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✬ ✩
1 3
Y Y22 Y23 0 0
21
Y = 0
Y32 Y33 Y34 0
y14 = y41 y34 = y43
Y41 0 Y43 Y44 Y45
y15 = y51
Y51 0 0 Y54 Y55 4
9
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
✫ ✪
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The HK Polytechnic University Load Flow
✬ ✩
• Tapped Transformers:
i 1:a j Ii Ij
y ay
Ii Ij
11
Ij = y (Vj − aVi )
Ii = −aIj = y a2 Vi − aVj
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
The above load flow equations are nonlinear and can be solved by iterative methods
such as the Gauss-Seidel and Newton-Raphson methods.
✫ ✪
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3.5 Power Calculations
The complex power Si delivered to bus i is:
n
X
Si = Pi + jQi = Vi Ii∗ = Vi Yij∗ Vj∗
j=1
✫ ✪
where Yij = |Yij |/θij
✬ ✩
• busbar voltage Pi
(calculated)
Vi = |Vi |/δi Vi
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✬ ✩
• To start with, a solution vector is assumed. One of the equations is then used to
obtain the revised value of a particular variable by substituting in it the present
15
values of the remaining variable. The solution vector is immediately updated in
respect of this variable.
• The process is then repeated for all the variables thereby completing one
iteration. The iterative process is then repeated till the solution vector converges
within prescribed accuracy.
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
16 obtained.
1
V1 = (1 + 150 + 50)/2 = 100.5000
1
V2 = (-1.5+75+50.25)/1.25 = 99.0000
2
V1 = (1 + 150 + 49.5)/2 = 100.2500
2
V2 = (-1.5+75+50.125)/1.25 = 98.9000
3 3
V1 = 100.2250 V2 = 98.8900
4 4
V1 = 100.2225 V2 = 98.8890
5 5
V1 = 100.22225 V2 = 98.8889
Hence, I3 = -1.5 × 100.22225 - 0.75 × 98.8889 + 2.25 × 100 = 0.49995
✫ ✪
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✬ ✩
4.1 Load Flow Solution by Gauss-Seidel (GS) Method !
n
1 Pi − jQi X
• Recall the load flow equation: Vi = − Yij Vj (3)
Yii Vi∗
j=1,j6=i
• In GS method, the new calculated voltage Vik+1 immediately replaces Vik and
is used in the solution of the subsequent equations. Hence, eqn
! (3) becomes:
i−1 n
1 Pi − jQi X X
Vik+1 = − Yij Vjk+1 − Yij Vjk (4)
Yii (Vik )∗
17 j=1 j=i+1
• For PV bus, Qi is unknown but can be calculated from power eqn (2).
• For slack bus, its load flow equation is excluded from the GS calculation as both
its voltage magnitude |Vi | and angle δi are specified while the 2 unknown
variables Pi , Qi can be calculated from power eqn (1) and (2), i.e. there are
(n−1) load flow equations in total for a n bus system.
• Initial unknown voltage magnitude |Vi | and angle δi can be set up 1pu and 0o .
✫ ✪
This is referred as the ‘flat start’ condition.
✬ ✩
8. Advance for the next bus of the system and repeat steps 5 to 7 until a new set of
values of bus voltages of all buses in the system is obtained – 1 GS iteration.
✫ ✪
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9. Repeat the iterative process from step 4 to 8 until the difference ∆Vi for all
buses is within a specified limit or tolerance.
|∆Vik+1 | < ǫ
where k is the iteration count and ǫ is the tolerance level.
When bus type switched, the bus voltage is also needed to be corrected to cater for
the Qi being limited. Once, Qi becomes within the limits, the bus type and terminal
voltage can be restored.
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
✫ ✪
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✬ ✩
5 Newton-Raphson Method (NR)
• The NR is a powerful method widely used for solving nonlinear equations.
• the original nonlinear problem was transformed into a sequence of linear
problems whose solutions approach the solution of the original problem.
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
5.2 N-Dimensional Case
• The single dimensional concept of the NR method can be extended to N
dimensions. All that is needed is an N -dimensional analog to the first
derivations. This is provided by the Jacobian matrix J .
