PAPER ELECTRIC POWER DISTRIBUTION TRANSMISSION

“RELAY PROTECTION”

ADVISER:
Ali Basrah Pulungan ST., MT.

ARRANGED BY :
1.Fadel Rahman (180630)
2.Dina Salsa Fauzia (18063002)
3.Dioan Perdana Adfry (180630)
4. Najmu Nura Rizqa (18063041)

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MAJOR
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
PADANG STATE UNIVERSITY
2020
 PREFACE
Praise the presence of Allah SWT who has given His grace and guidance
so that I can complete the assignment of this paper entitled insulation co-
ordination on time.
The purpose of writing this paper is to fulfill the assignment of the
Electric Power Distribution Transmission course. In addition, this paper also
aims to add insight into insulation co-ordination for readers and also for writers.
We realize, the paper we write is still far from perfect. Therefore, we will
look forward to constructive criticism and suggestions for the perfection of this
paper.

Author

Padang, 6st March 2020

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE..........................................................................................

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A.Background...........................................................................
B. Formulation of The Problem.................................................
C. Writing Purpose....................................................................
CHAPTER II DISCUSSION
A.System configurations...........................................................
1. Faults.................................................................................
2. Unearthed systems............................................................
3. Impedance earthed systems................................................
4. Solidly earthed systems.....................................................
5. Network arrangements......................................................
B. Power system protection principle........................................
1. Discrimination by time....................................................
2. Discrimination by current magnitude..............................
3. Discrimination by time and fault direction......................
4. Unit protection.................................................................
5. Signalling channel assistance...........................................
C. Current relays........................................................................
1. Inverse definite minimum time lag (IDMTL) relays.......
2. Alternative characteristic curves......................................
3. Plotting relay curves on log/log graph paper...................
4. Current relay application examples.................................
D. Differential protection schemes...........................................
1. Biased differential protection...........................................
2. High impedance protection..............................................
3. Transformer protection application examples.................
4. Pilot wire unit protection.................................................
5. Busbar protection.............................................................

CHAPTER III CONCLUDES

A.Conclusion ...........................................................................
B. Suggestion ............................................................................
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
A. BACKGROUND
Switchgear, cables, transformers, overhead lines and other electrical equip-ment
require protection devices in order to safeguard them during fault condi-tions. In
addition, the rapid clearance of faults prevents touch and step potentialson equipment
from reaching levels which could endanger life. The function ofprotection is not to
prevent the fault itself but to take immediate action uponfault recognition. Protection
devices detect, locate and initiate the removal ofthe faulted equipment from the power
network in the minimum desirable time.It is necessary for all protection relays, except
those directly associated with the fault clearance, to remain inoperative during transient
phenomena whichmay arise during faults, switching surges or other disturbances to the
network.Protection schemes are designed on the basis of:
•safety,
•reliability,
•selectivity.
The requirements for CTs and VTs associated with relay protection are describedin
Chapter 5 and fuse and MCB protection devices in Chapter 11. Standard ref-erence texts
are provided in the references section at the end of this chapter. Theyvery adequately
cover protection theory and particular relays UK[1],US[2] and general[3] practice. Graphical
symbols for switchgear, control gear and protectivedevices are given in IEC 60617-7.
This chapter therefore concentrates on theprincipal relay protection schemes and typical
applications with practical calcu-lation and computer assisted examples.While the
earliest relays were electromechanical in construction, technolog-ical developments led
to the introduction of solid state or static relays usingdiscrete devices such as transistors,
resistors, capacitors, etc. Advent of micro-processors led to the development of
microprocessor-based relays and this culminated with today’s state of the art system of
numerical relaying where themeasurement principles themselves changed from analogue
to numerical. Otherrecent advances are discussed in the following sections.
B. FORMULATION OF THE PROBLEM
1. Describe all about Relay Protection
2. What is System Configurations, Current Relays
3. What is Power system protection principle, Differential protection
schemes

