Chapter 8

AUTOMATIC GENERATION AND VOLTAGE

CONTROL
The load frequency control (LFC) loop controls the
real power and frequency and the automatic voltage
regulator (AVR) loop regulates the reactive power
and voltage magnitude.
 Importance of Frequency
• The frequency of a system is dependent on
active power balance
• As frequency is a common factor throughout
the system, a change in active power demand
at one point is reflected throughout the
system
• Because there are many generators supplying
power into the system, some means must be
provided to allocate change in demand to the
generators
– speed governor on each generating unit provides
primary speed control function
– supplementary control originating at a central
control center allocates generation
• In an interconnected system, with two or
more independently controlled areas, the
generation within each area has to be
controlled so as to maintain scheduled power
interchange
• The control of generation and frequency is
commonly known as load frequency control
(LFC) or automatic generation control (AGC)
 PURPOSE OF AGC

 To maintain power balance in the system.

 Make sure that operating limits are not exceeded:-

 Generators limit
 Tie-lines limit

 Make sure that system frequency is constant (not

change by load).
Governor with Speed Droop
speed regulation or droop is provided to assure
proper load sharing
a proportional controller with a gain of 1/R
If precent regulation of the units are nearly equal,
change in output of each unit will be nearly
proportional to its rating
the speed-load characteristic can be adjusted by
changing governor settings; this is achieved in
practice by operating speed-changer motor
For example, a 5% droop or regulation means that a 5% frequency deviation
causes 100% change in valve position or power output.
 f f
P1  P1  P1  P2  P2  P2 
R1 R2
P1 R2

P2 R1

Load sharing by parallel units with drooping governor characteristics

Response of a generating unit with a governor having speed-droop characteristics
• System load changes with freq. With a load damping
constant of D, frequency sensitive load change:

 PD = D.  f
• When load is increased, the frequency drops due to
governor droop;

• An increase of system load by PL (at nominal

frequency) results in
• a generation increase of PG due to governor
action, and
• a load reduction of PD due to load
characteristic
Composite governor and load characteristic
Addition of integral control on generating units selected for AGC
 COMPONENTS OF AGC
 Primary control
 Immediate (automatic) action to sudden change of load.
 For example, reaction to frequency change.
 Secondary control
 To bring tie-line flows to scheduled.
 Corrective actions are done by operators.
 Economic dispatch
 Make sure that the units are scheduled in the most
economical way.
 This is function of primary and secondary control of AGC.
 AGC FOR SINGLE AREA

• System Modeling
• Single Generator
• Multi Generators, special case: two
generators
LFC FOR SINGLE AREA
 AGC FOR MULTI AREAS

 During transient period, sudden change of load causes each

area generation to react according to its frequency-power
characteristics.This is “called primary control”.
 This change also effects steady state frequency and tie-line
flows between areas.
 We need to
 Restore system frequency,
 Restore tie-line capacities to the scheduled value, and,
 Make the areas absorb their own load.
 This is called “secondary control”.
AGC FOR MULTIPLE AREA SYSTEM
 Mathematical model of Load frequency control
A General power generating station consisting of governor,
turbine & generator can be shown in block diagram as follows.

Load
Ref. i/p
Governor Turbine Generator Pg
-
frequency
• When the load demand changes in the system the governor and
the turbine has to respond
• But the governor and the turbine can’t respond instantly to the
input.
• It takes some time to change the output i.e. there is certain time
delay
• So both the governor and the turbine are modeled incorporating
the time delays.
 Mathematical Model of Governor and Turbine

Ref. i/p + Pt

-
Governor Turbine

Frequency
Where
Tg = Time delay corresponding of generator
Tt = Time delay of corresponding Turbine
α = Sensor gain to convert frequency into power.
Kg = Gain constant of governor
Kt = Gain constant of turbine
Writing the transfer function of the above block
diagram
Pt ( s) K g K T

F ( s) (1  sTg )(1  sTt )
From the above expression for a F change in frequency,
change in turbine output  Pt can be expressed as;
Pt ( s)
Pt ( s)  F ( s)
F ( s)
In steady state;

Pt ( s)
Pt ss  lim s F ( s)
s 0 F ( s)

 K g K T 
 F
Pt ss  lim s   
 (1  sTg )(1  sTt ) 

s 0
 s
 Pt ss  K g K T F
Pt ss
 F  
K g Kt The frequency verses turbine
 F   R  Pt ss output curve in steady state
(popularly known as drooping
characteristics)