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✬ ✩
1. compute ∆y p
2. compute J(xp )
4. compute xp+1
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
5.3 Load Flow Solution by Newton-Raphson (NR) Method
First, rewrite the power flow equations (1) and (2) into an alternate form:
n
2
X
Pi = Gii |Vi | + |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | cos(δi − δj − θij ) (9)
j=1,j6=i
n
2
X
Qi = −Bii |Vi | + |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | sin(δi − δj − θij ) (10)
j=1,j6=i
24
where Gii = |Yii | cos(θii )
Bii = |Yii | sin(θii )
Then, apply the Newton-Raphson method to form the following mismatch equation:
" # " #" #
∂Pi ∂Pi
∆Pi ∂δi ∂|Vi |
∆δi
= (11)
∂Qi ∂Qi
∆Qi ∂δi ∂|Vi |
∆|Vi |
✫
where ∆Pi and ∆Qi are the power mismatch at bus i and
✪
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✫ ✪
✬ ✩
• For a n bus system with m PQ buses, the mismatch equation becomes :
∆P1 H1,1 .. H1,n−1 N1,1 .. N1,m ∆δ1
.. .. Hi,i .. .. Ni,i .. ..
∆Pn−1 Hn−1,1 .. Hn−1,n−1 Nn−1,1 .. Nn−1,m ∆δn−1
∆Q = J (14)
∆|V1 |
1,1 .. J1,n−1 L1,1 .. L1,m |V1 |
1
.. .. Ji,i .. .. Li,i .. ..
∆|Vm |
∆Qm Jm,1 .. Jm,n−1 Lm,1 .. Lm,m |Vm |
26
∂Pi
For i = j, Hii = ∂δi = −Qi − Bii |Vi |2
∂P
Nii = |Vi | ∂|Vi | = Pi + Gii |Vi |2
i
∂Qi
Jii = ∂δi = Pi − Gii |Vi |2
∂Q
Lii = |Vi | ∂|V i| = Qi − Bii |Vi |2
i
∂Pi
For i 6= j, Hij = ∂δj = |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | sin(δi − δj − θij )
∂P
Nij = |Vj | ∂|V i | = |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | cos(δi − δj − θij )
j
∂Qi
Jij = ∂δj = −Nij
∂Q
Lij = |Vj | ∂|V i| = Hij
✫ ✪
j
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✬ ✩
2. Assume an initial set of bus voltages and set bus n as the reference bus.
6. Obtain the Jacobian matrix elements using the best available voltage values.
7. Substitute the values obtained from steps (4) & (6) in equation (14). Solve this
∆|V |
linear simultaneous equation by a suitable method for vectors [∆δ] and [ |V |i ].
i
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
5.5 Decoupled Load Flow (DFL)
An important characteristic of any practical electrical power transmission system
operating in steady state is strong interdependence between real powers and bus
voltage angles and reactive powers and voltage magnitudes.
If the P -δ and Q-V couplings are recognised to be much stronger than the P -V
and Q-δ couplings the sub-matrices N and J can be ignored. Then separate
equations: [∆P ] = [H] [∆δ] (15)
28
∆|V |
[∆Q] = [L] (16)
|V |
can be obtained and solved separately to give an approximate solution of |V | and δ .
Instead of the previous 2(n − 1) × 2(n − 1) matrix problem, there are two
(n − 1) × (n − 1) matrices to solve — save memory and easier to solve but take
more number of iterations to converge because of the approximation.
Techniques such as these are often used in on-line (very fast) load flow solutions
✫ ✪
and in the starting (initial stage) of conventional full length load flows.
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5.6 Fast Decoupled Load Flow (FDLF)
Recall the equations for the Jacobian elements :
For i = j, Hii = −Qi − Bii |Vi |2
Lii = Qi − Bii |Vi |2
For i 6= j, Hij = Lij = |Vi ||Vj ||Yij | sin(δi − δj − θij )
= |Vi ||Vj | [Gij sin(δi − δj ) − Bij cos(δi − δj )]
29 where Yij = Gij + jBij .
In addition to the DLF approximations, the following approximations can be make to
further speed-up the solution time and improve the convergence.
1. cos(δi − δj ) ≈ 1 3. Qi ≪ Bii |Vi |2
2. Gij sin(δi − δj ) ≪ Bij
The previous results can be rewritten as follows:
= j, Hii = Lii ≈ −Bii |Vi |2
For i
For i 6= j, Hij = Lij ≈ −|Vi ||Vj |Bij
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
With the above approximations and taking |Vj | ≈ 1, the mismatch equations (15)
and (16) becomes:
∆Pi ′
≈ |Vj | [−Bij ] [∆δj ] ≈ Bij [∆δj ] (17)
|Vi |
∆Qi ∆|Vj | ′′ ∆|Vj |
≈ |Vj | [−Bij ] ≈ Bij (18)
|Vi | |Vj | |Vj |
30
where [B ′ ] and [B ′′ ] are made up of elements of [−B] matrix and are constant
and need to be inverted or decomposed once only. Usually in building up [B ′ ],
shunt reactors and off-nominal tap transformers are ignored while in building up
[B ′′ ], angle shifts of phase shift transformers are ignored.