C. WRITING PURPOSE
1. Students can find out what is relay protection
2. Student can knows System configurations , Power system protection
principle, Current relays, and Differential protection schemes
 CHAPTER II
DISCUSSION
A. SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
1. Faults
All power system components are liable to faults involving anomalous
current flow and insulation breakdown between conductors or between
conductors and earth. The insulation material may vary from air, in the case
of a transmission line, to oil, SF6 or a vacuum, in the case of switchgear. The
transmission and distribution engineer is concerned with symmetrical faults
involving all three phases with or without earth, and asymmetrical faults
involving phase-to- phase and one or two phase-to-earth faults. In addition,
interturn winding faults also occur in transformers and electrical machines.
Chapter 1 describes computer assisted methods of deriving fault levels in
power system networks and Chapter 26 describes the basic fundamentals
involved.
2. Unearthed systems
Such arrangements are only found in small isolated networks. At first
sight the earth fault current would seem to be negligible with this
connection. In practice, for all but the smallest networks the capacitive
current becomes sig- nificant and dangerous transient overvoltages can
occur due to low power fac- tor arcing faults to earth. Unearthed systems
therefore require high insulation levels and are limited to low voltage
distribution where insulation costs are less significant. The main application
is for very critical systems where con- tinuity of supply is of paramount
importance; two separate faults are required before an outage occurs and the
first earth fault simply causes alarms which enables damage to be located
and repaired before the critical supply is lost.
3. Impedance earthed system
In this configuration a resistance or reactance is placed between the
trans- former neutral and earth. The earth fault current may be limited by the
sizing of the impedance. This has the advantage of limiting:
 possible damage to equipment from the fault current;
 interference to control and communication circuits from the resulting
induced currents.
4. Solidly earthed system
Solidly earthed systems have the transformer neutral connected directly
to earth. This has the advantage that it limits the likely overvoltages during
fault conditions and is applied by most electricity supply companies for
rated volt- ages above 145 kV. The voltage-to-earth levels on the unfaulted
phases should not exceed 80% of the normal system phase voltage with the
solidly earthed arrangement. The system is then known as ‘effectively’
earthed and is consid- ered to be satisfied for ratios of X0 /X1 3 and R0 /X1 1
 throughout the sys- tem under all conditions. In practice, these ratios will
vary according to the network switching conditions and connected
generation. The disadvantage is that the earth fault current can exceed the
three phase fault current depending upon the ratio of zero-to-positive
sequence impedance (see Fig. 10.1). Substation equipment must be rated
accordingly. Sufficient current to operate the protec- tion relay equipment is,
however, not normally a problem. In addition, it should be noted that a high
earth fault current will lead to high touch and step poten- tials during the
fault conditions. This must be limited to safe levels by adequate substation
earthing. Further, control and communication circuits must be pro- tected
against induced currents and possible interference resulting from the earth
fault.

5. Network arrangements
a) Radial
A simple radial feeder is shown in Fig. 10.2. The fault level is highest
closest to the source and limited by the impedances from source to fault
location. Clearance of a fault near the source will result in loss of supply to
downstream loads. Protection selectivity must be such that a fault on busbar
A must be isolated by only tripping the circuit breaker X via relay R1 and
maintaining supply to load busbar B.

Figure 10.1 Maximum line-to-earth voltage at the fault for

earthed neutral systems under any fault conditions
b) Parallel
A parallel feeder arrangement is shown in Fig. 10.3. A fault on one
parallel feeder should be cleared by suitable protection such that it is quickly
 isolated from the supply. There should be no loss of supply via the
remaining healthy feeder to the load.
c) Ring
A ring feeder arrangement is shown in Fig. 10.4. Two routes exist
for the power inflow to a faulted feeder in a closed ring system. It is
therefore:

