Chapter 2: Slurry Design Considerations

The following general and specific factors can influence the slurry composition and
design for a highly deviated or horizontal well.

General Design Considerations

Slurry Density
Choose the density of a cement slurry with the following considerations in mind:
• The slurry density should be greater than the drilling fluid density to aid in
displacement.
• The slurry density should be high enough to provide enough overbalance pressure at
gas-bearing zones to minimize the chance of gas migration after placement. The
dynamics of this problem are described in detail in the Gas Migration Section of this
chapter.
• The slurry density should be sufficiently high to yield a cement compressive strength
that is adequate for the well construction. Compressive strength is proportional to
cement density because compressive strength is proportional to water/cement ratio
and water/cement ratio is proportional to slurry weight.
• Slurry density should be low enough so that it can be efficiently placed without
fracturing any weak zones in the openhole section of the well.

Lightweight Cements
When API Class G or H cement is mixed with the recommended amount of water, the
cements will have a density of 15.8 lb/gal or 16.4 lb/gal, respectively. When a slurry
density that is less than the normal cement slurry weight is required, some type of
lightweight additive or system is required. The most common lightweight additive used to
make lightweight cements is water. However, the additional water thins the cement slurry
so that settling can become a problem. To provide the necessary suspension of the solids
in the cement slurry, one of several viscosifying materials can be added to the cement
slurry:
• Bentonite
• Sodium Silicate (liquid or powder)—Econolite
• Silica fume—Silicalite, Silicalite 97L, Microblok
• Micro fine cement—Micro Matrix cement
• Polymers—Halad additives
• Guar gum

1
• Diatomaceous Earth—Diacel D
Other materials that have a low specific gravity and that are blended in the cements to
lower the density include the following:
• Pozzolan (fly ash)—Pozmix A
• Natural Hydrocarbons (gilsonite and coal)
• Expanded Perlite
These materials can provide a cement slurry with a density as low as 11 lb/gal with more
than 100-psi compressive strength. When slurry densities of less than 11 lb/gal are needed
7
or when high-strength/low-density slurries are required, either foam cement or high-
8
strength microspheres should be used.

Foam Cement
Foam cement is typically generated with nitrogen, but it can also be generated with air
from an air compressor. Foam cement is usually generated with a base cement slurry
mixed at recommended water ratio and some combination of surfactants to provide
discrete gas bubbles that remain stable until the cement sets. Slurry densities as low as 4
lb/gal can be achieved, but the typical density range used in cementing operations is 8.5
to 14 lb/gal. Foam cement is a good choice for providing a lightweight, high-strength
cement, and it offers the following advantages:
• provides excellent mud displacement when pumped in place
• has built-in fluid-loss control (foamed fluids have fluid-loss control)
• forms a compressible cement that will help prevent gas migration. Compressibility of
cement for prevention of gas migration is discussed in the Gas Migration Section of
this chapter
• offers unique mechanical properties that make the cement more ductile and resistant
to cracking

High-Strength Microspheres (HSMs)—SPHERELITE

SPHERELITE has hollow spheres that have a specific gravity significantly less than
water. HSMs can be made of silica, aluminum oxides, or glass. Some spheres will actually
crack and lose their ability to lighten the slurry when they are exposed to high pressures
as they are pumped into a well, but a sufficient percentage of SPHERELITE remains
intact to provide slurry densities from 8 to 10 lb/gal. SPHERELITE has the operational
advantage of being dry-blended into the cement blend so that special nitrogen or air-
pumping equipment is not required.

2
Heavyweight Cement
Cement density can be increased by either mixing the slurry with less than the normal
water requirement or by adding some type of high specific gravity material to increase the
slurry weight. Densified cements are typically mixed with the aid of some type of
dispersant. The maximum slurry density that can be achieved with dispersants is between
17 and 18 lb/gal.
Weighting materials used in cements include the following:
• Hematite—HI-DENSE No. 3 and HI-DENSE No. 4
• Manganese Oxide—MICROMAX LIQUID
• Coarse Silica—SSA-2
• Barite

Hematite
HI-DENSE is the most commonly used weighting material. It has a specific gravity of 5.2
and has a very small water requirement. Slurry densities of more than 22 lb/gal can be
achieved by adding HI-DENSE. The material should be dry-blended in the cement before
mixing or should be added to the slurry in a batch mixer.

