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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2006-01-3477

Cavitation on Wet Cylinder Liners of Heavy Duty

Diesel Engines
Bernhard Steck, Günter Sommerfeld and Volker Schneider
MAHLE International GmbH

Commercial Vehicle Engineering

Congress and Exhibition
Chicago, Illinois
October 31-November 2, 2006

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Cavitation on Wet Cylinder Liners of Heavy Duty
Diesel Engines
Bernhard Steck, Günter Sommerfeld and Volker Schneider
Copyright © 2006 SAE International
ABSTRACT
Cavitation of wet cylinder liners in heavy duty diesel
engines can cause considerable damage. Under specific
conditions in fast-running diesel engines, cylinder liner
excitation can lead to high local vibration velocities
resulting in high pressure changes in the coolant. As the
coolant falls below the vapor pressure, cavitation may
result.
In this paper the fundamental physical phenomenon, the
measuring method to detect cavitation, measurement
results and methods of resolution will be presented. The
physical phenomenon describes the behavior of
cavitation bubbles near solid material surfaces. The
measuring method to detect cavitation is based on the
evaluation of the dynamic coolant pressure.
Measurement results and methods of resolution will be
illustrated for different parameters.
INTRODUCTION
Cavitation is the formation, growth and implosive
collapse of vapor-filled bubbles in liquids. The basic
requirement for understanding the complex cavitation
phenomena in a heavy duty diesel engine with wet
cylinder liners is the detailed understanding of the cause
and effect. The primary cause for the development of
cavitation on the external wall of the cylinder liner, which
is surrounded by the coolant, is the excitation of the
cylinder liner caused by the gas and inertia forces during
the four-stroke cycle. The gas and inertia forces lead to
the piston primary movement where the piston travels up
and down from top dead center to bottom dead center
and the piston secondary motion where the piston
strikes or impacts the cylinder liner wall. These impacts
of the piston secondary motion will be translated into
cylinder liner excitations [1] [2] [3]. Depending on the
cylinder liner material, the cylinder liner design, the
piston profile, the piston pin offset, the installation
clearances, the combustion process and the engine
operating point the cylinder liner excitation may differ.
Under unfavorable conditions the cylinder liner excitation
can lead to high local vibration velocities. If such high
local vibration velocities occur, it is possible that the
2006-01-3477
MAHLE International GmbH
coolant surrounding the cylinder liner on the external
wall side cannot follow these high velocities. Therefore,
the local coolant pressure can fall below the vapor
pressure. In this case, the formation of cavitation
bubbles is possible [4]. If the coolant pressure rises
again above the vapor pressure, then the cavitation
bubbles collapse. The bubble collapse is of particular
importance because of the physical and chemical effects
that can lead to cylinder liner damage, known as cylinder
liner cavitation erosion or cylinder liner pitting [5]. The
physical effects during bubble collapse such as high
pressures, temperatures and velocities can cause
material loss on the external side of wet liners. The
cavitation erodes small holes in the liner wall. Currently,
there is no liner material available which can resist these
high local pressures, temperatures and velocities.
Depending on the intensity of the cavitation bubble
collapse, cavitation erosion can occur after a few hours
of engine operating time. After hundreds of hours
ongoing cavitation erosion will eventually erode through
the entire liner wall, allowing coolant to enter the
lubrication system [6]. Cylinder liner erosion can occur
anywhere on the liner wall where the coolant pressure
falls below the vaporization pressure threshold.
Typically, two kinds of cavitation damages may occur.
The most important one is found in the area of thrust or
anti-thrust side on the cylinder liner where the piston
impacts around ignition top dead center. The other one
is generated in very small gaps of the coolant gallery
between the cylinder liner and engine block where high
coolant flow rates occur. These high coolant flow rates
reduce local static coolant pressure. Therefore, in these
areas the vaporization pressure threshold is reached by
small cylinder liner excitation. This paper is focused on a
new experimental method to measure the intensity of
cavitation on wet cylinder liners of heavy duty diesel
engines. In order to convey a better theoretical
understanding, the physical phenomenon of cylinder
liner cavitation is presented. The development of new
test procedures, which allow for the early detection of
cavitation damage, is introduced. The measurement
results will be evaluated by a new method, based on a
specific formula. Different solutions to reduce the
cavitation intensity on wet cylinder liners of heavy duty
diesel engines will be presented as well.
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THE PHYSICAL PHENOMENON OF CAVITATION Vaporous cavitation

