International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 42 (2007) 381 – 390

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A three-dimensional non-linear constitutive law for magnetorheological

fluids, with applications
A. Dorfmann a,∗ , R.W. Ogden b , A.S. Wineman c
a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA
b Department of Mathematics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QW, UK
c Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA

Received 29 September 2006; received in revised form 2 March 2007; accepted 2 March 2007

Abstract
In this paper we first summarize the magnetic and mechanical balance equations for magnetorheological fluids undergoing steady motion
in the presence of a magnetic field. A general three-dimensional non-linear constitutive law for such a fluid is given for the case in which the
magnetic induction vector is used as the independent magnetic variable. The equations are needed for the analysis of boundary-value problems
involving fluids with dispersed micron-sized ferrous particles subjected to a time-independent magnetic field. For illustration, the equations are
applied, in the case of an incompressible fluid, to the solution of some basic problems. We consider unidirectional flow in a region confined
by two infinite parallel plates with a magnetic field applied perpendicular to the plates. Next, we examine two problems involving a circular
cylindrical geometry with the fluid occupying the region between two concentric cylinders: axial flow subjected to an axial magnetic field and
circumferential flow with a circumferential field. After making some simplifying assumptions on the constitutive law and choosing material
parameters, numerical solutions for the velocity profiles are illustrated.
䉷 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Magnetorheological fluids; Constitutive laws; Steady magnetorheological flow

1. Introduction application of a magnetic field is provided in the recent book

Magnetorheological (MR) fluids respond to an applied mag-
netic field with a rapid change in their rheological properties.
The MR response results from the polarization of suspended
micron-sized ferrous particles by the application of an ex-
ternal magnetic field. The interaction between the result-
ing induced dipoles causes the particles to form columnar
(chain-like) structures, parallel to the applied magnetic field.
These structures hinder the motion of the fluid, thereby increas-
ing the viscosity characteristics of the suspension. The mechan-
ical energy needed to produce yielding of the material increases
with the applied magnetic field, resulting in a field-dependent
yield stress. A detailed review of the interparticle interaction
and of the changes of viscous properties in MR fluids due to the
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 617 627 6137; fax: +1 617 627 3994.
E-mail address: Luis.Dorfmann@tufts.edu (A. Dorfmann).
by Odenbach [1].
Typically, the change in properties is manifested by the de-
velopment of a yield stress that increases monotonically with
the magnetic field. Materials with a yield stress are sometimes
referred to as viscoplastic materials and their constitutive
properties are frequently described by a generalized Bingham
model (see, for example, [2–6]). In the review article by Bird
et al. [2] the velocity profile of a material with a yield stress for
different boundary conditions is determined and it is shown that
a generalized Bingham viscoplastic model describes the mo-
tion fairly well. The velocity profile develops a central region,
known as a plug flow region, where the material moves at con-
stant speed. Brodkey [5] and Bird et al. [2], for example, show
that the velocity profile of a laminar flow through a circular
conduit with magnitude of the shear stress greater than some
critical value is flat in the central region where the material
moves as an elastic solid. The velocity profile in the outer lay-
ers corresponds to a non-Newtonian fluid and may be described