Manganese Oxide—MICROMAX
9
MICROMAX is a fairly new weighting material for use in oilwell cementing applications.
It also has a high specific gravity of 4.9 and a water requirement that is higher than
hematite. MICROMAX can be dry-blended with the cement and, as an added advantage,
can be added to the water before mixing the cement. Because of the suspension
properties of the manganese oxide, it can be handled as a dry powder on location or as a
50% water-based liquid. Its ability to suspend in water is a result of the small particle size
of the material (average range of particle size is 5µ or less). The ability to add the
weighting material to the mix water provides operational advantages for offshore and/or
remote locations where bulk blending of cement is difficult or impossible. The small
particle size of the manganese oxide aids in getting the slurry mixed without dry blending
and helps prevent solids settling during and after the slurry has been pumped in place.

Coarse Silica—SSA-2
SSA-2 is used primarily to help prevent strength retrogression in cement. Because the
coarse silica has almost no water requirement, adding it to a cement slurry can provide
some increase in the density (up to 17.5 lb/gal) of the slurry, even though its specific
gravity is only 2.63.

Barite
Barite is a weighting material commonly used in drilling fluids and cement spacers. It has
a specific gravity of 4.23 and a water requirement of 22% by weight. The high water

3
requirement of barite and the availability of hematite has kept barite from being a
commonly used weight material in cement slurries.

Strength Retrogression and Silica, SSA-1 or SSA-2

When Portland cement is exposed to temperatures greater than 230°F, it experiences an
increase in permeability and a decrease in strength (Figure 2.1).

4000
Coarse Silica
Compressive Strength (psi)

3000 Fine Silica

2000

1000
No Silica

0
0 8 16 24 32
Time (hours)

High-Temperature Strength Response to Cement with and Without Silica

Fig. 2.1

This increase in permeability and decrease in strength is known as strength

4,5
retrogression. To help prevent strength retrogression from occurring, use 30 to 40%
6
SSA-1. For the majority of wells, 35% SSA-1 or SSA-2 is added to help prevent strength
retrogression. Recent testing shows that SSA-1 provides maximum benefit. When density
is critical, coarse-grade sand is preferred for densified slurries. The reaction between
SSA-2 and cement occurs more slowly than between SSA-1 (fine silica) and cement, but
SSA-2 still helps to prevent long-term strength retrogression (Figure 2.1).

Acceptable Thickening-Time Windows

A minimum acceptable thickening-time window for cementing highly deviated and
20
horizontal liners can be calculated as follows:
Minimum TT = MEPT x 1.5...................................................................................... Eq. 2.1
Maximum TT = Min TT x 1.7 ................................................................................... Eq.2.2
Where
MEPT = Maximum Estimated Placement Time (time from start of mixing to the
end of the displacement)

4
 TT = Thickening Time
For example, if the MEPT is 90 minutes, the thickening time should fall between 135
20
minutes and 230 minutes, or 2:15 and 3:50. Research has shown that if the bottomhole
circulating temperature (BHCT) is greater than the top-of-liner static temperature
(TOLST), the thickening time should be kept to a minimum within this window. However,
if the TOLST is not less than the BHCT, thickening times of as much as 9 hours should
20
have no adverse effect on the strength development of the slurry at the top of the liner.

Compressive Strength
Compressive strength requirements for cements used to construct highly deviated and/or
horizontal wells follows. First, the cement should be at least 500 psi at the top of the liner
before drilling out. A compressive strength of 500 psi is also adequate to provide zonal
isolation in production zones, even when stimulation treatments are required. Previously,
high compressive strength values were often requested for cements that would be used
across producing zones. It has been found, however, that lower compressive strength
cements can provide better annular sealing when stresses are applied to the cement sheath
because of forces inside the casing caused by the effects from pressure and/or
10
temperature.

