 1. Assam a. Tea is grown on hilly slopes (600-1500 mt)
2. West Bengal b. Transplant and Cloning methods are used.

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Coffee 16-28 C 150-200 cm Red and Laterite soil 1. Karnataka a. There are three varieties of coffee- ARABICA,
2. Kerala ROBUSTA and LIBERICA.
Ground- 20-25 C 50-75 cm Light sandy, Red and 1. Gujarat a. It is sown in June-July and harvested in Oct-
Nut Black soil 2. U.P. December.
Mustard 10-20 C 25-50 cm Alluvial Soil 1. Rajasthan a. It is used in cooking.

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2. U.P 3. M.P. b. It is grown with wheat, gram in North India.
Soyabean 20-25 C 50-70 cm Soil which have 1. M.P. a. It is rich in protein.
moisture retentive 2. Maharashtra b. Edible oil is obtained by seeds.

Some Other Terms-

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1. Ratooning- It is related to sugarcane cultivation. In this method during the first harvest the sugarcane is cut

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leaving a little bit of the stalk in the soil with roots. The stalk soon puts out new shoots or ratoons.
2. Retting- After harvesting jute is bundled together and immersed in soft water. This process makes the

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separation of the bark from jute stalk easy.
3. Ginning- It is the separation of seeds from cotton fibers.
4. Sluicing- It is the process of separating the good coffee berries from impurities such as bad berries, sticks.
5. Pruning- It is the method when Tea branches are cut off. This method encourages the growth of tea plants.
6. Oilcake- The residue left behind after crushing oilseeds. It is used for cattle feeding.
7. Roasting- Roasting is done to improve the flavor and taste of coffee. Roasting gives brown colour to coffee.
8. Withering- Tea leaves are spread are first withered or dried in the sun to remove moisture and make the
leaves soft and flexible.
9. Setts- Setts are cutting of healthy sugarcane into two or three joints.
Give Reasons Questions- Note- (Questions are in normal font and Answers in Italic font from word because)

1. Tea is grown mainly on hilly slopes because the roots of tea plant cannot tolerate stagnant water.

2. Ratoon cropping is popular in sugarcane because ratoons mature earlier and cost of production is much lower.
3. Millets are called ‘Dry crops’ because millets need less rainfall 50-80 cm.
4. Jute is known as golden fibre because of its colour and its economic importance as it earns foreign exchange.
5. Bajra is grown in Rajasthan because bajra grows also in desert soil which is found in Rajasthan.
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TOPIC-6 TRANSPORT IN INDIA
Transport is a means or a system to carry people and goods from one place to another.
Importance of Transport-

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1. Transport helps in the better utilisation of the resources of the backward areas.
2. The availability of cheap modes of transport reduces cost of production of goods and services.

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3. It helps in minimising the effects of natural disasters.
4. Develop modes of transport promote faster industrialisation by enabling quick movement of raw materials.

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MODES OF TRANSPORT
A. ROADWAYS- India has 2nd largest road network. It has approximately 47 lakh km roads.

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Types of roads.
Name Features Built and maintained by
National Highways These connects the state capitals ,big cities Central Public Works Department
State Highways It join the state capital with district headquarters State Public Works Department

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District Roads It links the district centres with the major roads. Zila Parishad
Rural Roads It connect villages with the neighbouring towns Village Panchayats.
Border Roads It strengthen defence preparedness. Border Road Organisation
Golden Quadrilateral- It is a six lane super highway connectivity between the 4 metropolitan cities of India that is

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Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. Its length is 5846 kilometers.
North- South Corridor- It links Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanyakumari (Tamil Nadu). It is 4076 km long.

