Topic 1 Measurements and Uncertainties

Fundamental SI Units
Many different types of measurements are made in physics. In order to provide a clear
and concise set of data, a specific system of units is used across all sciences. This system
is called the International System of Units (SI from the French "Système International
d'unités").

Quantity Unit name Unit symbol

Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Length meter m
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
NOTE: Candela is not used in the IB Diploma

Derived SI Units
As things get very complex when different factors start joining in we have derived SI
Units which are just simpler names for other SI Units puts together.
SI derived unit Symbol SI base unit Alternative unit
Newton N kgms-2 -
Joule J kg m2s-2 Nm
Hertz Hz s-1 -
Watt W kgm2s-3 Js-1
Volt V kg m2 s-3A-1 WA-1
Ohm Ω kgm2s-3A-2 VA-1
Pascal Pa kg m-1s-2 Nm-2

Significant figures
A simpler way to write numbers, often used for approximations and for clearance in
answers.
Rules:
 All non-zero digits are considered significant (such as 12.34 (4 sig. figures)).
 Zeros placed in between two non-zero digits (such as 1004 (4 sig. figures))

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  Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point are significant (such as
2.3400 (5 sig. figures) note that a number 0.00023400 also has 5 sig. figures as
the leading zeros are not significant.

Uncertainties and errors

Types of error:
Random error: an uncontrollable variation in measurements (reaction time, poor
technique). It is minimized by multiple trials and averaging.
Systematic error: a measurement which is larger or smaller than the true amount by the
same value (measuring from the start of the ruler and not from 0cm line)
General rules:
 Give your unc to 1 or 2 sf
 Your value should always be to the same dps as your unc
Types of uncertainty:
Absolute uncertainty (𝚫): the unc in terms of the value (0.23 ± 0.01) m.
𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Fractional uncertainty (𝜺):
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

Percent uncertainty: same as fractional but x 100. (6.6mm ± 2.2%)

Combining uncertainties:
Addition and subtraction: add the absolute uncs
(𝐴 ± Δ𝐴) + (𝐵 ± Δ𝐵) = (𝐴 + 𝐵) ± (Δ𝐴 + Δ𝐵)
(𝐴 ± Δ𝐴) − (𝐵 ± Δ𝐵) = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ± (Δ𝐴 − Δ𝐵)
E.g. (6.5 ± 0.5)𝑚 − (3.3 ± 0.1)𝑚 = (3.2 ± 0.6)𝑚
Multiplication and Division: add the percentage uncertainties.
(𝐴 ± 𝜀𝐴 ) · (𝐵 ± 𝜀𝐵 ) = (𝐴 · 𝐵) ± (𝜀𝐴 + 𝜀𝐵 )
𝐴 ± 𝜀𝐴 𝐴
= ( ) ± (𝜀𝐴 + 𝜀𝐵 )
𝐵 ± 𝜀𝐵 𝐵
E.g. (5.0 𝑚 ± 4.0%) · (3.0 𝑠 ± 3.3%) = (15.0 𝑚𝑠 ± 7.3%)
Numbers with powers: multiply percent uncertainty by the power.
(𝐴 ± 𝜀𝐴 )𝑛 = (𝐴𝑛 ± 𝑛𝜀𝐴 )
E.g. (2.0 𝑚 ± 1.0%)3 = (8.0 𝑚 ± 3.0%)
Multiplying a number by a constant: the absolute unc is also multiplied by the constant.
𝑐(𝐴 + Δ𝐴) = 𝑐𝐴 ± 𝑐(Δ𝐴)
TIP: Percent unc should remain the same.
Measuring uncertainties
Digital: the uncertainty is + or - the smallest division it can show.
Analog: the error is half of the smallest division. (E.g. ruler that measures in mm,
uncertainty will be + or - 0.5mm.

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Error Bars
Error bars are denoted by the spread of the data, normally half the range is used to find it.
max 𝑣 − min 𝑣
2
Unc in gradients

max 𝑚 − max 𝑚
𝑢𝑛𝑐 𝑖𝑛 𝑚 =
2
9.875−6.275
E.g. = 1.8
2

Vectors and Scalars

Vector: when a quantity has a direction and a magnitude. (Designated with an arrow on
top of the letter, symbols are bold and Italic).
Scalar: when a quantity has a magnitude but not a direction. (Symbols are normal and
Italic)
Common quantities

Vector Scalar

Displacement (meters + bearing - s) Mass (Kg)

Velocity (+ or - m/s - v) Length (m)

Force (N - includes weight also) Energy (J)

Acceleration (m/s2) Time (s)

Momentum (Kg x m/s) Temperature (ºK)

Field strength (gravitational/electric/magnetic) Speed (m/s)

Resolving Vectors
- Graphical method: drawing a representation of the vectors to scale and measuring the
resultant force.

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-Trigonometry: using sin and cos.
General rule: if you know the angle between the force and the component (vertical or
horizontal) you want to use 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃). If not use 𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃).

When more forces apply at an angle you can resolve vertically or horizontally, if they go
in the same direction you add them, if they go opposite ways then you decide which way
is positive is negative and add them.

SUPER NOTE
The log of something doesn’t have any units! This is important. NOR exponents, they
don’t have them either
𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟
RATE OF CHANGE must always be something
Δ𝑡

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