The complexity of cavitation is illustrated by the fact that
principles of hydrodynamics, thermodynamics,
chemistry, plasma physics and optics are all involved in
the cavitation process [7]. The fundamental cavitation
process has been extensively researched during recent
years. Since it is possible to investigate an insulated
single cavitation bubble, it is therefore possible to
explain the complex dynamic cavitation process in more
detail [8]. Until now it has not been successful to
describe the complete cavitation process in great detail.
In the narrow sense, cavitation (derived from the Latin
word “cavus” = hollow) is understood as the formation of
hollows in liquids [7], but colloquially, all the phenomena
associated with the cavitation process are understood as
cavitation. The formation of vapor bubbles can be
divided into the following two physical processes:
cavitation and boiling. Basic cavitation is the process of
building vapor bubbles in a liquid when the pressure falls
below the vapor pressure at a constant temperature,
while boiling is the process of building vapor bubbles in
a liquid when the temperature is raised above the
vapor/liquid temperature at the same pressure. This
description relates to theoretical chemically pure liquids.
In practice, liquids are not chemically pure. Every liquid,
including the coolant of an engine, includes nuclei called
weak spots [9]. These nuclei are the reason that no
liquid can resist small tensile forces [10]. All cavitation
phenomena have their derivation in the unstable
expansion of such nuclei [9]. Therefore, the knowledge
of the nuclei formation is the basis for the understanding
of the cavitation in real fluids. The nuclei are the initial
points for the snatch operation or the vaporization of a
fluid. These nuclei can be any of the following: small gas
bubbles, dissolved gas in the fluid, hydrophobic solid
particles, pore nuclei which will be found on the surface
Compared to pseudo and gaseous cavitation, vaporous
cavitation occurs only when a fast pressure drop is
under the vapor pressure curve (Figure 1). In this case,
the resultant bubbles are filled with the vapor of the
surrounding liquid. These bubbles include almost no
other gas components. If the pressure rises again or if
the bubbles migrate to areas of higher pressure, the
bubbles collapse under an implosive decrease in
volume. The implosion of such bubbles near a surface or
solid wall (like a cylinder liner) can cause fluid jets (also
called micro jets), high pressures, high temperatures, or
shock waves. When the bubble collapse of the vaporous
cavitation is very intense, it is possible that the bubbles
dissociate into many smaller bubbles. This is called
transient cavitation [16].
Cavitation in real flows
In practice, cavitation occurs as a combination of
gaseous, pseudo, and vaporous cavitation. As shown in
Figure 1, the formation and expansion of bubbles begins
on nuclei by gaseous and pseudo cavitation. The
bubbles grow to a critical radius. After achieving the
critical radius and remaining beneath the vaporization
threshold, vaporous cavitation starts [17]. Gaseous
cavitation can have a minimizing influence on the
vaporous cavitation. To minimize this effect, the engine
coolant is degassed before the cavitation
measurements.
2,0
Liquid Area Vaporization Line
Pseudo Cavitation

1,5
Absolute Pressure [bar]

roughness of materials [11], [12], [13], [14], [15]. Gaseous

Cavitation
KINDS OF CAVITATION
1,0
Cavitation is divided into the following types: pseudo
cavitation, gaseous cavitation, vaporous cavitation (real
cavitation) and cavitation in real flows.
0,5

Gaseous cavitation Vapor Area

Vaporous Cavitation
In a liquid, dissolved gases diffuse to an undissolved 0,0
state as a result of decreases in pressure (Figure 1). 0 40 80 120 160
The bubbles which emerge normally include the Temperature [°C]
dissolved gas particles. If the pressure rises again, the
gas in the bubbles will diffuse back to a dissolved state.
Gaseous cavitation can appear above the vapor Figure 1: Kinds of cavitation
pressure curve.