The FDLF is extremely fast. The final result is exact since the iteration will only stop
when P and Q come within the specified tolerance of Pscheduled and Qscheduled .
✫ ✪
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5.7 Example for Newton Raphson and Fast Decoupled LF
31 Find V2 by NR method with B1 as the slack bus and initial estimate for V2 = 1/0o .
Power flow at B2: P2 = |V2 |2 G22 + |V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | cos(δ2 − θ12 )
Q2 = −|V2 |2 B22 + |V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | sin(δ2 − θ12 )
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
Admittance matrix:
yser + ysh −yser 2 − j3.85 −2 + j4
A= =
−yser yser + ysh −2 + j4 2 − j3.85
1
where yser = 0.1+j0.2 = 2 − j4 and ysh = j0.15
∂P2
H= = −|V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | sin(δ2 − θ12 )
∂δ2
= −(1.05)(1.0)(4.472) sin(−116.56o ) = 4.2
∂Q2
J= = |V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | cos(δ2 − θ12 )
∂δ2
= (1.05)(1.0)(4.472) cos(−116.56o ) = −2.1
✫ ✪
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∂P2
N = |V2 | = 2|V2 |2 G22 + |V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | cos(δ2 − θ12 )
∂|V2 |
∂Q2
= 2|V2 |2 G22 + = 2(2) − 2.1 = 1.9
∂δ2
∂Q2
L = |V2 | = −2|V2 |2 B22 + |V1 ||V2 ||Y12 | sin(δ2 − θ12 )
∂|V2 |
∂P2
= −2|V2 |2 B22 − = −2(−3.85) − 4.2 = 3.5
∂δ2
33 " #
1
4.2 1.9
J =
−2.1 3.5
∂Q2
P21 = |V2 |2 G22 + = 2 − 2.1 = −0.1
∂δ2
∂P2
Q12 = −|V2 |2 B22 − = 3.85 − 4.2 = −0.35
∂δ2
∆P21 = PG − PL − P2 = −0.1 + 0.1 = 0
∆Q12 = QG − QL − Q2 = −0.2 + 0.35 = 0.15
✫ ✪
✬ ✩
" # " #" #
0 4.2 1.9 ∆δ21
= ∆|V21 |
0.15 −2.1 3.5 |V21 |
" # " #" # " #
∆δ21 1 3.5 −1.9 0 −0.01525
∆|V21 | = =
18.69 2.1 4.2 0.15 0.0337
|V21 |
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✬ ✩
Now find V2 again by FD method instead of the NR method.
✫ ✪
the latest bus voltage.
✬ ✩
Repeat the above procedures, as shown below, until the solution converage or the
power mismatches are below the tolerance.
✫ ✪
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6 Comparison of Load Flow Methods
• GS method works well when programmed using rectangular coordinates,
whereas NR requires more memory when rectangular coordinates are used.
• For FDLF, the convergence is geometric and it is more reliable than the formal
NR method due to the fact that the elements of [B ′ ] and [B ′′ ] are fixed
∆Q
approximation to the tangents of the defining functions, ∆P
|V | and |V | , and are
✫ ✪
not sensitive to any ‘humps’ in the defining functions.
✬ ✩
4 40
Newton-Raphson
Gauss-Seidel
2 20
38
Gauss-Seidel
Newton-Raphson
0 0
0 40 80 120 0 40 80 120
Number of buses Number of buses
✫ ✪
KWCn v1.31 19
T HE H ONG KONG
P OLYTECHNIC U NIVERSITY FAX : (852) 2330 1544
Department of Electrical Engineering Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong
1. Fig 1 shows a 4-bus system where all the transmission line series impedances are given
to a common base of 100 MVA while the shunt admittances of the lines are neglected.
Specifications at busbars are given in Table 1 and flat start conditions are assumed.
1 S 12 S 21 2
S 14 S 23
j0.2
S 24
j0.5
j0.33 j0.1
j0.25
4 3
Load Load
Fig 1
Table 1
S G1 o
V1 = 1.02 0 V2
1 Z = j0.5 2
Fig 2
Table 2
(a) Name the slack bus and write down the bus admittance matrix Y .
(b) Based on the load flow equation given below :-
n
1 Pi − jQi X
Vi = − Yij Vj
Yii Vi∗ j=1,j6=i
Use Gauss-Seidel with flat start conditions to solve the load bus voltage V2 .
(c) With justification, what should be the reactive power generation at bus 1 ?
1 j0.1 2
200 MW
50 MVAr
j0.1 j0.1
Fig 3
(a) Classify each bus type and determine which of the variables V , δ, P and Q should
be treated as unknown.