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East- West Corridor- It links Silchar (Assam) and Porbandar (Gujarat). It is 3640 km long road.
PMGSY - Pradhan Mantri Gramin Sadak Yojna is a programme launched in year 2000 by Government of India to

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Provide connectivity to rural areas as part of a poverty eradication measures.
B. RAILWAYS- India is 4th largest in rail network in world. The first rail ran in 1853 from Bombay to Thane.
Railways are divided into 17 Railway zones with their headquarters being spread all over India.
It carries 80% of total freight of the country. It provides employment to 2 million people.
Types of Rail Tracks-
1. Broad Gauge: In this type of track the distance between the rails is 1.67 metre.
2. Metre Gauge: In this the distance between the rails is 1 metre. It is mainly found in U.P. Bihar, Rajasthan.
3. Narrow Gauge: The distance between the rails is 0.76 to 0.62 metres. It is found in hilly regions.
C. WATERWAYS- It is the oldest and cheapest mode of transport in India. Indian Waterways may be divided into
Two categories- a. Inland Waterways b. Coastal/Oceanic Waterways
a. Inland Waterways- Inland waterways include rivers, canals which are deep enough to allow the small ships,
and boats to navigate safely. The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) has declared
three major National Waterways.
NATIONAL WATERWAYS
Waterways Stretch Length River/Canal
NW-1 Allahabad to Haldia 1620 km Ganga and Hoogly River
NW-2 Sadia to Dhubri 891 km Brahmaputra River
NW-3 Kollam to Kottapuram (Kerala) 205 km Champakara and Udyogmal Canal
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b. Oceanic Waterways- India has a long coastline of 7516 km with 13 major ports and 185 minor ports.
The major 13 ports handle about 80% of our foreign trade.
Seaports of Western Coast of India – 1. Kandla (Gujarat) 2. Mumbai (Maharashtra) 3. Jawahar lal Nehru Port

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4. Marmagao (Goa) 5. New Mangalore (Karnataka) 6. Kochi (Kerala)
Seaports of Eastern Coast of India- 1. Kolkata (West Bengal) 2. Paradip (Odisha) 3. Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Prad)

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4. Chennai (T.N.) 5. Ennore (T.N.) 6. Tuticorin (T.N.)

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Seaports on Island of India - Port Blair (Andaman and Nicobar Island groups)
D. AIRWAYS- Air transport is the fastest mode of transport. There are 24 International and 86 domestic airports.
Airport Authority of India (AAI) established on April 1 st 1995 is the nodal agency responsible for

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providing safe, efficient traffic services.
There are three types of Air services in the country:
1. Air India (Air India Limited)

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2. Private Operators (Indigo, Go Airways, Paramount Airways, Spice Jet etc.)
3. Pawan Hans Helicopter limited – It provides helicopter services mainly for off shore operations by ONGC.
It is also providing facilities during natural calamities and in tourism.

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MODE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Roadways 1. Roads can be constructed even in areas of difficult 1. Road transport is not suitable for long

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Terrain, remote areas and where railway lines distances.
do not exists. 2. For bulk transport, roadways are more
2. Roads offers door to door service. expensive than railways and waterways.

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3. The success of other modes of transport depends on 3. Rapid rise in the number of road vehicle
the availability of road connectivity. is the main factor for air pollution.
Railways 1. Easy and quick transport to carry bulky goods. 1. Rail transport lacks flexibility of routes.
2. Railway facilitate easy movement of police, troops tracks cannot be laid in difficult terrain.
and defence equipments. 2. Train travel can be very long and
3. It provides the most comfortable and cost effective tedious, especially when compared to
long distance transport for people of country. air travel.
4. Rail travel is safer and comfortable. 3. They are great cause of noise pollution.
Waterways 1. It is the cheapest mode of transport. 1. It needs long travelling hours and hence
2. It is fuel-efficient mode in comparison to rail & road. time consuming.
3. It is an ideal mode to transport heavy and bulky 2. Water transport is limited to the areas
goods. where rivers are navigable and oceanic
4. It is safer and has lesser traffic than road and rail. routes exist.
Airways 1. It is the fastest mode of transport. 1. Air transport is very costly.
2. Aeroplanes can cross mountain barriers, sandy 2. It depends on weather conditions.
deserts, sea or thick forest. Flights are delayed due to bad weather.
3. It is used to air-lift people from the affected areas 3. Air transport is run on petroleum which
and to air drop food, medicines and other is non-renewable source of energy.
necessary things to calamity affected people. 4. It cannot carry bulky goods.

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