Pseudo cavitation

The expansion of gas bubbles present in a liquid as a CAVITATION NUMBER SIGMA

result of pressure decrease is called pseudo cavitation
(Figure 1). The occurrence of pseudo cavitation is also The fundamental parameter in the description of
possible above the vapor pressure curve. cavitation is the nondimensional cavitation number
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sigma. The cavitation number is based on Bernoulli’s A noncavitating flow is defined by the minimum pressure
equation for flowing fluids. Bernoulli’s equation proves coefficient Cpmin [12].
that the static pressure is reduced in areas of flow
restriction while the dynamic pressure will rise. pist  pmin
Cpmin (5)
1 2
1 ˜ U ˜v
pd ptot  pst ˜ U ˜ v 2 (1) 2
2
x Cpmin = minimum pressure coefficient
x ptot = total pressure x pmin = minimum pressure
x pst = static pressure
x pd = dynamic pressure Provided that vaporous cavitation occurs when pmin = pv,
x U = density of the fluid the incipient cavitation number is equal to the minimum
x v = velocity of the fluid pressure coefficient.

Theoretically, the occurrence of cavitation is possible Cpmin V i (6)

when, in a fluid flow, the static pressure is lower than the
vapor pressure of the fluid. The cavitation number is
calculated from the difference between the static DYNAMIC AND COLLAPSE OF CAVITATION
pressure and the vapor pressure divided by the dynamic BUBBLES
pressure of the fluid flow. If the cavitation number is
negative, cavitation may occur [12]. The formation of cavitation bubbles begins on unequally
distributed nuclei in the fluid, often in the form of a
complete bubble cloud. The bubble cloud can have
pst  pv
V (2) differing particle size distribution. After have been
1 2 created, the bubbles continue to grow as the static
˜ U ˜v
2 pressure of the surrounding liquid continues to
decrease. While the cavitation bubbles grow, it is
possible that dissolved gases from the surrounding liquid
x V = cavitation number can diffuse into the bubbles. Many other factors such as
x pv = vapor pressure thermal, convective, inertia, mass diffusion, liquid
compressibility and surface roughening effects influence
This approach is only true for chemically pure liquids. the growth of cavitation bubbles and the following bubble
Depending on cavitation nuclei, the presence of collapse [19]. The collapse occurs when the pressure of
dissolved gases in the fluid and mechanical dynamic the surrounding fluid increases or if the bubbles flow into
effects, cavitation may occur earlier. Therefore, the point areas of higher pressure. The cavitation bubbles
from which real cavitation occurs is characterized by the abruptly collapse by implosive reduction in volume. The
critical cavitation coefficient Vi also called incipient collapse can cause high pressures, high temperatures,
cavitation number [18]. high velocities, crackling noise as well as low level
emission of light, known as sonoluminescence and
pist  pv shock waves. Basically, the two kinds of cavitation
Vi (3) bubble collapse possible are spherical and nonspherical.
1
˜ U ˜v 2
2 Spherical bubble collapse