Figure 10.2 Typical radial distribution system

Figure 10.3 Typical parallel feeder arrangement

Figure 10.4 Typical ring system showing use of directional relays

d) Interconnected
This is a more complex arrangement of interconnected parallel and
radial feeders, often with multiple power source infeeds. More sophisticated
protec- tion schemes are necessary in order selectively to disconnect only
the faulted part of the system.
e) Substations
Busbars, transformers, cables and other important plants are all
involved in the different substation layouts described in Chapter 3. The
switchgear arrange- ments will help to dictate the types of relay protection
devices used throughout the particular substation.
B. POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION PRINCIPLE
1. Discrimination by time
For simple radial circuits discrimination is achieved by giving the
minimum trip- ping time setting to th e relay furthest away from the power
source. A small time delay is then added to each relay in turn, moving nearer
to the source each time. This ensures that the relay closest to the fault trips
first, and as a result leaves the rest of the system between the source and the
faulty section in service.
It is necessary to allow a minimum grading interval or delay between
suc- cessive relay settings in order to take account of:
a) Circuit breaker tripping times – typically from 150 msec for an older oil
circuit breaker to 50 msec for the latest vacuum or SF6 switchgear.
b) Relay time delay errors – variation from the characteristic time delay
curve for the relay as allowed by the appropriate specification standard,
say, 150 msec.
c) Relay reset time – the relay must definitely fully reset when the current is
70% of pick-up value. Electromechanical relays reset at 90–95% of setting
and a figure of 85% is taken for calculation purposes. Solid state relays
have an even better improved characteristic in this regard.
d) Relay overshoot-an electromechanical relay must stop all forward
movement or overshoot of the induction disc within 100 msec of the
removal of current. Again solid state or numerical relays have an advantage
over electromechanical types in this regard.
2. Discrimination by current magnitude
The impedance of the power circuit between source and fault limits the
faultcurrent flowing at any point. Therefore by suitably selecting the current
set-ting at which the particular relay operates discrimination can be
achieved. Inpractice this is quite difficult for transmission and distribution
feeder circuitsbecause various interconnection arrangements significantly
alter the fault levelat any point in the network. The method works well
for power transformerprotection where instantaneous high set overcurrent
relays can be used to pro-tect the HV windings. Similarly, but for different
reasons, instantaneous earthfault relays can be applied to the delta
winding of a delta star (Dy) powertransformer. Here the zero sequence
currents generated in the secondary starwinding during earth faults in that
winding or system do not appear in the pri-mary delta winding. In this
case an instantaneous earth fault relay on thetransformer primary delta
will not respond to LV earth faults.
3. Discrimination by time and fault direction
It is possible to add directional sensing elements to the relay protection
systemsuch that the relay responds to both the magnitude and one particular
directionof the current flow. Typical applications are for closed ring feeder
 systems, par-allel feeders and parallel transformers. It is vitally important
during commis-sioning of such protection schemes that the polarity of
operation is properlychecked or maloperation and lack of discrimination
may result.
4. Unit protection
In these schemes the CTs located at either end of a feeder, transformer or
‘unit’ of plant to be protected (the protected zone) are interconnected. A
comparison of magnitude and phase angle of the current entering the pro-
tected zone with that leaving is made. Two requirements are checked:
a) If the currents entering and leaving the protected zone are equal, operationof
the protection must be prevented – this is known as the through fault sta-
bility requirement.
b) If the currents entering and leaving the protected zone are unequal the pro-
tection must operate – this is known as the sensitivity to internal
faultsrequirement.
5. Signalling channel assistance
Rapid protection operation may be necessary for system stability reasons