0020-7462/$ - see front matter 䉷 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijnonlinmec.2007.03.002
382 A. Dorfmann et al. / International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 42 (2007) 381 – 390
by an appropriate power law. The flow of a Bingham-like ma-
terial through a cylindrical duct with rectangular cross section
was analyzed by Taylor and Wilson [3]. The analytical formu-
lation in [3] shows that for increasing values of the yield stress
the central plug region increases in size and additional no-flow
areas near the corners develop. Eventually, the central and cor-
ner regions join to form a large elastic solid with narrow high
strain flow bands remaining along the sides of the rectangular
tube. For an additional increase in yield stress, the unyielded
region occupies the entire cross-section and the flow of ma-
terial ceases. Thus, MR fluids have some features in common
with viscoplastic materials.
Interest in MR fluids derives from their ability to provide
rapid-response interfaces between electronic controls and me-
chanical systems. In recent years reports in the literature have
featured a wide range of potential applications, as exempli-
fied in the papers by Carlson et al. [7], Carlson and Jolly [8],
Felt et al. [9], Jolly et al. [10,11], Lazareva et al. [12], Mohebi
et al. [13], Nakano et al. [14] and Weiss et al. [15].
The theoretical foundations for a continuum in the presence
of an electromagnetic field have been provided by, for example,
Brown [16], Pao [17] and Truesdell and Toupin [18]. They are
also summarized, in differing degrees of generality, by Hutter
[19], Rajagopal and Wineman [4], Rajagopal et al. [20], Ceccio
and Wineman [21], Wineman and Rajagopal [22], Rajagopal
and Růz̆ic̆ka [23] and Brigadnov and Dorfmann [24], in the
monographs by Eringen and Maugin [25], Rosensweig [26] and
Růz̆ic̆ka [27], and in the textbook by Kovetz [28].
Hutter [19] develops a general thermodynamic framework for
the analysis of electro- and MR fluids and deformable solids, in
particular, showing the equivalence of different formulations of
the second law of thermodynamics depending on the selection
of the electromagnetic interaction model. The theories devel-
oped in [19] seem to be rather difficult to apply to the solution
of specific boundary-value problems.
The contributions of Rajagopal and Wineman [4], Rajagopal
et al. [20], Ceccio and Wineman [21], Wineman and Rajagopal
[22], Rajagopal and Růz̆ic̆ka [23] focus on the response of
electrorheological fluids. Rajagopal and Wineman [4] develop
a three-dimensional constitutive equation for the total stress
tensor within the framework of continuum mechanics. How-
ever, no constitutive equation is provided to couple the electric
field to the deformation rate. Also, the requirements to satisfy
Maxwell’s equations in the fluid as well as in the surrounding
space and the continuity of the traction, including the contri-
bution of the Maxwell stress, across the material interface are
not addressed.
In Rajagopal et al. [20] the electrorheological material is
considered as a mixture of fluid and solid particulate media.
They define a body force, which accounts for the interaction
between the constituents and incorporates such effects as drag,
virtual mass, buoyancy and lift. Three-dimensional constitutive
equations are given for the partial stresses in the fluid and the
granular solid. Again, no constitutive equation for the electric
field in terms of an independent electric vector variable and
the deformation rate is included. Ceccio and Wineman [21] use
the theory developed in [4] to study the flow between parallel
plates with an applied electric field having components nor-
mal and/or parallel to the fluid velocity. Experimental data are
used by Wineman and Rajagopal [22] to validate the constitu-
tive equation for the stress tensor; however, therein the electric
field is again treated as a constant and the interaction between
the electric field and the deformation rate is not accounted for.
The full electro-dynamical theory developed by Rajagopal and
Růz̆ic̆ka [23] is used to derive the governing equations for an
electrorheological fluid with the electric field treated as a vari-
able satisfying Maxwell’s equations.
Maxwell’s equations and the mechanical and thermodynam-
ical balance laws are used by Brigadnov and Dorfmann [24] to
derive a general three-dimensional constitutive formulation for
the total stress tensor in MR fluids. However, no explicit con-
stitutive formulation is given in [24] for describing the highly
non-linear interaction between the deformation rate and the in-
dependent magnetic vector field. Also, it is not shown how
Maxwell’s equations must be satisfied in the fluid and in the
surrounding space or how this requirement may impose impor-
tant restrictions on the specific constitutive formulation. Fur-
thermore, it is not shown how the continuity conditions for the
total traction and the magnetic field vectors affect the solutions
of boundary-value problems. These conditions, for magneto-
sensitive solids, have been described in detail by Dorfmann
and Ogden [29] and will be applied in the present paper to the
solution of boundary-value problems involving MR fluids.
In this paper we summarize, in Section 2, the kinematics and
the magnetic and mechanical balance equations and outline the
main features of the constitutive laws for MR fluids. These in-
clude expressions for the mechanical stress and the magneti-
zation as functions of the deformation and magnetic induction.
The model considered here is fully three-dimensional: for a
compressible material, the Cauchy stress tensor is represented
in terms of six scalar functions, which depend on six invariants
of the kinematical and magnetic field variables, while the mag-
netization requires three additional functions. For an incom-
pressible material the number of invariants reduces to five and
the number of constitutive functions is reduced by one in the
expression for the Cauchy stress. The present model is much
more general in the present context than possible counterparts
of the Bingham model, which, as with similar models, may be
considered as an ad hoc model. The Cauchy stress involves
the highly non-linear interaction between the magnetic induc-
tion and the deformation rate, as does the magnetization in the
fluid. The Bingham model is recovered as a very special case.
Section 2 concludes with a note of the boundary conditions re-
quired for the solution of boundary-value problems. A parallel
development for MR (or magneto-sensitive) solids capable of
large deformations is contained in the paper by Dorfmann and
Ogden [29]. The mathematical theory and modelling of electro-
sensitive solids undergoing large deformations is provided in a
recent paper by Dorfmann and Ogden [30].
In Section 3, by way of illustration the problem of unidirec-
tional steady flow of an incompressible fluid in a region con-
fined by two parallel plates is analyzed first. In particular, for
a special choice of the general model, we obtain a numerical
solution for the velocity profile as a function of the applied
 A. Dorfmann et al. / International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 42 (2007) 381 – 390 383