x Vi = incipient cavitation number If cavitation bubbles are located away from a solid
x pist = incipient static pressure boundary, they can collapse spherically. This is possible
when the density in the surrounding liquid is constant,
The implementation of the correction pressure pc the heating of the liquid is uniform, the dynamic viscosity
considers the influence of nuclei, the presence of is constant and the temperature and pressure of the
dissolved gases in the fluid as well as mechanical bubble content are uniform. The collapse will then begin
at a maximum radius. When the maximum radius RM is
dynamic effects. The critical cavitation coefficient Vi is
reached, there is equilibrium for a short time between
calculated by the following equation:
the inner bubble pressure and the surrounding fluid
pressure. When the surrounding fluid pressure exceeds
pst  ( pv  pc ) the inner bubble pressure, the bubbles begin to implode.
Vi (4)
1 2 On the inner side of the bubbles, very high pressures
˜ U ˜v and temperatures occur. While passing through the
2 minimum radius of the bubble, the pressure from the
surrounding fluid reacts against the bubble surface and
x pc = correction gas pressure results outwardly as a shock wave (Figure 2).
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Maximum Bubble Bubble Collapse
Radius RM (Implosion)
Bubble
Bubble Growth
Reduction
Figure 2: Spherical bubble collapse
Nonspherical bubble collapse
Asymmetrical bubble collapse is dependent on the
presence of other solid surfaces, thermal effects and
even the influence of gravity [20]. The dominant effect of
an instable and nonspherical bubble collapse is the
development of a micro jet. When the bubble
surrounding fluid flow is influenced by a solid surface,
the cavitation bubble collapses with the formation of a
micro jet. At the beginning of the collapse, the side of the
cavitation bubble furthest from the solid surface is
accelerated inward more rapidly then the side near the
solid surface (Figure 3).
Max. Bubble Start of Micro Jet Micro Jet
Radius RM Micro Jet Penetrate Hit the
Formation the Bubble Opposite Wall
Solid Surface (e.g. Cylinder Liner Wall)
Figure 3: Nonspherical bubble collapse
This results in the development of a high-speed micro
jet. The developed micro jet will travel through the
bubble and will penetrate the inner side of the bubble
near the solid surface. In the developed state, the rest of
the bubble becomes a toroid and the micro jet will
penetrate directly to the solid surface (Figure 3). A
cavitation bubble that collapses to a size (order of
magnitude) smaller than its maximum size often first
emerges as a cloud of smaller bubbles, then collapsing
as a single vapor bubble [21]. The finite cloud of bubbles
can cause the formation of micro jets. The micro jets in
this cloud are normally enhanced by the neighboring
bubbles. The fundamental knowledge of the cavitation
bubble dynamic and collapse in the vicinity of a solid
surface is particularly important because this is the
source of material damage. Therefore, this subject has
been studied intensively for many years [22]. Cavitation
bubble collapse is a violent process that generates
highly localized pressures, temperatures, micro jets and
large amplitude shock waves. When this collapse occurs
close to a solid surface, highly localized and transient
surface stresses can be generated [16]. Numerous
investigations show that cavitation damage always
occurs when the dimensionless displacement parameter
is less then 2. The parameter is defined by the following
equation:
s
J (7)
RM
x J = displacement parameter
x s = distance center cavitation bubble to the
solid surface
x RM = maximum cavitation bubble radius
The real mechanism of cavitation damage has been
debated for many years. Currently, there is no clear
explanation for the cause of cavitation damage [16]. The
following main factors come into consideration:
1. micro jets resulting in high localized pressures
2. high inner temperatures of the bubbles when the
bubbles implode directly on the solid surface
3. high inner pressures of the bubbles when the
bubbles implode directly on the solid surface
4. shock waves caused by imploding bubbles
Recent investigations show that mechanical factors,
particularly high pressures, are primarily responsible for
cavitation damage, however high temperature peaks can
also contribute to cavitation damage [7].
CAVITATION DAMAGE ON WET CYLINDER
LINERS
Fundamentally the occurrence and violence of cavitation
damage depends on many factors of the physical
process of cavitation. Therefore, cavitation itself is a
highly unstable process. This is further illustrated by the
fact that in a heavy duty diesel engine the process of
cavitation bubble formation, and hence cavitation
damage on wet cylinder liners, depends on the engine
operating conditions. Finally it is the liner vibration
leading to local coolant pressure changes which
constitute the bubble building process. The liner
excitation is mainly effected by a piston slap due to the
secondary motion behavior. The intensity and direction
of this excitation depend on design parameters like
piston installation clearance, piston profile, ovality, pin
offset and also on speed and combustion pressure
curve. This is why piston related cavitation damages are
mostly found in the area of thrust or anti-thrust side of
the liner (Figure 4). The other common place where
cavitation damage can occur is anywhere on the cylinder
liner where the coolant gallery between cylinder liner
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and engine block shows small gaps, which can lead to
higher coolant flow rates than in the other areas of the
coolant gallery (Figure 5). This kind of damage is called
“gap cavitation” and often occurs at the separation area
between coolant gallery and crankcase gasket kit. “Gap
cavitation” damage occurs as a straight line. In an
advanced state “gap cavitation” can appear around the
whole circumference of the liner.
characteristics of the pitting are influenced by the
tension which occurs on the surface of the material. The
formation of different acting normal stress, shearing
stress and residual stress is possible depending on the
type of material structure, the structural element itself,
the grain size and the hardness and ductility of the
cylinder liner material [1].