asexplained in Section 1.3, Chapter 1. The speed of response of a protection
sys-tem may be enhanced by the use of interconnecting signalling channels
betweenrelays. For example, this enhancement can be applied to a distance
protectionscheme for improving the fault clearance time over the last 15–
20% of thefeeder length, as explained in more detail in Section 10.6. Such
signalling chan-nels may be by the use of hard wire circuits (dedicated pilot
wires, rented tele-phone cables, etc.) using on /off or low frequency signals.
Alternatively, signalinformation superimposed upon carrier frequencies of
several hundred kHzmay be used over the power circuits ( power line carrier
(PLC)) to convey the information. A more modern development is to use
fibre optic cables whichmay, for example, form an integral part of an
overhead line earth wire. Thetransmission times are essentially
instantaneous but delays associated withinterposing relays and electronics
must all be considered when checking forcorrect selective grading.
C. CURRENT RELAYS
1. Inverse definite minimum time lag (IDMTL) relays
Historically this type of relay characteristic has been produced using
electro-magnetic relays, and many such units still exist in power systems. A
metal discis pivoted so as to be free to rotate between the poles of two
electromagnetseach energized by the current being monitored. The torque
produced by theinteraction of fluxes and eddy currents induced in the disc is
a function of the current. The disc speed is proportional to the torque. As
operating time isinversely proportional to speed, operating time is inversely
proportional to afunction of current. The disc is free to rotate against the
restraining or reset-ting torque of a control spring. Contacts are attached to
 the disc spindle andunder preset current levels operate to trip, via the
appropriate circuitry, the required circuit breaker.
2. Alternative characteristic curves
Alternatives to the ‘normal’ IDMTL characteristic are available. A ‘very’
longtime inverse curve is obtained with the constants K13.5 and a1.0 in
thetheoretical operating time equation. This very inverse characteristic is
useful asa last stage of back-up earth fault protection (for example when
used in con-junction with a CT associated with a transformer neutral
earthing resistor). The‘extremely’ inverse curve characteristic (K80, a2.0) is
useful for ensur-ing the fastest possible operation whilst still discriminating
with a fuse. Theextremely inverse characteristic does not exhibit such a
useful definite mini-mum time and it is difficult to accommodate more than
one or two such relaystages in an overall graded protection scheme.
3. Plotting relay application
The characteristic curves shown in Figs 10.5 and 10.6 are plotted on
log/loggraph paper with time on the vertical scale and current on the
horizontal scale.Three or 4 cycle log/log paper is the most useful in
practice for manual relaygrading exercises. If a template for the normal
characteristic is used based on thesame cycle log paper then the 10 or 3 s
operating time at 2 or 10xPSM may beused as guide points. The actual
circuit current being monitored is transformed by the actual CT ratio and
relay PSM being used. The operating curve for otherthan TMS=1 relay
settings may be approximately drawn by moving the tem-plate vertically up
the log paper so that the 10xPSM mark coincides with anoperating time in
seconds equivalent to 3 multiplied by the actual TMS in use.
4. Current relay application example
D. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION SCHENES
1. Biased differential protection
Basically, unit protection schemes compare the current entering and leaving
theprotected zone. Any difference will indicate the presence of a fault within
thezone. By operation of the appropriate relays the associated circuit
breakers canbe made to trip thus isolating the faulty equipment from the
power network.With perfect CTs, relays and symmetry of connections,
stability should betheoretically possible under steady state conditions and no
anomalous trippingdue to faults outside the zone of protection occur. In
practice, there will be dif-ferences in the magnitude and phase of the
currents entering and leaving thezone of protection. CT characteristics will
not be perfectly matched and DCcomponents will be involved under fault
conditions. There is an upper level ofthrough fault current at which both