Fluid-Loss Control
Fluid-loss control has been recognized as a contributing factor to the prevention of gas
11, 12
migration. A recent study13 has shown that the initial cement fluid-loss rate is
controlled by the drilling-fluid filter cake (the fluid-loss rate of the cement is initially
equal to that of the drilling fluid).
The fluid-loss rate for cement on a freshwater, drilling-fluid filter cake has the following
effects:
• Fluid-loss rate increases rapidly with time for slurries with no fluid-loss control
additive.
• Fluid-loss rate continually decreases for cements with good API fluid-loss control
(some fluid-loss additives are more effective than others).
Fluid-loss control should be included in a cement slurry design when cementing highly
deviated or horizontal wells. An API fluid loss of 100 cc/30 min is recommended as a
minimum for all wells. In conditions in which gas migration is a concern, the values
should be lowered to no more than 50 cc/30 min. The need for fluid-loss control to help
control gas migration is discussed in detail in the Gas Migration Section in this chapter.

Rheology
The slurry should be designed to have rheological properties as low as possible without
compromising the ability of the slurry to suspend solids under dynamic conditions and
during the transition from a liquid to a solid after placement.

5
Solids Suspension
An important property of the cement slurry is its solids-suspension properties, both during
and after placement of the cement. Because solids can settle out of a fluid while being
pumped into a deviated wellbore configuration, the cement slurry should have a sufficient
yield point to prevent settling while pumping the slurry in place. After placement, the
slurry should suspend the solids until the slurry develops sufficient static gel strength to
hold solids in place while the cement is curing. Because of the unique geometry of highly
deviated and horizontal wells and the resultant "boycott effect" that can occur, solids
have a greater tendency to settle than they would in a vertical well.
To prevent settling, several cement additives and cement systems can be used:
• Latex Liquid Additive (Latex 2000, LA-2): Latex 2000 and LA-2 provide good solids
suspension and low rheological properties at the same time. This unique combination
makes Latex 2000 an excellent choice for cementing highly deviated and horizontal
wells.
• Fumed silica and other small particle-sized silica (Silicalite): Silicalite has been
employed effectively in cement slurry designs for highly deviated and horizontal well
cementing. The presence of these materials in a cement slurry allows for lower
surface rheology with higher downhole rheology than conventional cement slurries.
The ability to minimize the thermal thinning effects on cement rheology makes the use
of Silicalite an excellent choice for cementing highly deviated and horizontal wells.
• Viscosifiers (SA-541, FWCA, Suspend HT): Other conventional cement additives,
such as SA-541, FWCA, and Suspend HT, add viscosity to a cement slurry. These
additives can be effectively employed to prevent solids settling in a cement slurry.
The disadvantage of using these materials is that they increase the slurry’s mixing
viscosity. They also increase the slurry rheology, which increases the frictional
pressure. The increase in friction pressure makes it more difficult to safely place the
cement slurry without breaking down weak formations and often means that the slurry
should be placed at slow pump rates. Because pump rate is directly related to the
ability of the spacers and cement to displace the drilling mud, a slow pump rate could
mean a poorly displaced cement job, leaving mud channels and allowing
communication in the annulus.
• Foamed Cement: Foamed cements are viscous and typically have no free water or
settling while curing. When lightweight cements are needed and/or when it is possible
to get foam cement equipment on location, foamed cements are an excellent choice of
a cement system for a highly deviated or horizontal well. Foam cement is especially
effective when lost circulation is a problem and/or low slurry weights are needed to
maintain the equivalent circulating density (ECD) below the fracture gradient. Other
unique properties, such as its superior ductility and crack resistance, make foam
cement a cement slurry of choice even when low fracture gradients do not exist.

6
Special Design Considerations
Several special slurry design considerations may become a factor in cementing a highly
deviated or horizontal well:
• gas migration
• lost circulation
• salt zones
• freshwater-sensitive shales

Types of Gas Migration

Gas migration has been recognized as a problem in cementing for decades. Much work
has been done to investigate the cause and possible solutions to this problem. Volumes
have been written on this subject, but a concise summary of the potential causes of gas
migration and preventive measures and solutions to the problem follow.
The three types of gas migration are

• gas flow through mud channels

• gas flow through microannulus and damaged cement sheath
• gas flow through unset cement
Laboratory tests indicate that gas migration can occur through several different
mechanisms. Proper identification of the type of gas migration that might occur is critical
in devising a plan to prevent it from taking place.