Figure 4: Piston related liner cavitation damage

Figure 6: Cylinder liner cavitation damage on thrust side

Cylinder Liner Material

Cavitation
Holes

Figure 5: Cylinder liner cavitation damage (“gap cavitation”) Running Surface

Cylinder Liner
Cylinder Liner
Coolant Side

Figure 6 shows cavitation damage (12 times enlarged)

on the thrust side of a cylinder liner. The pitting shows
that the holes have different diameters and are
irregularly distributed. Depending from the piston
secondary motion behavior and the resulting liner
excitation cavitation damage can occur at different
heights. The cavitation damage shown in Figure 6 was
the result of 900 h engine running with steady state and
transient cavitation running programs. The cross section
Thickness
through a cavitation damaged liner wall (Figure 7) shows
Cylinder Liner Wall 6mm
that the pitting through the cylinder liner is not in a
straight direction, but shows primarily curved
Figure 7: Cylinder liner cavitation damage cross section
characteristics with local expansions. Basically, the
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The example contains a grey cast cylinder liner structure

element composed of brittle graphite and hard
cementite. In this case, it is possible that the increasing
normal and shearing stresses will only extend to the
area of the graphite fibers and only minimally or not at all
to the areas of the cementite fibers. Therefore, changes
in the direction of cavitation damage through a cylinder
liner material are possible.

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE AND

MEASURING METHOD

The detection and measurement of cavitation is based

on the effects in the coolant caused by the cavitation
bubble collapse. Depending on the violence of cavitation
bubble collapse, high frequency dynamic coolant
pressure peaks can occur locally in the coolant. The Figure 9: Pressure sensor outer side of engine block
intensity of these pressure peaks in the coolant is
correlated with the violence of the cavitation bubble
collapse and possible cylinder liner damage. Before the
necessary measurement technique can be applied, it is
important to know where at the cylinder liner possible
Cylinder Liner
cavitation damage occurs and if all cylinder liners are
Inner Cooling Water Jacket
affected with same intensity and location. Depending on
the design of the coolant gallery and different fluid flow Quartz Sensor
Cover
behavior, differences can exist from cylinder to cylinder.
The high frequency dynamic pressure peaks can only be Plastic-Adapter
measured correctly if the sensors can be applied in the
vicinity of cavitation bubble collapse (Figure 8). This Adjustment Pin
often requires complicated sensor installation. Usually,
some mechanical machining is required on the engine
block. It is important that the installed sensors have no Threaded Sleeve
significant influence on the fluid flow. The sensor
housing must be properly sealed to avoid the loss of
coolant or oil if elements of the oil circuit are affected by
the sensor installation (Figure 9).