steady state and transient unbalance rapidlyincreases as shown in Fig. 10.10.
Restraint features, known as ‘bias’, are there-fore added to the relays to
desensitize under through fault conditions. The dis-crimination quality of a
differential system can be defined in terms of a factorgiven by the ratio of
 the degree of correct energization of the relay under inter-nal fault
conditions to that which occurs (and is unwanted) under external
faultconditions at the same time as the specified CT primary current. If the
systemwere perfect the factor would be infinite.
2. High impedance protection
Typical applications for high impedance relays include busbar and
restrictedearth fault protection schemes. Under through fault conditions the
differentialrelay unit protection scheme must remain stable. During such an
external faultone CT may become saturated producing no output while a
parallel connectedCT might remain unsaturated and continue to produce full
output. This condi-tion is shown in Fig. 10.12. The current from the
remaining operating CT willdivide between the relay and the other arm of
the network comprising of con-necting cable and lead impedance and the
effectively short circuited saturatedCT. By using a relay of sufficiently high
impedance (not a problem with modern solid state electronic relays) the
proportion of current flowingthrough the relay is reduced below the
operating level of the relay making forstable operation under these heavy
through fault conditions. (It must be notedthat modern low or medium
impedance relays are designed so that they arelargely unaffected by some of
these issues and cater for larger amounts of CTsaturation, remanance, etc.
3. Transformer protection application examples
a) Balanced earth fault protection
Consider the arrangement shown in Fig. 10.13a of two 33/11 kV cable
feddelta/star transformers. The HV balanced earth fault protection at
the sub-station must be set to detect faults on the transformer primary and
feeder cable.
 The CT ratio on the transformer HV side is 400/1.
 The lead resistance of the CT wiring to a common point is 2.1 ohms.
 The charging current of the transformer feeder cable is 2.1 A/phase/km.
 The system impedances are shown to a 100 MVA base.
b) Restricted earth fault protection
Consider the same network as shown in Fig. 10.13a. Low voltage
restrictedearth fault (LVREF) protection is applied to the LV 11 kV
transformer starwinding and neutral connections as shown in Figs 10.13b
and 10.13c. Underfault free or external fault conditions the CT currents will
sum to zero and therelay will not operate. Under internal fault conditions
within the transformer LV winding or connections the CT currents will
become unbalanced and theLVREF protection will operate. It is necessary
to verify the relay voltage set-ting, a suitable CT knee point, and, given the
relay voltage – current relation-ship, the effective relay primary CT setting.
4. Pilot wire unit protection
a) Pilot cables
 Since currents at each end of the protected zone must be compared a
sig-nalling channel is necessary using:
 pilot cables – typically two core, 2.5 mm2cross-section;
 private or rented telephone circuits;
 radio links;
 fibre optic links.
The selection is based on economic and reliability factors. With
increasinglenght, or difficult installation conditions, buried hard wire or
fibre optic cablelinks become expensive.
Telephone lines have typical limitations on the peak applied voltage
andcurrent as follows:
 Maximum applied voltage – 130 V DC.
 Maximum current – 0.6 A.
All connected circuits must be insulated to 5 or 15 kV.Telephone pilots
may be subjected intermittently and without warning toringing tones,
open or short-circuit conditions. Therefore their use requiresmore
complicated terminal equipment and if rented may have a lower level of
reliability.
b) Summation transformer
In order to minimize pilot cable costs the three phase primary
currents areconverted via the matched CTs and summation
transformers at each end ofthe link to a single phase secondary
current. This is justified since asexplained in Chapter 25, the primary
currents bear definite relationships fordifferent types of fault condition. The
output from the summation transformermay be set, by altering the
proportion of n turns as shown in Fig. 10.15, to givegreater sensitivity to
earth faults. This is a useful feature when using a unitprotection
scheme on a resistance-earthed system which produces low earthfault
currents.