Gas Flow Through Mud Channels

Gas flow through mud channels, which is sometimes referred to as long-term gas
migration, occurs through the following mechanism. Cement is pumped in place and the
slurry gels and then sets without any gas migration occurring. During the setting process,
the cement goes through a plastic-state shrinkage. This shrinkage, while only slight, can
cause a weakening of the bond of the cement to the drilling-mud filter cake. When this
weakening occurs, a small microcrack that provides a flow path for gas migration forms
between the cement and mud filter cake. This potential problem appears especially in
cases where the mud cake is relatively thick and/or when poor mud displacement occurs
during the cement job. As the gas begins to flow through this microcrack between the
mud filter cake and set cement, the dry gas begins to dehydrate the moist mud filter cake.
As the filter cake dehydrates, the crack gets wider, which allows more gas, which causes
the crack to widen, and so on (Figure 2.2).

7
 Gas Migration Through Mud Channel
Fig. 2.2

As gas flows through this channel, it can communicate up the annulus. Typically, this gas
is not seen at the surface for several days, weeks, or even months.
Solutions to the problem of gas migration through mud channels include the following:
• Follow best mud displacement practices.
• Use expansive cement additives, such as Microbond, Microbond M, Microbond HT,
and Super CBL.
Following best mud displacement practices helps minimize the mud filter cake and mud
channels in the cement sheath. A smaller mud filter cake is less likely to allow flow
through it. In addition to following best mud displacement practices, the use of expansive
additives can help prevent gas migration through mud channels. Either post-set,
crystalline-growth additives or plastic-state, gas-generating additives can be used. The
post-set, crystalline-growth materials work by compensating for the plastic-state
shrinkage that can occur as the cement cures and by helping to improve the bond of the
cement to the mud filter cake. The plastic-state, gas-generating materials work much the
same way as the crystalline-growth materials work except that the expansion occurs
because of in-situ gas generation while the cement is still in the plastic state. This internal
gas generation helps to improve the bonding of the cement to the pipe and to the mud
filter cake.

Microannular Flow
Another broad category of gas migration is microannular flow. Microannular flow occurs
when the cement sheath is damaged because of drilling out the liner top or casing shoe or
pressure testing the casing before the cement has developed sufficient compressive

8
strength. To help ensure that cement has developed sufficient compressive strength
before resuming drilling and/or completion operations, accurate temperature data should
be used when conducting compressive strength tests. Determining the BHCT can be much
more difficult when drilling a highly deviated or horizontal well than it is when dealing
with a vertical well (Appendix B). Also, when drilling offshore, the temperatures can be
affected by water depth. Care should be taken to help ensure that the cement has cured
sufficiently before drilling out the liner top or shoe before resuming drilling and/or
completion operations, which may involve some cost to the operator for the additional
time it takes to ensure that the cement has sufficiently cured. The costs of the additional
time will not be as significant as the cost of trying to repair and seal a cement sheath that
has been damaged because of premature resumption of operations on the rig.

Gas Flow Through Unset Cement

Gas flow through unset cement has been studied extensively, and many publications are
available for detailed study. This type of gas migration occurs when the overbalance
pressure is lost in a cemented annulus before the cement actually sets. The loss of
hydrostatic pressure in a cemented annulus before the cement actually sets has been
1
documented and is illustrated in Figure 2.3.

Cement Cement Cement Cement

Fluid Gels Sets Hardens
Hydrostatic Pressure

Overbalance
Pressure Formation Gas Pressure

Time

Loss of Hydrostatic Pressure in a Cemented Annulus

Fig. 2.3

The loss of hydrostatic pressure is caused by the combined effects of static gel strength
(SGS) development and volume losses (primarily caused by fluid loss). As the cement
gels, it can then support some of its hydrostatic weight. The amount of pressure

9
differential which the column of cement can hold by means of static gel strength can be
calculated by equation 1.
∆P = (SGS/300) x (L/D).................................................................................Eq. 2.3
Where:
∆P = Pressure Drop
L = Length of the cement column in ft
D = Mean Diameter of annulus (Hole - Casing), in.
300 = Conversion Factor
As fluid loss simultaneously occurs with SGS development, the lost volume causes the
hydrostatic pressure to drop at the gas-bearing formation. When the overbalance pressure
is lost, gas can then enter into the unset cement annulus. The buoyant force on the gas
bubbles in the annulus can cause the bubbles to percolate up the annulus. If a sufficient
volume of gas percolates up the annulus, a permanent channel can remain in the set
cement.
21
Laboratory research has determined that gas can percolate through cement until it
2
reaches a static gel strength of about 500 lb/100 ft . After the cement reaches 500 lb SGS,
it is too thick for gas bubbles to percolate through (Figure 2.4).