To protect the sensor measurement signals from

undesirable effects such as cross acceleration Connecting Cable
sensitivity, the sensor is secured in a special plastic
adapter (Figure 10). The material characteristics of the
plastic adapter must be highly resistant to oil, fuel and Plastic Sleeve
coolant as well as temperature extremes. Sealing Cover Thread
Outer Cooling
Water Jacket
Engine Block

Figure 10: Installed pressure sensor cross section

If cavitation occurs, the violence may differ from four-

Figure 8: Pressure sensor inner side of engine block
stroke cycle to four-stroke cycle even at constant engine
speed. Therefore, for the acquisition and analysis it is
important to measure several four-stroke cycles. This
requires a detailed determination of top dead center
(TDC). Because cavitation bubble formation depends
basically on the forces caused by the combustion
pressure curve a pressure indication is mandatory.
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The measured sensor signals will be acquired with a m

special data acquisition system (MAHLE KI-Meter)

developed for cavitation measurements. The data
KI 200 ˜
¦ n ˜f
k 0
k k

(8)
acquisition system allows for recording 8 cylinders with
each up to more than 10,000 consecutive four-stroke c
cycles (Figure 11).
x KI = cavitation intensity factor for one KI-Cycle
Combustion x nk = number of classified events per section
Oscilloscope
Pressure x fk = weighting factor
Charge Amplifier
x c = number of measured four stroke cycles
x k = section number
x m = max. number of sections
Kistler 6001 The locally measured coolant pressure curve will be
High-Pass Filter
Engine 50 kHz
high-pass filtered to get the high frequency component
of the coolant pressure changes. The evaluation of the
Kistler 603 B time history signals is described in Figure 12.

Measuring window 30°CA

Local Coolant Charge Amplifier after ignition top dead center
KI-Meter
Pressure Begin of liner vibration caused by piston slap
1 Cylinder liner moves toward the coolant side
720° Coolant pressure increases
Reflex Light Barrier Trigger Cylinder liner moves back in opposite direction
2 Coolant pressure decreases until vapor pressure
threshold is reached
Figure 11: Cavitation measurement equipment
3 Cavitation bubble build up phase
High frequency coolant pressure signal caused by
4
cavitation bubble collapse
Highest positive amplitude used for determination
5
CAVITATION INTENSITY FACTOR of cavitation intensity factor
16 Measured Coolant Pressure Curve
In practice, severe cavitation damage on wet cylinder 12
Pcool [bar]

4
liners becomes visible after a long engine running time. 8 1 2
The cavitation intensity factor is based on the analysis of 3
several consecutive four-stroke cycles. Usually the, KI- 4
factor is calculated from 50 four-stroke cycles for the 0
transient engine running program and from 200 cycles -4 High-Pass Filtered Coolant Pressure
for the constant engine running program. Regardless of
Pcool filtered [bar]