magnetic induction. We show that the central unyielded region 2.3. Mechanical balance laws
increases and the maximum value of the velocity decreases
monotonically as the magnitude of the magnetic induction in- 2.3.1. Conservation of mass
creases. The remaining two problems are concerned with the The conservation of mass equation for a continuum may be
flow of MR fluids contained between two infinitely long con- written in the form
centric circular tubes. Here, we analyze the problem where an
axial flow takes place under an axial magnetic field, and then ˙ =  div v, (5)
we examine the circumferential flow in the presence of a cir- where  is the mass density in Bt and the superposed dot signi-
cumferential magnetic field. In each case, after making some fies the material time derivative. Incompressible fluids, which
simplifying assumptions, the velocity profiles are obtained. The are capable of isochoric motions only, are subjected to the con-
general model allows for considerable flexibility in the choice straint
of particular forms and is therefore adaptable to a wide range of
problems involving MR flow. Section 4 contains some closing div v = tr D = 0. (6)
remarks. Since, by assumption, there is no acceleration the equation
of motion may be written in the form
2. Basic equations div  = 0 (7)
2.1. Kinematics in the absence of mechanical body forces, where  is the total
stress tensor, which incorporates terms that could also be writ-
Consider a fluid occupying a region Bt at time t in a three- ten as magnetic body forces. In the absence of couple stresses,
dimensional Euclidean space, the points of which are labelled which we assume are not present here, the balance of angular
by the position vector x with respect to an arbitrarily chosen momentum requires that the total stress tensor  is symmetric,
origin. We denote the velocity at x by v and we restrict atten- i.e.
tion to velocity fields independent of time. The other relevant
T = . (8)
kinematic quantities are the velocity gradient L, and the defor-
mation rate tensor D, defined, respectively, by In vacuo,  consists of just the Maxwell stress