500

No Gas flow
400
Static Gel Strength (lb/100 ft2)

300
Gas Flow

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Time (min)

Gas Flow in Cement vs. Static Gel Strength

Fig. 2.4

Beyond 500 lb SGS, gas percolation through the unset cement does not occur. The time it
takes the cement to gel from 100 to 500 lb SGS is known as the Transition Time of the

10
cement. Based on these test results, a formulation has been developed that will determine
the following:
• if gas migration can occur through the unset cement
• what the severity of the problem will be if gas migration does occur
The value calculated by the equation is the “Gas Flow Potential” (GFP) or “Flow
12
Potential Factor” (FPF) for a given well. If the GFP for a given well is less than 1, gas
migration through the unset cement should not be a problem. If the flow potential is
greater than 1, a potential for gas migration exists. Depending on the severity of the
problem, specific cement slurry additives and designs can be used to prevent gas
migration.

Gas Flow Potential (GFP)

Minor GFP
For what is deemed a “minor” GFP (Figure 2.5), simple use of fluid-loss control in the
cement slurry can prevent the problem of gas migration.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ‡
GAS FLOW POTENTIAL FACTOR
Flow Condition 1 Flow Condition 2 Flow Condition 3
Minor Moderate Severe

Gas Flow Potential “Ruler”

Fig. 2.5

Reducing the fluid loss that occurs during the transition time of the cement in turn
reduces the rate of pressure loss. It also reduces the rate at which gas can enter the well.
Since the gas influx will be equal to the amount of volume lost in the cemented annulus. If
gas influx is minimized during the transition time of the cement, it is less likely that a gas
channel will form in the cemented annulus.

11
In addition to or instead of using fluid-loss control, some type of modified job design to
lower the GFP can be used. Modifications of job design to lower flow potential include
the following:
• Apply backpressure. Application of backpressure on the annulus just before pumping
the plug will increase the overbalance pressure and decrease the GFP (Equation 2.4).
GFP = MPR/OB
MPR = 1.67 x (L/D).................................................................................................. Eq. 2.4
Where
MPR = Maximum Pressure Restriction
OB = Overbalance Pressure
L = Length, ft
D = Mean Diameter, in.
• Perform a two-stage job. In a two-stage job, the cement column height can be
decreased. A shorter cement column height means a smaller “L” shown in Equation
2.4, which will lower the GFP.
• Increase mud and/or cement slurry weight. Increased fluid densities increase the
overbalance pressure. A higher overbalance pressure will provide a lower GFP.
(Equation 2.4)
• Change the casing and/or hole size. Making the casing size smaller and/or the hole
size larger increases the mean diameter, which lowers the GFP. (Figure 2.4)
The application of backpressure during and/or at the end of a cement job is a very simple
way to lower the GFP of a well. If the formation can withstand the additional pressure
without losses occurring, no additional cost will be incurred in cementing the well while
the potential gas migration can be greatly decreased. Since it is not always possible to
apply radical changes (such as altering the casing size or doing a two-stage job) right
before cementing in a well, these possibilities should be considered during the planning
stages of the well. However, tests show that simple changes in the casing and hole
2
dimensions can change the GFP from 15.4 to 1.9.

Moderate GFP
Wells with a moderate GFP should have fluid-loss control to help prevent gas migration.
In addition to fluid-loss control, gel strength modifiers have been proven to be effective in
3,12
controlling gas migration. To understand how gel strength modifiers can help prevent
gas migration, the interrelationship between gas migration and static gel strength must be
understood. First, cement slurries develop static gel strength as they transition from a
liquid to a solid. Eventually, as the cement begins to gel, the cement will have sufficient
gel strength to prevent the percolation of gas up the annulus. Study of this relationship has
2
shown that, when a cement slurry reaches 500 lb/100 ft of static gel strength (SGS), gas

12
bubbles can no longer percolate up the annulus. Therefore, the critical time in which gas
migration will initiate and possibly form a channel is before the cement reaches 500
2
lb/100 ft SGS.
The following are two types of gel strength modification systems that have been
successfully used to control gas migration:
• Rapid gel-strength cement slurriesThixotropic, Thix-Set 31
• Delayed gel-strength cement slurries—GasStop
Cements with rapid gel-strength development or thixotropic cements help prevent gas
2
migration from occurring by quickly developing 500 lb/100 ft of SGS before a gas
channel can form (Figure 2.6).