4
the number of measured four-stroke cycles, the 5
cavitation intensity factor (KI) is always standardized on 2
200 working cycles. Beginning with each four-stroke 0
cycle, the crank angle area with the highest positive
-2
coolant pressure peak will be selected and analyzed.
This is normally the crank angle area around ignition top -4
0 6 12 18 24 30
dead center. Generally, the selected crank angle area is Crank Angle [°CA]
stable for one analyzed engine with one defined
combustion and ECU data set. The highest coolant Figure 12: Time history analysis of coolant pressure curve
pressure peaks for each four-stroke cycle will be
assigned to a classified pressure measuring section.
The number of four-stroke cycles which will be classified
is defined previously. After that, the number of events for
each classified section will be weighted by a factor, TRANSIENT RUNNING PROGRAM
which represents the magnitude of possible cavitation
erosion. The results of each weighted pressure section
To take nearly all operating conditions into account and
will then be accumulated and divided by the number of
to recognize cavitation as early as possible, special
all measured four-stroke cycles. All results will be
engine running programs have been developed.
normalized to 200 four-stroke cycles (Equation 8). Each
Cavitation can occur at constant engine speeds as well
evaluated packet of four-stroke cycles can be defined as
as under transient engine running conditions. Compared
one KI-cycle.
to steady state cavitation running programs, a transient
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cavitation running program leads to much higher
cavitation intensity. High intensity cavitation bubble
collapse is especially evident during fast load alteration
from low load and low speed to high load and high
speed. In this case, unfavorable conditions of large
clearances between the piston and liner and also
between the liner and engine block can lead to high liner
vibration velocities. A minimum of four load alterations
should be recorded in order to evaluate the whole
temperature range from engine cold start on (Figure 13).
2000
Coolant temperature high
parameter is the coolant pressure. The occurrence of
cavitation can be reduced significantly by this parameter
(Figure 14). Other operating parameters are the
chemical composition of the coolant, the mixing ratio of
the coolant and the coolant temperature. The
measurements with the different coolants (Figure 15)
showed, that depending from the properties of the
coolants the cavitation tendency can be reduced. The
properties of the tested coolants are shown in Table 1.
The influence of operating parameters can help to
reduce the symptoms, but not the root cause of
cavitation. If the cavitation intensity reaches higher
levels, the possibility of reducing cavitation by altering
operating parameters is very low.

1500 500 2000

Speed [rpm]

Coolant System Pressure

400 1600
1000
1.0 bar overpressure
0.5 bar overpressure

Speed [rpm]
Coolant temperature low 300 0.0 bar 1200

KI-factor
Steady state at no load 450 sec.
500

Steady state at full load 300 sec. 200 800

Engine start at ambient temperature

0
100 400
0 200 400
KI-cycle

0 0
Figure 13: Transient cavitation running program 0 200 400
KI-cycle

Figure 14: Influence of coolant pressure on cavitation intensity

ENGINE TEST RESULTS

The engine used for the cavitation measurements was a

6-cylinder in-line engine with a bore diameter of
approximately 130 mm. A 100 hours engine run was 500 2000
conducted with the transient cavitation running program
to localize the area on the liners where cavitation Coolant Types
damage occurs. The necessary cavitation measurement 400 1600
technique was then accordingly applied. Due to C0
C1
inhomogeneous nuclei distribution in the coolant, C2
Speed [rpm]

differing flow behavior in the cooling system of the 300 C3 1200

KI-factor

engine from four-stroke cycle to four-stroke cycle, as

well as varying cylinder liner vibrations from cylinder to
cylinder, it is necessary, to keep the test conditions 200 800
constant. For base measurements, all cavitation running
programs were conducted with an open coolant system
and distilled water. This water is nearly free of 100 400
undissolved gases and does not lead to cavitation
reducing effects. The engine was always started at
ambient temperature. 0 0
0 200 400
INFLUENCE OF OPERATING PARAMETERS
KI-cycle
The cavitation behavior can be influenced by different
operating parameters. One of the most important Figure 15: Influence of different coolants on cavitation intensity
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C0 100 % distilled water conditions, for a short time after the cold start cavitation
50 % distilled water and effects are still remaining.
50 % momoethylene glycol with organic
C1
corrosion inhibitors
500 2000
with nitrite and molybdate additive Cyl. 5 Cyl. 2
60 % distilled water and
40 % monoethylene glycol with organic 400 Non-optimized Articulated Piston 1600
C2 corrosion inhibitors
with organic acids and silicates
with nitrite additive

Speed [rpm]
300 1200

KI-factor
60 % distilled water and
40 % monoethylene glycol with hybrid
C3 corrosion inhibitor system with organic 200 800
acids and silicates
free of nitrites, amines and phosphates
100 400
Table 1: Properties of the tested coolant types

