Liquid Drop

PHGN 422: NUCLEAR PHYSICS
PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

Lecture 5: The Liquid Drop Model of the Nucleus
Prof. Kyle Leach
September 12, 2019

Slide 1
Last Week.....
• Nuclear binding results in a mass that is less than the sum of

their constituent parts
• We can release that energy by performing nuclear reactions.

The energy released is called the Q value.
• The atomic mass can be measured through several techniques,

to a very high precision.
Slide 2 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

What Have We Learned About the Nucleus So

Far?
1 The nuclear density is roughly constant for all nuclei


Far?
2 Nuclei are positively charged, and the nuclear charge density is

also roughly constant


Far?

3 The strong force is attractive only at short range....


Far?

4 AND is repulsive at very short range (ie. nuclear matter is highly

incompressible)


Far?

4 AND is repulsive at very short range (ie. nuclear matter is highly

incompressible)
These observations are remarkable, and have been performed

with very simple concepts so far. We are now at the level of
understanding where we can begin to theoretically model the
nucleus in an attempt to predict our observations.
How Do We Begin to Understand Nuclear

Binding?
In order to understand nuclear binding, we need to derive a

mathematical framework to explain our empirical observations. This
method is typically referred to as mathematical modelling
To start with, let us consider the nucleus as a charged drop of

incompressible liquid. How do we do with that assumption?

The Liquid Drop Model

A Simple Approach to Modelling the Atomic Nucleus
• The scattering experiments we saw previously suggested that

nuclei have approximately constant density. We were then able
to calculate the nuclear radius assuming a uniform sphere. A
drop of uniform liquid has the same property.


• The scattering experiments we saw previously suggested that

nuclei have approximately constant density. We were then able
to calculate the nuclear radius assuming a uniform sphere. A
drop of uniform liquid has the same property.
Source: Krane - Fig. 3.4


• The nuclear force is short-range, but does not allow for

compression of nuclear matter. Molecules in a liquid drop have
the same basic properties.


• The nuclear force is short-range, but does not allow for
compression of nuclear matter. Molecules in a liquid drop have
the same basic properties.
Source: Department of Chemistry, UC Davis


• The nucleus is a positively charged object. For our purposes

here, we can assume our liquid drop also has a uniform positive
charge.


• The nucleus is a positively charged object. For our purposes
here, we can assume our liquid drop also has a uniform positive
charge.
Proton (π)
+
+
+
Neutron (ν)
+


• We have been assuming spherical nuclei so far, but when

additional energy is introduced into the system, nuclei can
change their shape. A drop of liquid has the same property, and
when other forces are present, it can deviate from a spherical
shape.


• We have been assuming spherical nuclei so far, but when
additional energy is introduced into the system, nuclei can
change their shape. A drop of liquid has the same property, and
when other forces are present, it can deviate from a spherical
shape.
Source: L.P. Gaffney et al., Nature 497, 199204 (2013)

The Liquid Drop Model: The Volume Term

Now that a suitable (conceptual) model has been proposed for how to
treat the nucleus theoretically, we need to define the parameters for
how we develop the mathematical formalism. We can start with our
BE/A curve for nuclear matter:

We’ll discuss our starting point on the chalkboard....

Bvolume = aV · A

Bvolume = aV · A
The volume term constant

Bvolume = aV · A
Proportional to the number of

nucleons


Bvolume = aV · A
Proportional to the number of

nucleons
Empirically, a fit to the experimental data binding energies gives:
aV = 15.85 MeV!!
But we know that B/A is roughly constant...
B/A ≈ 8 MeV
....so what is going on? Is our model that far off?...well sort of.

Corrections to our “Leading Order” Volume

Approximation
We already know that the liquid drop has further terms that define its
binding energy other than accounting for just its volume of matter.
Since the emperical value for aV is much greater than 8 MeV, we can
surmise that each of these corrections lowers the total calculated
binding energy. That means that our initial volume assumption is an
overestimation of the total binding.

Corrections to our “Leading Order” Volume

Approximation
We already know that the liquid drop has further terms that define its
binding energy other than accounting for just its volume of matter.
Since the emperical value for aV is much greater than 8 MeV, we can
surmise that each of these corrections lowers the total calculated
binding energy. That means that our initial volume assumption is an
overestimation of the total binding.

The Liquid Drop Model: The Surface Term
First, we need to account for the fact that the nucleons on the surface
have less neighbours, and do not exhibit the same binding as those
in the interior (volume)....

Bsurface = −aS · A2/3

Bsurface = − aS · A2/3
The surface term constant

The surface term constant Proportional to A2/3


The surface term constant Proportional to A2/3
Empirically, aS = 18.34 MeV

The Liquid Drop Model: The Coulomb Term
Protons in the nucleus repel each other due to their mutual positive
charge, this reduces the binding energy further....

BCoulomb = −aC · Z(Z−1)

A1/3

Z(Z−1)
BCoulomb = − aC · A1/3
The Coulomb term constant

Z(Z−1)
The Coulomb term constant Inversely proportional to A1/3


Z(Z−1)
The Coulomb term constant Inversely proportional to A1/3
Empirically, aC = 0.71 MeV

Deviations from the Liquid Drop Analogy
After accounting for the volume, surface, and Coulomb terms, how
well have we done at our reproduction?