600

500
Thixotropic Cement
Static Gel Strength

400

300

Normal Cement
200

100

0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

Static Gel Strength Development of Normal and Thixotropic Cements

Fig. 2.6

The method by which the delayed gel strength cement slurries control gas migration is as
follows:
• Cement is placed and the column transmits full hydrostatic pressure.
• The fluid-loss rate decreases downhole while ungelled cement slurry continues to
transmit full weight of the hydrostatic pressure.
• When cement does begin to develop SGS, the fluid-loss rate is greatly decreased. This
low fluid-loss rate will cause only a very slow influx of gas. In addition to this slow
rate of gas influx, the SGS development is typically very quick once it begins, which
minimizes the time in which a channel can form (Figure 2.7).

13
 600

500
Static Gel Strength (lb/100 ft )
2

Delayed Gel Strength

400
Normal Cement
300

200
Fluid Loss Rate
100

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4

Time (hours)

Static Gel Strength Development of Normal and Delayed Gel Strength

Fig. 2.7
Cements (GasStop)

The mechanism by which GasStop additives work has an added safety benefit: If for some
reason pumping is stopped during the job, the slurry can be easily pumped into place even
after several hours of remaining static (conventional cements typically would gel up and
quickly make pumping impossible to resume). The cement remains fluid at the top of a
liner after placement for a long time before it gels, which lowers the risk of sticking pipe
in the cement slurry on the top of the liner when pulling drillpipe off the top of the liner.

Severe GFP
Wells with a severe GFP require the best solution possible to help ensure that gas
migration does not occur. Compressible cements with fluid-loss control are required for
such situations. Compressible cements work to help prevent gas migration by minimizing
the pressure loss in the cement column during the transition time (between 100 and 500
2
lb/100 ft SGS). Compressible cements are able to help maintain hydrostatic pressure
because pressure loss is proportional to the compressibility of the fluid in the hole
(Pressure Loss = Volume Loss/Compressibility Factor of Fluid). While normal cement
slurries are not very compressible, the addition of even a small amount of gas to a cement
slurry can greatly increase the compressibility of the fluid, which in turn can greatly
reduce pressure loss in the column of cement during the transition time (Figure 2.8).

14
 Cement Cement Cement Cement
Hydrostatic Pressure Fluid Gels Sets Hardens

Overbalance
Pressure
Formation Gas Pressure

Time

Hydrostatic Pressure in an Annulus Cemented with Gas-Generating

Fig. 2.8
Compressible Cement

Cements can be made compressible by adding gas (typically nitrogen) at the surface or
incorporating some type of gas-generating additive (GasChek, SUPER CBL) to the
slurry that will react during or after it is pumped in place.

Lost Circulation
Lost circulation is the loss of whole fluid to a formation and can occur when fracture
gradients are exceeded. Unconsolidated, fractured, or cavernous formations often
experience lost circulation.
It is usually better to solve the problem of lost circulation before attempting to do a
cement job. Ways to help solve a lost-circulation problem before cementing include the
following:
• lowering the drilling mud density
• adding lost-circulation material to the drilling mud to plug off the lost-circulation zone
• pumping some type of gelling or setting material that will plug off the lost-circulation
zone
Although lowering the drilling mud density is not always possible, it can be an effective
means to control lost circulation. Sometimes drilling operations are conducted by using a