c) Basic schemes
The fundamental difference between biased differential protection and
pilotwire differential protection is that relays are required at each end of the
pilotwire scheme. Only one relay is required for the biased differential
schemesdescribed in Section 10.5.1.
The long distances involved between the two ends of a feeder cable or
anoverhead line circuit necessitates the use of a relay at each end of the
protec-tion zone. The relays control the associated circuit breakers and
minimize the effects of pilot cable characteristics on relay performance. In
 addition, a sin-gle relay scheme is not used because the CTs would
have to be impossiblylarge in order to avoid saturation on through fault
current when used in con-junction with a pilot cable burden of
approximately 1000 ohms. The relays arearranged to operate
simultaneously with intertripping to provide very rapidfault clearance
irrespective of whether the fault is fed from one or both endsof the protected
zone.
5. Busbar protection
a) Frame leakage detection
This is the cheapest form of busbar protection for use with indoor metal-
clad ormetal-enclosed switchgear installations. Since the probability of a
busbar faulton such modern equipment is very small, busbar protection on
such equipmentis only considered for the most important installations.
The switchboard islightly insulated from earth (above, say, 10 ohms) and
currents in a single con-nection to earth measured via a CT and frame
leakage relay. This arrangementrequires care to ensure all main and
multicore cable glands are insulated andthat bus sections are not
shorted by bolted connections through the concretefloor rebar or
switchgear steel floor fixing channel arrangements (Fig. 10.18a).
b) Bus zone
A comparison is made between the currents entering and leaving the busbar
orbusbar zone. CTs are therefore required on all circuits and the CT
locations arearranged to maximize the required zone of protection coverage
as shown in Fig.10.18b. Conventionally, main and check high impedance
relays are used in con-junction with these CTs to measure the sum of all the
currents. Very fast operat-ing times (40 msec) are feasible with such
schemes. An example of the practicalapplication of traditional busbar
protection principles is given in Section 10.9.The check feature makes
tripping dependent upon two completely separatemeasurements of fault
current using separate CTs and different routing for CT wiring to the
protection relays. In a double busbar arrangement a separateprotective relay
is applied to each bus section (zones 1 and 2) and an overallcheck system
arranged to cover all sections of both main and reserve busbars.
In current practice, schemes based on multiple operating principles
andsometimes based on a distributed concept, are applied for EHV
substations.These schemes are typically low impedance types and
handle differing CTratios, a high amount of CT saturation, diverse issues
such as evolving faultsand CT remanance. Continuous self-supervision and
the ability to detect abnor-malities on CT’s, CT wiring and the auxiliary
contacts used to provide a busimage make the scheme complete and highly
reliable, thus obviating needs fora separate set of check zone CT’s and
relays.
c) CT selection
In order to ensure stability under load, switching transient and external
faultconditions the CTs must be all carefully matched up to the
maximum faultlevel with the same ratio and characteristics. As explained in
Section 10.5.2 itis the voltage required to operate the relay rather than its
current setting whichdetermines the stability level of the scheme. The CT
‘knee point’ voltage mustbe kept as high as possible and at least three times
the relay voltage setting.The testing of busbar protection schemes will
therefore necessitate particularcare over CT polarities, correct operation of
busbar selector auxiliary contactsand primary operating current at the
selected relay settings.
An interruption in CT wiring will cause an unbalance and anomalous bus-
bar protection operation. Wiring supervision is therefore a feature of
mostschemes in order to raise an alarm with typical settings of unbalance at
10%of minimum circuit rating.See also Section 10.10 regarding optical
communication links.
 CHAPTER III
CLOSING
A. CONCLUSION
Switchgear, cables, transformers, overhead lines and other electrical
equip-ment require protection devices in order to safeguard them during
fault conditions. In addition, the rapid clearance of faults prevents touch and
step potentialson equipment from reaching levels which could endanger life.
The function ofprotection is not to prevent the fault itself but to take
immediate action uponfault recognition. Protection devices detect, locate
and initiate the removal ofthe faulted equipment from the power network in
the minimum desirable time.It is necessary for all protection relays, except
those directly associated with the fault clearance, to remain inoperative
during transient phenomena whichmay arise during faults, switching surges
or other disturbances to the network.
Relay protection schemes and typical applications with practical calcu-
lation and computer assisted examples.While the earliest relays were
electromechanical in construction, technolog-ical developments led to the
introduction of solid state or static relays usingdiscrete devices such as
transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc. Advent of micro-processors led to the
development of microprocessor-based relays and this culminated with
today’s state of the art system of numerical relaying where themeasurement
principles themselves changed from analogue to numerical. Otherrecent
advances are discussed in the following sections.