L = grad v, D = 21 (L + LT ), (1) m = −1

0 [B ⊗ B − 2 (B · B)I],
1
(9)
where I is the identity tensor. Note that div m = 0 follows from
where grad denotes the gradient operator with respect to x and (2) and (4).
the superscript T denotes the transpose of a second-order tensor.
2.4. Constitutive equations
2.2. Magnetic materials
The chosen independent vector field B and the kinematic
Suppose the fluid moves in a magnetic field that is indepen- tensor D are both objective vectors and are therefore suitable
dent of time. The resulting (vector) magnetic fields are the mag- for use in the construction of constitutive equations. We wish
netic induction B, the magnetic field H and the magnetization to express the total stress tensor  and the magnetization M in
M, which are functions of x. terms of the independent variables.
In vacuo, B and H are related by The constitutive equation for the total stress tensor  is written
in the general form
B = 0 H, (2)
 = g(D, B), (10)
where 0 is the vacuum magnetic permeability. For condensed where g is a symmetric tensor function of its arguments.
matter the magnetization is related to B and H through Eq. (10) must be objective and hence satisfy the identity
B = 0 (H + M). (3) g(QDQT , QB) = Qg(D, B)QT (11)
for every choice of D and B and for all proper orthogonal
Eq. (3) defines the third vector field when one vector is used as
tensors Q.
an independent quantity and the other is given by a constitutive
Following [31] we are able to conclude that (11) leads to the
equation. In this paper we consider the magnetic induction vec-
more specific representation
tor B as the independent vector field. A constitutive equation
is then provided for M so that H is given by Eq. (3).  = 1 I + 2 D + 3 D2 + 4 B ⊗ B + 5 (DB ⊗ B + B ⊗ DB)
The relevant specializations of the Maxwell equations in the
absence of electric fields, free charges and currents are + 6 (D2 B ⊗ B + B ⊗ D2 B), (12)
which, as required by the balance of angular momentum in
div B = 0, curl H = 0. (4) Eq. (8), is symmetric. The scalar coefficients i , i=1, 2, . . . , 6,
384 A. Dorfmann et al. / International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 42 (2007) 381 – 390
depend on the six independent invariants I1 , I2 , . . . , I6 of the
tensors D and B ⊗ B defined by
I1 = tr D, I2 = tr(D2 ), I3 = tr(D3 ), (13)
I4 = B · B, I5 = (DB) · B, I6 = (D2 B) · B. (14)
The coefficients i , i = 1, 2, . . . , 6, characterize the material
properties and, in principle, can be determined by experiment
since  has six components available for measurement when
the independent components of D and B are prescribed. They
depend on the magnitude of the magnetic field through I4 . The
invariants I1 , I2 and I3 account for the dependence on the rate
of deformation tensor D, while I5 and I6 involve interaction
between the deformation rate and the magnetic induction. In
practice, experimental determination of the functions i may
not be easy, and it is then appropriate to simplify the constitutive
law by making informed choices of their functional forms based
on general characteristics of the material response. To the best
of our knowledge, appropriate data for determining how the
coefficients i depend on the invariants Ii are currently not
available. Some (limited) relevant experimental data have been
provided by, for example, Jolly et al. [11] and Carlson and
Jolly [8], which show the dependence of the yield stress on the
magnetic field for two commercial MR fluids. Data showing
the dependence on the deformation rate, however, were not
included in these contributions.
Eqs. (10) and (12) are applicable for an unconstrained mate-
rial. Henceforth, we concentrate on incompressible fluids, for
which the velocity field is subjected to the constraint (6). The
constitutive equations must then be modified to
 = −pI + g(D, B), (15)
where p denotes an indeterminate hydrostatic pressure. Since p
is arbitrary, the material function 1 can be absorbed, leaving
only five constitutive functions in this case. Moreover, in view
of the constraint (6), the invariant I1 can be deleted from the list
of invariants (13). Finally, we note that each term in (12) and
each invariant in (14) is of even degree in the components of
B. Thus, under a reversal of the magnetic field from B to −B,
the stresses given by Eq. (12) are unchanged. More generally,
if this reversal independence is not adopted then an additional
invariant that is cubic in B is required, but we do not admit this
here.
The counterpart of Eq. (10) in respect to M is
M = m(D, B), (16)
and the vector function m must satisfy an objectivity condition
similar to Eq. (11). The resulting explicit representation for the
magnetization M is
M = (1 I + 2 D + 3 D2 )B, (17)
where 1 , 2 and 3 are scalar functions that depend on the
invariants I2 , I3 , . . . , I6 . Thus, in general, M depends on the
highly non-linear interaction between the deformation rate D
and the magnetic induction B. An appropriate selection of the
constitutive functions 1 , 2 and 3 would permit a wide range
of phenomena to be modelled, and, in particular, could account
for magnetic saturation. Note that in the special case in which
2 and 3 are absent the magnetization M is parallel to B.
This special case applies, notably, to linear isotropic media, for
which B=H, where the permeability  characterizes the mag-
netic properties. The relative permeability /0 is then given
by 1/(1 − 0 1 ) and, typically for MR fluids, is around 500,
while 0 = 410−7 N/A2 .
The constitutive model described above provides a fairly gen-
eral framework within which particular models can be evalu-
ated.
2.5. Boundary conditions
For the solution of boundary-value problems appropriate
boundary conditions must be satisfied by some or all of the
fields B, H, D,  and v.
The vector fields B and H satisfy the standard jump condi-
tions
n · 'B( = 0, n × 'H( = 0 (18)
in the absence of surface currents, where the open square brack-
ets indicate a discontinuity across the bounding surface of the
fluid and n is the unit outward normal to the surface.
A possible boundary condition for the fluid at a fixed solid
boundary is the no-slip condition n × v = 0.
The continuity condition for the total stress tensor is
'(n = 0. (19)
At the boundary of the considered fluid, the magnetic part of the
traction is determined by the expression for the Maxwell stress
exterior of the body (if the exterior is a vacuum, for example).
3. Some boundary-value problems
3.1. Flow between parallel plates
We consider the classical problem of unidirectional steady
flow of an incompressible fluid in the region confined by two
parallel plates at a distance of 2h apart. The flow is referred
to a Cartesian coordinate system, which has its origin on the
mid-surface, the x1 -axis is in the direction of flow and the x2 -
axis is perpendicular to the plates. The flow is maintained by a
constant pressure gradient in the absence of mechanical body
forces. The analysis is based on the equation for the total stress
tensor in Eq. (12) and for the magnetization given by Eq. (17).
The form of the velocity field is given by the vector compo-
nents
v1 = v(x2 ), v2 = 0, v3 = 0, (20)
and subjected to the no-slip boundary conditions so that
v(−h) = v(h) = 0.
Consider the magnetic induction vector B in vacuo perpen-
dicular to the plates with components
B1 = 0, B2  = 0, B3 = 0. (21)
 A. Dorfmann et al. / International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 42 (2007) 381 – 390 385