15
foamed drilling mud or by “air drilling” the hole to minimize the problem of lost
circulation.
Probably the most common practice to solve lost circulation is the addition of some type
of material to the drilling mud to plug off lost-circulation zones. Materials that have been
used include the following:
• granular material—Gilsonite, Granulite TR ¼, Spherelite, Perlite
• flake materials—Flocele
• fibrous materials—Tuf Plug, Tuf Additive #2
• other miscellaneous materials
Adding granular materials helps to solve lost circulation by bridging off in the fractures in
the formation where the lost circulation is occurring. The bridged material helps prevent
further loss of whole fluid into the fracture. Flake and fibrous materials work in a similar
way to help seal off lost-circulation zones.
When a total loss of returns occurs while drilling, often some type of cavernous formation
most likely has been drilled into. Lost-circulation material in the drilling fluid will
typically have little effect in these situations, and materials that will turn from a liquid to a
thick gel and/or solid through some type of chemical reaction are most effective. Flash
gelling systems include the following:
• Diesel Oil Cement (DOC)
• Bentonite Diesel Oil (BDO)
• Reactive Sodium Silicate (FLO CHEK)
The DOC and BDO systems work by mixing cement or bentonite in a nonaqueous liquid,
typically diesel, with some type of surfactant that will aid in the rapid absorption of water.
The DOC or BDO is pumped down the drillpipe and into the lost-circulation zone. When
the DOC or BDO intermix with water or water-based drilling fluid, they will rapidly gel.
This gelled mass can help seal off a cavern and prevent further loss of drilling fluid. FLO
CHEK works through the precipitation of sodium silicate out of solution when intermixed
with a fluid containing a divalent ion, such as calcium. FLO CHEK can be used either
with some type of natural or premixed brine, or it can be used in conjunction with a
cement slurry. Since the water phase of cement is very high in calcium, it will readily
react with FLO CHEK to form a stiff gel, which will eventually hydrate and form hard
cement.
Further information on lost circulation can be found in the API Worldwide Cementing
22
Practices.

Salt Zones
Cementing through various types of salt zones presents additional challenges to the
cementing process. When cementing through salt zones, consider first whether or not the

16
salt is “flowable” or “nonflowable.” This consideration is necessary because different
slurry designs should be utilized for these two conditions. The following guidelines should
be followed when cementing through these two types of salt-bearing formations.

Flowable Salt Zones

In salt zones, plastic salt flow can result in casing deformation and casing failure. Casing
deformation may be caused by point loading on the casing, which is usually a result of
14
incomplete and nonuniform fill of cement in the annulus. In flowable salts, proper mud
15
displacement accompanied by rapid compressive strength development is important to a
successful cement job. Whether or not the slurry contains salt is not important as long as
the slurry sets before salt flow begins. Since salt tends to delay compressive strength
development, especially at temperatures below 200°F, salt-free cement should be used.
Several studies have shown that formation salt dissolved into a slurry has less effect on
16
slurry properties than salt added to the slurry during mixing. Any microannulus caused
by dissolution of salt by the cement slurry will likely be sealed off after the cement sets.
The microannulus is sealed off by the plastic flow of the salt.
Foam cement is typically effective for cementing across salt zones. The highly energized
foam cement can provide excellent mud displacement even in highly washed-out sections.
Its compressibility makes it effective in maintaining hydrostatic pressure and, hence, in
controlling annular gas or fluid flow (See Gas Migration section). In addition to this, the
ability to generate ultralight cement densities provides a means of covering a long cement
17
interval in one stage across weak formations in a single stage.

Nonflowable Salt Zones

In nonflowable salt zones, cement bonding to the salt zone becomes more important. If
high-pressure gas zones exist below the salt zone, intimate bonding to the salt is
necessary. Lab tests show that only saturated salt slurries provide intimate bonds to salt,
23
with the exception of foam cements containing 18% salt. If nonsaturated slurries are
used, a microannulus may form because of the salt from the formation dissolving into the
cement slurry. If good bonding is required in nonflowing salt zones, use saturated salt or
18% salt foam cement.
To design a saturated cement slurry, several special considerations should be kept in
mind. First, do not overretard the cement slurry. As mentioned above, high concentrations
of salt tend to retard the hydration of cement. In the selection of fluid-loss and other
additives, be sure that they can tolerate saturated salt. Some fluid-loss additives work fine
in freshwater cements but lose their effectiveness in saturated salt cements.
Additional benefits of using a saturated salt cement are that it will provide better
compatibility between cement slurry and invert-emulsion drilling muds, which often
contain high salt concentrations in the aqueous phase of the emulsion. Salt slurries can
19
also provide improved bonding to water-sensitive clays.

17
Water-Sensitive Formations
Some formations will slough or swell when contacted by fresh water. To overcome this
problem, do the following:
• Use oil-based muds or muds containing some type of chloride.
• When cementing across these formations, add some type of chloride salt, typically
potassium chloride. (Three to five percent potassium chloride is usually adequate to
help prevent formation sloughing.)

18