(b) Write down the real power generation at bus 1 by inspecting the data.
Derive the general equations for the diagonal coefficients of the Jacobian matrix
and hence find the diagonal coefficients of the Jacobian matrix for the first iter-
ation when the polar form of the Newton Raphson method is used with flat start
conditions.
1 j0.4 2
200 MW
50 MVAr
j0.2 j0.1
Fig 4
All the transmission line series impedances are given in per unit to a common base of
100 MVA while the shunt admittances are neglected. Specifications at busbars are given
in Table 4.
(a) Classify each bus type and determine which of the variables V , δ, P and Q should
be treated as unknown.
(b) Write down the bus admittance matrix [Y ].
(c) Using the Fast Decouple Load Flow (FDLF) convention :-
∆P
= B ′ [∆δ]
|V |
∆Q ′′ ∆|V |
= B
|V | |V |
carry out the first load flow iteration using the FDLF method.
1 j0.4 2
80 MW
-30 MVAr
3
100 MW
60 MVAr
Fig 5
Table 5
(a) Name the slack bus and write down the bus admittance matrix Y .
(b) Based on the load flow equation given below :-
n
1 Pi − jQi X
Vi = − Yij Vj
Yii Vi∗ j=1,j6=i
Perform one iteration of the load flow using the Gauss-Seidel method with flat start
conditions to calculate the appropriated voltages at bus 2 and 3.
(c) What should be the real power generation at bus 1 ?
1. a) Bus Type
1 Slack
2 Generator
3 Load
4 Load
⎡ − j8.03 j5 0 j 3.03 ⎤
⎢ j5 − j17 j10 j 2 ⎥⎥
b) Y =⎢
⎢ 0 j10 − j14 j4 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ j 3.03 j2 j 4 − j 9.03⎦
k 1 ⎡ S2
*
⎤
b) V 2 = ⎢ k −1* − Y 21V 1⎥ , S = − S L 2 = −0.5 , Y = − j2 , Y = j2
Y 22 ⎣⎢V 2 ⎦⎥
2 22 21
c) 10 MVAr
⎡ − j 20 j10 j10 ⎤
d) ⎢ j10 − j 20 j10 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ j10 j10 − j 20 ⎥⎦
∂P2
e) = (1.01)(10) sin 90° + (1.02)(10) sin 90° = 20.3
∂δ 2
∂P3
= (1.02)(1.01)(10) sin 90° + (1.02)(1)(10) sin 90° = 20.502
∂δ 3
∂Q2
V2 = −20.3 − 2(1) 2 (−20) = 19.7
∂ V2
⎡ − j 7.5 j 2.5 j5 ⎤
b) [Y ] = ⎢ j 2.5 − j12.5 j10 ⎥⎥ = [G + jB ]
⎢
⎢⎣ j 5 j10 − j15⎥⎦
c)
⎡ ΔP2 ⎤
⎢ V ⎥ ⎡−B − B23 ⎤ ⎡ Δδ 2 ⎤ ⎡ ΔQ2 ⎤ ⎡ Δ V2 ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥ = ⎢ 22 = ⎢ ⎥ = [ − B 22] = ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ΔP3 ⎥ ⎣ − B32 − B33 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Δδ 3 ⎥⎦ ⎣ V2 ⎦ ⎣ V2 ⎦
⎢V ⎥
⎣ 3 ⎦
⎡12.5 −10 ⎤
⎡⎣ B ' ⎤⎦ = ⎢ ⎥ [ B "] = [12.5]
⎣ −10 15 ⎦
2
Q2 = − V2 B22 + V2 V1 Y21 sin(δ 2 − δ1 − θ 21 ) + V2 V3 Y23 sin(δ 2 − δ 3 − θ 23 )
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
= 12.5 + (1.0)(1.05)(2.5) sin ⎜ −0.2308 − ⎟ + (1.0 )(1.02 )(10 ) sin ⎜ −0.1422 − ⎟
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
= − 0.152 pu
−50
⇒ ΔQ2 = − (−0.152) = −0.348 pu
100
⎡ ΔQ2 ⎤ ⎡ ΔV ⎤ 0.348
⎢ ⎥ = [12.5] ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ ΔV2 = − = −0.028 pu
⎣ V2 ⎦ ⎣ V2 ⎦ 12.5
i.e. V2 = 1 + ΔV2 = 0.972 pu
S3 = −1 − j 0.6 pu
1 ⎡ −1 + j 0.6 ⎤ 1 + j 4.4
V31 = ⎢ − j 2.5 − j 2.5⎥ = = −0.88 − j 0.2 = 0.9∠ − 12.8° pu
− j5 ⎣ 1 ⎦ j5