In general there will be a change in direction of the induction We consider the magnetic field equations (4) and the equa-
vector across the material boundary and a non-zero component tion of motion (7). Eq. (4)1 implies that the component B2 of
B1 in the flow direction within the fluid is required. Thus, we the magnetic induction vector is constant. Due to the continuity
write condition given in Eq. (18)1 across the boundary, B2 is contin-
uous and, in view of (4)1 and (22)2 , is therefore constant within
B1 = B1 (x2 ), B2 = B2 (x2 ), B3 = 0 (22)
the fluid. The component of the magnetic induction vector in
within the fluid. vacuo along the x1 direction is zero. In the fluid body, B1 is
The matrix of the Cartesian components D of the deformation in general non-zero and has to be determined. Since B1 is zero
rate tensor D and its square are outside the fluid, so is H1 , and then, by continuity, we must
   2  have H1 = 0 at the boundary within the fluid. If we assume that
0  0  0 0
the component H2 of the magnetic field depends on x2 only
D=  0 0 , D = 0  0 , 2 2 (23)
then Eq. (4)2 implies jH1 /jx2 = 0 so that H1 ≡ 0 follows. We
0 0 0 0 0 0
can now use this condition to determine B1 .
where 2 = dv/dx2 . From Eqs. (3) and (27) it follows that inside the fluid we have
The tensor product B ⊗ B has components
 2  1 B1 + 2 B2 + 3 2 B1 − −1
0 B1 = 0, (31)
B1 B 1 B2 0
B1 B2 B2 2 0 , (24) which determines B1 implicitly in terms of  and B2 . Note that
0 0 0 B1 ≡ 0 is only possible in the special case 2 = 0 except in
the trivial situations  = 0 or B2 = 0.
and the components of (DB ⊗ B + B ⊗ DB) and (D2 B ⊗ B +
From the component form of the equation of motion (7) we
B ⊗ D2 B), which are also required in the expression (12), are
obtain
given, respectively, by
   2  12 = −P x 2 + c, 22 = d, (32)
2B1 B2 B12 + B22 0 B1 B1 B2 0
 B12 + B22 2B1 B2 0 , 22 B1 B2 B22 0 . where P is a constant pressure gradient and c and d are constants
0 0 0 0 0 0 of integration. Symmetry about the mid-surface requires that c=
(25) 0. The second equation in (32) together with (26)2 determines
The resulting components of the total stress tensor, obtained the arbitrary pressure p as a function of x2 . Combining (32)1
from Eq. (12), can now be written explicitly as with Eq. (26)3 we obtain
11 = −p + 3 2 + 4 B12 + 2(5 B1 B2 + 6 B12 ), 12 = 2  + 4 B1 B2 + 5 (B12 + B22 ) + 26 2 B1 B2 = −P x 2 .
22 = −p + 3 2 + 4 B22 + 2(5 B1 B2 + 6 B22 ), (33)
Given values for P and B2 , Eqs. (31) and (33) provide two
12 = 2  + 4 B1 B2 + 5 (B12 + B22 ) + 26 2 B1 B2 , (26) equations for B1 (x2 ) and (x2 ). In particular, if we make the
with 13 = 23 = 0 and 33 = −p. The components of the simplifying assumption that 1 , 2 and 3 are independent of
magnetization vector M are, from (17), the magnetic field then from Eq. (31) we obtain
M1 = 1 B1 + 2 B2 + 3 2 B1 , ˆ 2,
B1 = B (34)
M2 = 1 B2 + 2 B1 + 3 2 B2 , (27) in which the coefficient of B2 on the right-hand side depends
ˆ is defined by
only on  and the notation 
and M3 = 0.
From Eqs. (13) and (14) we calculate, for the considered ˆ = 2
 . (35)
flow, −1
0 − 1 − 3 2
I1 = 0, I2 = 22 , I3 = 0, (28) Use of (34) in (33) leads to
I4 = B12 + B22 , I5 = 2B1 B2 , ˆ 4 + 5 )B22 + (2 ˆ 2 )2 ].
ˆ 6 + 5 B22 
12 = −P x 2 = [2 + (
I6 = 2 (B12 + B22 ) = 2 I4 , (29) (36)
which show that the dependence of the scalar functions i , i = We emphasize that the following selection of particular forms
2, . . . , 6, and 1 , 2 and 3 in Eqs. (26) and (27) reduces of the constitutive laws is for purposes of illustration only. Many
to three independent quantities , I4 , B1 B2 . We may therefore other choices are possible. In order to obtain a specific solution
regard the scalar functions as functions of these three quantities. for the velocity profile, we now set 5 = 6 = 0. Then, Eq. (36)
Thus, simplifies to
i = i (, I4 , B1 B2 ), (30) ˆ 22 ),
12 = −P x 2 = (2 + 4 B (37)
and similarly for 1 , 2 and 3 . For the implications on the where the term enclosed by the brackets can be seen as a vis-
reversal of the sign of the product of B1 B2 we refer to, for cosity term dependent on the magnitude of the applied mag-
example, Ceccio and Wineman [21]. netic induction and the rate of shearing . We have assumed
386 A. Dorfmann et al. / International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 42 (2007) 381 – 390

ˆ is independent of the magnetic field, while, in general,

that  1
2 and 4 depend on  and the magnetic field. If sufficient data
of the required type becomes available and show that  ˆ de- 0.8
pends on the magnetic field then a different dependence of the
0.6
yield stress on B22 with an exponent different from 2 can easily
be accommodated by the model. 0.4
To simplify further we now assume that  ˆ and 2 are con-
stants. In the terminology used by Bird et al. [2], Eq. (37) is 0.2
an appropriate generalization of a Bingham material, which in
0 4 3 2 1

2
the plastic flow region behaves as a fluid with a Newtonian vis-
ˆ 2  represent the field dependent yield
cosity 2 . The term 4 B 2 −0.2
stress with 4 a function of the rate of shearing . Here we use
the notation 0 = 4 Bˆ 2  to denote the yield stress (for the −0.4
2
Bingham model this is a constant). Following Bercovier and
B2 = 0
Engelman [32] we introduce a small regularization parameter −0.6
and rewrite the constitutive equation (37) as
−0.8
 