0 0
0 200 400
INFLUENCE OF STRUCTURE DESIGN AND FLOW KI-cycle
DYNAMIC
Figure 16: Cavitation intensity with a non-optimized articulated piston
The coolant flow, and therefore the cavitation behavior,
can be influenced by structural design changes on the
engine block. The flow dynamic can also be influenced
by changes to the characteristic of the coolant pump. In
addition design changes on the liner can influence the
vibration behavior and therefore also lead to a change in 500 2000
Cyl. 5 Cyl. 2
cavitation.
400 Optimized Articulated Piston 1600
INFLUENCE OF PISTON RELATED SHOCK
EXCITATION

Speed [rpm]
300 1200
KI-factor

The shock excitation of the cylinder liner by the piston is

the main reason for the occurrence of cavitation. The
shock excitation can vary greatly depending on the 200 800
inertia and gas forces resulting from speed and the
combustion pressure curve and the installation
clearance between piston and liner. To influence the 100 400
piston related shock excitation by the gas and inertia
characteristic requests fundamental changes in the
combustion pressure curve which requires changes in 0 0
the ECU data set. This often leads to a conflict of goals 0 200 400
in complying with exhaust emissions and fuel KI-cycle
consumption demands. Any possibility of influencing
cavitation behavior by varying piston installation
Figure 17: Cavitation intensity with an optimized articulated piston
clearance is limited by the requirement of engine seizure
safety. Therefore, the best way to influence shock
excitation on the cylinder liner is to modify the piston
design. This can be accomplished by changes in the
piston profile, skirt ovality, piston pin offset, piston crown
offset as well as changes in the casting design, material, Figure 18 shows an optimized MONOTHERM£ piston
stiffness and ductility. As seen in Figures 16 and 17, the with additional improvements during cold start phase.
cavitation intensity could be reduced effectively by such With such an optimized piston concept even after very
design optimizations to the piston. The non-optimized long running times no more cavitation damages will
articulated piston (Figure 16) shows a high cavitation occur.
intensity even with a warm engine. The optimized
articulated piston (Figure 17) shows a dramatically
reduced cavitation intensity factor under warm
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500
Cyl. 5 Cyl. 2
400 Optimized MONOTHERM Piston £
300
KI-factor
200
100
0 0
0 200 400
KI-cycle
Figure 18: Cavitation intensity with an optimized
MONOTHERM£ piston
SUMMARY
Cavitation damage of machinery has been researched
for a long time, especially in the pump and shipping
industries. Because of increasing demands in the heavy
duty engine industry regarding combustion pressure
characteristics and engine design, cavitation damage on
wet cylinder liners occurs more and more often. It was
therefore necessary to investigate the cavitation
phenomenon on wet cylinder liners of a heavy duty
diesel engine. A successful method of measuring the
cavitation bubble collapse intensity in an operating
engine is presented. The method is based on the
measurement and evaluation of high frequency coolant
pressure peaks caused by imploding cavitation bubbles.
The measurement results were consistent with the
visible violence of cavitation damage. The development
of special engine running programs allows the
comparison of different test versions after a relatively
short engine running time. Especially the transient
engine running program with fast load alterations allows
the recognition of possible cavitation damage in an early
stage. The occurrence of cavitation damage can be
reduced by many factors. The best experimental results
to reduce cavitation damage have been obtained by
increasing the coolant pressure, by optimizing
installation clearances and by improving piston design
parameters. Of all tested piston concepts, the
MONOTHERM£ piston delivers the lowest cavitation
intensity, even just after the engine start at ambient
conditions. Increasing demands on the piston and
cylinder liner make future activities necessary to avoid
cavitation on the coolant side of cylinder liners.
2000 ACKNOWLEDGSMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of Dr.
1600 Reiner Künzel, head of the engine test laboratory, and
Herbert Schelling, retired head of the engine test
laboratory at MAHLE International GmbH in Stuttgart,
Speed [rpm]
1200 where the engine tests were performed. The authors
would also like to thank Bruno Kienle for the supply with
measurement techniques.
800
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