1
R= = slope
 KgKt
FSS

Pt
 Normalized Mathematical Model of Governor and Turbine

Ref. i/p + 1 1 Pt
1  sTg 1  sTt
-
Governor Turbine

1/R

Frequency

Where
Tg = Time delay corresponding of generator
Tt = Time delay of corresponding Turbine
R = frequency Regulation coefficient
 Mathematical model for Generator frequency
& power.
• Let’s consider generator is originally running in its
normal state with complete power balance i.e.
Pg = Pd + Losses.
• The frequency is at normal value.
• Once the demand is changed in the system there will
be a power imbalance i.e; Pt-Pg≠0.
• As a result the speed (frequency) of generator will
change.
• Also the kinetic energy is proportional to the square
of the speed, rotor kinetic energy as function of
frequency can be expressed as;
 2
f 
W=Ws  
 fs 
Where
Ws= kinetic energy stored at initial (sync.) frequency
fs = Initial Frequency (sync.)
f = Final Frequency
The dynamic power balance at any instant can be expressed
as;
Turbine o/p=generator o/p + rate of change of K.E. +loss in
generator
This in terms of frequency;
d
Pt  Pd  W  D  f
dt
2
d f 
Pt  Pd  Ws    D  f
dt  f s 
The Complete Mathematical Block Diagram of LFC

Where Kp = 1/D and Tp = 2Ws /(fs D)

Equivalent Block diagram in the form of Frequency as output and
Demand as input, can be drawn as follows.
Writing the transfer function of the above block
diagram
Kp
 Frequency Regulation
R’ =(1/(D+1/R) = slope

FSS(s)

Pd(s)
• For minimum frequency deviation; β has to be
maximum
• Means D should me maximum or R should be
minimum.
• Higher D means more loss
• In practical system D is much less than1/R means
 Limit in Regulation R
• For minimum steady state frequency deviation
regulation R should be as less as possible.
• However R zero or less than a particular minimum
value is not possible otherwise there will be
frequency instability
• This limiting value of R can be found in many
ways, one of the technique getting the actual
limiting value of R is studying the impact of
change in R in stability using Root locus technique
 Load sharing among the generators with different
regulation coefficients

• Let’s consider the case for two generators;

– Regulation of Gen 1=R1
– Regulation of Gen 2=R2
• When they are operating at nominal frequency of f1
– the power generated by Gen1=Pg1
– the power generated by Gen2=Pg2.
• When load changes ΔPL causes a new operating
frequency f2,
– Increment in power generated by Gen1= ΔPg1=Pg1’-Pg1
– Increment in power generated by Gen2 =ΔPg2=Pg2’-Pg2
 fo1
R1 f 02 R2
f1
Δ
f = f 1 - f 2

f 2

Δ P g 1 Δ P g 2

0 Pg1 Pg1’ 0 Pg2 Pg2’

Generator 1 Generator 2

Fig : Generator with different drooping characteristics

 Load Sharing
f 1 f 2 f • From the above expression it is
R1   clear that sharing of load among
Pg1' Pg1 Pg1
generators decreases with
higher regulation coefficients R.
f 1 f 2 f
R2   • Derive the expression for f
Pg 2' Pg 2 Pg 2
and Pgi for system of n
generators
Then,
• The generators with less R may
R1 f Pg 2 Pg 2
 X  be over loaded while some of
R2 Pg1 f Pg1 the generator may be under
Pg1 R 2 loaded with different
Or,  regulations
Pg 2 R1
 Frequency Control

• Manual control
– Shifting the drooping characteristics
• Automatic control
– Use of external loop with PID controller
 PID controller
• Controller output= Kp.e + Ki∫e.dt + Kd de/dt
Where
– e = Signal to be controlled
– Kp= Proportional gain
– Ki= Integral gain
– Kd=Derivative gain
• A proportional controller Kp will have effect of reducing
steady sate error but increase overshot.
• A integral controller Ki will have effect of eliminating
steady sate error, but may make transient response
worse ie increase oscillation.
• A derivative controller Kd will have effect of increasing
the stability of system and improves transient response
but small change in steady state error.
Load on generator-2 is 600-x = 600-231 = 369MW
System frequency =
A 300 MW turbo generator has a speed regulation of 0.045pu on its own rated
capacity as base. Determine the increase in power output when the frequency
drops from normal 50Hz to a steady state value of 49.95 Hz.

Solution:

Given the generator power, = 100 MW Speed regulation = 0.045 pu.

Drop in frequency, Δf = -0.05Hz Increase in turbine power = ?
Regulation parameter,

Increase in turbine power at the frequency drop of -0.05Hz

Two generators rated with 221MW and 429MW are operating in Parallel. The
drop characteristics of their governors are 4.15% and 5.35% respectively from
no-load to full load. The speed changers are so set that the generators operate
at 50 Hz sharing the full load of 650MW in the ratio of their ratings. If the load
reduces to 550 MW, what will be the load shared by each generator? Also find
out the system frequency under this condition.
Since the generators are operating in parallel, they will operate at the same frequency
at steady load.

Let load on generator-1(221MW) = x MW

Load on generator-2(429MW) = 550 – x MW.

Reduction in frequency = Δf

From equation(1),

From equation(2),

Comparing equation (2) and (3), we have

Therefore load on generator-1 is 219.493 MW

Load on generator-2 is 600-x = 550-219.493 = 330.506 MW

System frequency =