ˆ 2
ˆ 4 B −1
12 = −P x 2 = 2 + 2
, (38) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
|| +
¯

where ˆ 4 is a constant, || indicates the absolute value of  Fig. 2. Dimensionless velocity profile v̄ plotted on the horizontal axis against
x̄2 = x2 / h (vertical axis) for B2 = 0 compared with corresponding plots for
and the transition from the central plug region to the outer
B2 = 1, 2, 3, 4 T.
layers depends on the magnitude of . For B2 = 0, the re-
sponse is that of a classical Newtonian fluid and for = 0 the
transition corresponds to a well-defined yield point in a tradi- dimensionless quantities defined by
tional Bingham model. The viscoplastic response of the ma-
terial given by Eq. (38) for increasing values of the magnetic 12 2  2
induction vector is shown schematically in Fig. 1. For the cal- ¯ 12 = , ¯ = , ¯ = ,
hP hP hP
ˆ
culations in Fig. 1 we have set ˆ 4 /hP = 1 and we also use the
with ¯ = 10−3 .
Recalling that 2 = dv/dx2 we impose the no-slip bound-
ary conditions v(±h) = 0 and integrate Eq. (38) for different
25 values of the applied magnetic induction B2 . Fig. 2 shows that
the central unyielded region of the velocity profile increases
monotonically with the magnetic field and that the maximum
amplitude of the velocity profile decreases. In the yielded re-
20
4 gion, where the shear stress 12 is larger than the field depen-
dent yield stress 0 , the material is characterized by the viscos-
ity 2 . In Fig. 2 the dimensionless quantities x̄2 = x2 / h and
15 v̄ = v/vmax are used, where vmax = v(0).
The volumetric rate of flow per unit plate width is given by
12


−

3 h
10 Q= v(x2 ) dx2 , (39)
−h

and is obtained from the solution for the velocity profile. For a
2
5 constant pressure gradient P, Q reduces with increasing magni-
tude of B2 , as illustrated in Fig. 3. In other words, for increas-
1 ing values of B2 a larger pressure gradient would be required to
B2=0
maintain a given value of Q. The same values of the parameters
0 were used as for Figs. 1 and 2.
1 2 3 4 5
− Finally, the x1 component of the magnetic induction vector
is given by Eqs. (34) and (38) as
Fig. 1. Dimensionless shear stress ¯ 12 calculated from (38) plotted against
the dimensionless shear rate ¯ for B2 = 0 compared with corresponding plots
ˆ 2
P B
B1 = − x2 , (40)
for B2 = 1, 2, 3, 4 T. ˆ 2 /(|| + )
2 + ˆ 4 B 2
 A. Dorfmann et al. / International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 42 (2007) 381 – 390 387

centric circular tubes whose cross-sectional geometry is defined

by
1.2 a r b, 0 
2, (41)
in terms of cylindrical polar coordinates (r,
, z). The field
1
equations for the magnetic induction and for the magnetic field
are given by
0.8 jBr 1 1 jB
jBz
+ Br + + = 0, (42)
jr r r j
jz
0.6 and
1 jHz jH
jHr jHz
− = 0, − = 0,
0.4 r j
jz jz jr
1 j(rH
) 1 jHr
− = 0, (43)
0.2 r jr r j

respectively, where (Br , B

, Bz ) are the components of B and
0 (Hr , H
, Hz ) those of H. If the field is purely radial, for ex-
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 ample, then we deduce that Br = c/r, where c is a constant.
B2 But, from the boundary condition (18)1 , Br must be continuous
across a circular cylindrical surface. Thus, there is a singular-
Fig. 3. Reduction of volumetric flow Q for increasing values of the magnetic
induction B2 . ity at r = 0 and we conclude that c = 0. Thus, it suffices to
consider B to have either an axial or an azimuthal field.

1 3.2.1. Axial flow with an axial magnetic field

We consider B to be axial with component Bz = 0, which,
0.8 by Eq. (42), is independent of z. Inside the fluid, we therefore
have
0.6
B2 =1 4 Bz = Bz (r). (44)
0.4
Similarly, since we take the velocity also to be axial it is inde-
0.2 pendent of z and the velocity components are
0 vr = 0, v
= 0, vz = vz (r), (45)