Deviations from the Liquid Drop Analogy

After accounting for the volume, surface, and Coulomb terms, how
well have we done at our reproduction?
Source: Krane, Fig. 3.17

Neutron and Proton Numbers on the Nuclear

Chart

The Liquid Drop Model: The Symmetry (or

Asymmetry) Term
For light nuclei, N ≈ Z (for heavy nuclei N is only slightly larger than
Z). Where the Coulomb term would always favour Z = 0 for any A, we
must account for the fact that nuclei are quantum objects (specifically
that nucleons are fermions), and must obey the Pauli exclusion
principle....


Asymmetry) Term
principle....
(N−Z)2
Basymmetry = −aA · A


Asymmetry) Term
principle....
(N−Z)2
Basymmetry = − aA · A
The asymmetry term constant


Asymmetry) Term
principle....
(N−Z)2
The asymmetry term constant Inversely proportional to A


Asymmetry) Term
principle....
(N−Z)2
The asymmetry term constant Inversely proportional to A
Empirically, aA = 23.21 MeV

Emperical Observations on Nuclear Binding
There is still one observation that can tell us something about the
binding energy, and how nucleons interact with one another. How
many nuclei with an even or odd number of protons and neutrons are
stable?

stable?
Z N Number of Stable Nuclei
Even Even 177
Even Odd 58
Odd Even 54
Odd Odd 10


stable?
Z N Number of Stable Nuclei
Even Even 177
Even Odd 58
Odd Even 54
Odd Odd 10

stable?
This suggests that there is a force we need to

consider that adds additional binding when we
have an even number of nucleons. We call this
nuclear pairing

The Liquid Drop Model: The Pairing Term
We just saw that unpaired protons and neutrons are less bound. How
do we represent this in our liquid drop model?

+δ
 for even-even nuclei
Bpair = 0 for even-odd or odd-even

−δ for odd-odd nuclei




+δ


δ = aP · A−1/2



+δ


δ = aP · A−1/2
The pairing term constant



+δ


δ = aP · A−1/2
The pairing term constant Inversely proportional to
A1/2



+δ


δ = aP · A−1/2
The pairing term constant Inversely proportional to
A1/2
Empirically, aP = 12 MeV
Next Class...
Reading Before Next Class
• Section 3.3 in Krane (if you haven’t already)
Next Class Topics
• Introduction of the Semi-Empirical Mass Formula

• Comparing our Liquid Drop Model to Experimental Observations
(ie. how do we do?)
• The mass parabola, and energy concerns for radioactive decay.
• Assignment #1!

Liquid Drop

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PHGN 422: NUCLEAR PHYSICS

PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

Prof. Kyle Leach

September 12, 2019

• Nuclear binding results in a mass that is less than the sum of

• We can release that energy by performing nuclear reactions.

• The atomic mass can be measured through several techniques,

Slide 2 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

What Have We Learned About the Nucleus So

Slide 3 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

What Have We Learned About the Nucleus So

2 Nuclei are positively charged, and the nuclear charge density is

Slide 3 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

What Have We Learned About the Nucleus So

2 Nuclei are positively charged, and the nuclear charge density is

3 The strong force is attractive only at short range....

Slide 3 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

What Have We Learned About the Nucleus So

2 Nuclei are positively charged, and the nuclear charge density is

3 The strong force is attractive only at short range....

4 AND is repulsive at very short range (ie. nuclear matter is highly

Slide 3 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

What Have We Learned About the Nucleus So

2 Nuclei are positively charged, and the nuclear charge density is

3 The strong force is attractive only at short range....

4 AND is repulsive at very short range (ie. nuclear matter is highly

These observations are remarkable, and have been performed

How Do We Begin to Understand Nuclear

In order to understand nuclear binding, we need to derive a

To start with, let us consider the nucleus as a charged drop of

Slide 4 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

The Liquid Drop Model

• The scattering experiments we saw previously suggested that

Slide 5 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

The Liquid Drop Model

• The scattering experiments we saw previously suggested that

Source: Krane - Fig. 3.4

Slide 5 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

The Liquid Drop Model

• The nuclear force is short-range, but does not allow for

Slide 6 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

The Liquid Drop Model

Source: Department of Chemistry, UC Davis

The Liquid Drop Model

• The nucleus is a positively charged object. For our purposes

Slide 7 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

The Liquid Drop Model

Slide 7 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

The Liquid Drop Model

• We have been assuming spherical nuclei so far, but when

Slide 8 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

The Liquid Drop Model

Source: L.P. Gaffney et al., Nature 497, 199204 (2013)

Slide 8 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

The Liquid Drop Model: The Volume Term

Slide 9 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

The Liquid Drop Model: The Volume Term

We’ll discuss our starting point on the chalkboard....

Slide 10 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics

The Liquid Drop Model: The Volume Term

We’ll discuss our starting point on the chalkboard....

Slide 10 — Prof. Kyle Leach — PHGN 422: Nuclear Physics