−0.2 from which the components of D are calculated as

¯2

 
0 0 
−0.4
D= 0 0 0 , (46)
−0.6  0 0
where 2 = dvz /dr.
−0.8 The components of M, given by Eq. (17), are
−1 Mr = 2 Bz , M
= 0, Mz = (1 + 3 2 )Bz . (47)
−10 −5 0 5 10
B1/B2 Since Br = 0 it follows from (3) and the continuity of H
and
Hz that Hr = −Mr = −2 Bz , B
= H
= 0 and
Fig. 4. Distribution of the ratio B1 /B2 plotted on the horizontal axis against Hz
the dimensionless quantity x̄2 (vertical axis) for B2 = 1, 2, 3, 4 T. Bz = 0  . (48)
1 − 0 (1 + 3 2 )
The invariants and hence the constitutive functions are therefore
and we note that this vanishes in the central unyielded region. independent of z and from Eqs. (43) and continuity of Hz we
The dependence of the ratio of B1 /B2 on x̄2 for increasing deduce that Hz is constant everywhere.
values of B2 is shown in Fig. 4. The components of , given by Eq. (12), are

3.2. Concentric cylinder rr = −p + 3 2 , 

= −p,
zz = −p + 3  + 4 Bz2 + 26 2 Bz2 ,
2
We now apply the equations discussed in Section 2 to an in-
compressible fluid contained between two infinitely long con- r
= 0, rz = 2  + 5 Bz2 , z
= 0. (49)
388 A. Dorfmann et al. / International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 42 (2007) 381 – 390

From the equation of motion (7), following standard arguments, 1

we obtain Hz=0
0.9
Pr c1 1
rz = + = (2 + 5 Bz2 ), (50)
2 r 0.8
where P is the pressure gradient and c1 a constant of integration.
0.7
The constant of integration can be determined by defining the
concentric surface of zero shear stress. We denote the radius of 0.6 2

z
this surface by b, where b is the outer radius of the tube. As in
the previous example, we introduce a regularization parameter 0.5
and obtain the expression
0.4
   
Pb r 2 b ˆ 5 Bz2 3
rz = − = 2 +  (51) 0.3
2 b r || +
0.2
for the axial shear stress, where ˆ 5 = (|| + )5 .
This formulation for the shear stress corresponds to a gen- 0.1
4
eralized Bingham material with the field independent term 2
describing the viscosity of the yielded fluid and the field de- 0
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
pendent yield stress, here defined by 0 = 5 Bz2 . Combining
¯
the expressions for  and Bz , we obtain
  Fig. 5. Axial annular flow between two concentric cylinders. The shape of
dvz r 2 b the velocity profile depends on the magnitude of the applied axial magnetic
= Pb −
dr b r field Hz . The dimensionless velocity profiles v̄z are shown for Hz = 0 and
0 Hz = 1, 2, 3, 4 T.
 −1
ˆ 5 20 Hz2
× 2 + . (52) 0.3
(|| + )[1 − 0 (1 + 3 2 )]2

For illustration, we now take 2 , ˆ 5 , and 1 to be constant and

0.2
3 = 0, so that Eq. (52) simplifies to
  −1
dvz r 2 b ˆ 5 20 Hz2
= Pb − 2 +  2 . 0.1
dr b r (|| + ) 1 −  10
(53)
0
¯rz

This equation can be solved numerically. First, the location

r = b of the cylindrical surface with zero shear stress is de-
termined and then, imposing non-slip boundary conditions on −0.1
the velocity field on the inner and outer surfaces at r = a and
b, the velocity profile is obtained. Fig. 5 shows the dimen-
sionless velocity profile with v̄z = vz /vz max as a function of −0.2
the dimensionless radius r̄ = r/a with b/a = 1.5 for differ-
ent values of the applied magnetic field Hz , corresponding to
0 Hz = 1, 2, 3, 4 T. The fluid in the region delimited by inner −0.3
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5
and outer surfaces, which are determined by the magnitudes
¯
of the shear stress (−0 rz 0 ), moves as a rigid body
and defines the plug flow region for an axial annular flow be- Fig. 6. Distribution of dimensionless shear stress ¯ rz calculated from the
tween two fixed coaxial cylinders as a function of the applied left-hand equation in (51). The concentric surface located at a distance
magnetic field Hz . The distribution of the axial shear stress corresponding to the dimensionless radius r̄ = b/a is the surface of zero
given by Eq. (51) is shown in Fig. 6 in dimensionless form shear stress ( = 0.8277, b/a = 1.5).
with ¯ rz defined as rz /(aP ). The location r = b is given
by rz = 0. is satisfied. For a purely circumferential field, Eq. (43) yields
d1
3.2.2. Circumferential flow with a circumferential magnetic H
= , (54)
field r
In this example we consider a magnetic field B with B
the where d1 is a constant of integration. In this case the singularity
only non-zero component, and with B
=B
(r), so that Eq. (42) at r = 0 can be excluded by use of a concentric cylindrical core
 A. Dorfmann et al. / International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 42 (2007) 381 – 390 389

across the boundary of which H

satisfies an appropriate jump Combining Eqs. (61) and (63) gives
condition associated with an axial steady current. In vacuo, we    
have M ˆ 5 B0 b 2 2 −2
= 2 + [1 − 0 (1 + 3  )] .
2r 2 || + r
d1
B
= 0 H
= 0 . (55) (64)
r
For illustration, similarly to Section 3.2.1, we set 3 = 0 and
Let B
(b) be denoted by B0 , so that d1 0 = bB 0 . From Eq. (2)
take 1 , 2 and ˆ 5 to be constants. Thus,
we find that the r and z components of the magnetic field vanish.
The remaining continuity condition to be satisfied is 'H
( = 0. M r d v

= = , (65)
The velocity components are given by 2(z1 + r 2 z0 ) 2 dr r
vr = 0, v
= v
(r), vz = 0 (56) where
ˆ 5 B02 b2 −2
and the components of D are z0 = 2 , z1 = 1 − 0 1 . (66)
|| +
 
0  0
The differential equation (65) can be integrated numerically to
D=  0 0 , (57)
determine the velocity profile of the tangential flow in a con-
0 0 0
centric annulus in the presence of a circumferential magnetic
where field. Appropriate boundary conditions are, for example, the
  circumferential speeds
1 dv
v r d v

= −
= . (58) v
(a) = a a, v
(b) = 0, (67)
2 dr r 2 dr r
The components of the magnetization M, given by Eq. (17), where a is the angular speed of the inner cylinder and r = a
are and b the radii at the inner and outer surfaces, respectively.
In the absence of any magnetic field, the field dependent yield
Mr = 2 B
, M
= (1 + 3 2 )B
, Mz = 0. (59) stress in the viscosity term vanishes and Eq. (63) simplifies to

From Eq. (3) we deduce that Hr = −Mr , Hz = Bz = 0, and M 2 r d v

r
= = . (68)
2r 2 2 dr r
B0 b
B
= 0 (H
+ M
) = +  0 M
. (60) This equation can be integrated to give the well-known formula
r for the Couette flow of a Newtonian fluid
Combining Eqs. (60) and (59)2 gives the circumferential com-  
Mr 1 1
ponent of the magnetic induction vector. Thus, v
(r) = − 2 . (69)
22 b2 r
B0 b For an applied time-independent magnetic field, the induced
B
= , (61)
1 − 0 (1 + 3 2 ) r yield stress is given by 0 (r) = ˆ 5 B
2 , where for convenience
we have introduced the notation 0 (r) to indicate that the yield
but it should be pointed out that in general 1 and 3 depend stress depends on the radial distance r. Three situations, de-
on B
, and Eq. (61) therefore determines B
implicitly. pending on the magnitude of the applied moment M, are pos-
The components of the total stress tensor , given in Eq. (12), sible. First, the maximum shear stress in the fluid given by
are M/2a 2 is smaller than 0 (a) and therefore no shear flow is
rr = −p + 3 2 , 

= −p + 3 2 + 4 B
2 + 26 2 B
2 , possible. Second, the applied moment generates a shear stress
distribution such that
zz = −p, r
= 2  + 5 B
2 , rz = z
= 0. (62) M M
> 0 (r ∗ ) > , (70)
From the equation of motion (7), we obtain 2a 2 2b2
  where r ∗ is the radius (a < r ∗ < b) at which the shear stress
d2 ˆ 5 B
2 is equal to the yield stress (r
= 0 (r ∗ )). This implies that in
r
= 2 = 2 + , (63)
r || + the region enclosed by the surfaces r = a and r ∗ shear flow is
possible, while in the outer region bounded by surfaces with
where d2 is a second constant of integration and is again a radii r = r ∗ and b no flow occurs. The third situation arises
regularization parameter (see [32]). The constant of integration when the applied moment generates a shear stress distribution
d2 is given by M/2, where M is a moment per unit length for which the magnitude M/2b2 is larger than 0 (b). In this
applied to the inner cylinder to establish a low rotation rate case, shear flow with viscosity 2 occurs throughout the fluid.
(laminar Couette flow). Therefore, the shear stress decreases We do not include a detailed numerical solution for these cases
monotonically from the maximum value M/2a 2 at the inner since the results are similar to those for an axial flow shown in
surface to M/2b2 at the outer surface. the previous subsection.
390 A. Dorfmann et al. / International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics 42 (2007) 381 – 390
4. Conclusions
In the three examples presented here expressions were ob-
tained for the shear stress and velocity profile. The material
is characterized by a specific magnetic-field dependent yield
stress and by a field independent viscosity for the yielded fluid.
In particular, an increase in the magnitude of the magnetic field
changes the shape of the velocity profile significantly. In all
three cases a region develops where the fluid moves as an elas-
tic solid. For a sufficiently large magnitude of the magnetic
field fluid flow is no longer possible. We emphasize, however,
that we have considered, for purposes of illustration, very spe-
cial forms of the general constitutive laws described in Section
2 and that the general constitutive law offers considerable flex-
ibility for comparison with phenomena arising in magnetorhe-
ological fluids.
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