Consultants for Mining and Financial Solutions ISSUE NO.

84 — May 2007

C A L E N D A R Basics of Variogram Analysis

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2007 Elko Mining Explo – 22nd Annual Introduction as the “range” (a). If at a distance nearly
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Mining Expo
equal to zero, i.e., hÆ0, the variogram value
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June 4 – 8, 2007
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Elko Convention Center The three major functions used in is greater than zero, this value is known as
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geostatistics for describing the spatial the “nugget-effect” (C0). The total-sill of the
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Elko, Nevada
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e-mail: matt@elkocva.com correlation of observations are the variogram (S) is C+C0. Often C is also treated
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correlogram, the covariance, and the semi- equal to the sill of the variogram model fitted
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Longwall USA ‘07 – International

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Exhibition and Conference variogram. The last is also more simply called to the experimental variograms and the nugget
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the variogram. The variogram is the key effect (C0). Both C0 and the sill (S) characterize
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June 5 – 7, 2007
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David L. Lawrence Convention Center function in geostatistics as it is used to fit a the random aspect of the data, where as the
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Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
model of the spatial correlation of the data. range (a) and C characterize the structural
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e-mail: alane@mining-media.com
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aspect of the deposit.

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EXPONOR 2007 – XII International Modeling variograms for mineral resource

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Exhibition for Latin American Mining estimation is a common practice. Variogram Assumptions
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June 18 – 22, 2007

models are used in kriging estimation
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Campus Coloso Antofagasta

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University of Antofagasta procedures, conditional-simulation of a We should remember that the practice of

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Antofagasta, Chile mineral deposit, and also to infer maximum geostatistics requires two assumptions1, 2 of 1)
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e-mail: ctoro@aia.cl distances of spatial autocorrelation (ranges) second order stationarity (i.e., mean and
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which can further be used in construction of covariance of the variable is invariant under
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ExpoMina Peru 2007

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June 20 – 22, 2007 search parameters for different interpolation translation), and 2) intrinsic hypothesis (i.e., the
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Museo de La Nación techniques. Typically, different sets of mean and covariance of the increments Z(x+h)-
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Lima, Peru variograms are made for one variable in Z(x) exist and are independent of the point x). In
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e-mail: evento@expominaperu.com
different rock-types. For example, iron (Fe) simple language this mean that a geologically
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Diggers & Dealers Forum 2007 concentration in limonitic saprolite and gabbroic homogenous domain can be divided into a
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saprolite are modeled separately. number of domains with the same mean and
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August 6 – 8, 2007
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The Goldfields Arts Centre

co-variances, which means that a variogram
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Kalgoorlie, WA, Australia

Variogram Parameters model fitted to a particular set of data,
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e-mail: admin@diggersndealers.com.au
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represents any subset of data from the same

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A variogram represents both structural and

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Africa DownUnder Conference 2007 population. So, a variogram represents a

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September 6 – 7, 2007 random aspects of the data under general spatial statistical model of a data-set.
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Sheraton Perth Hotel

consideration. The range of a variogram
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West Perth, WA, Australia

What does that mean geologically or in mining
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represents the structural part of the variogram terms? In other words, does a variogram make
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e-mail: juliet@paydirt.com.au
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model. The variogram values increase with any sense to the geology? A geologist/
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EXTEMIN – XXVIII Mining Convention increases in the distance of separation until it geostatistician/ mining engineer should always
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2007
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reaches the maximum (C) at a distance known try to answer this question by relating the
September 10 – 14, 2007
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Tecsup Campus
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Arequipa, Peru
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1
e-mail: msovero@iimp.org.pe Isaaks, E, H., and Srivastava R. M., 1989, An Introduction to Applied Geostatistics, Oxford University Press
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2
Armstrong, M., 1998, Basic Linear Geostatistics, Springer
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Copyright 2007 by Pincock, Allen and Holt, a division of Runge Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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variogram information to “real world” consideration, a more complex major direction produces the best result

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geologic conditions seen in the field, and variogram may be required. An because it enables using a simple ellipsoid

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in the case of operating mines, actual omnidirectional variogram may be for the variogram analysis. This ellipsoid

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production data. This is because a sufficient for kriging data with a can be used to define search parameters

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variogram model represents the spatial uniform distribution in a lithologic unit too. A variogram map can also be made

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structure of the data set; so a variogram with little or no structural discontinuity, for multivariate cases, where a cross-

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model for a stockwork-vein gold deposit such as Ca-content in a limestone covariance map provides a sense of

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should be different from a typical low- deposit. A geologically complex mineral multivariate anisotropy. More details

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grade epithermal gold deposit. The deposit may require a set of anisotropic about variogram maps can be found in

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ranges of the latter are expected to be variograms with more than one any major geostatistics textbook.

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longer along any lateral-direction than

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“structure” in each direction.
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the former case. In the case of layered ○
Variogram Calculation

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deposits like coal, the variogram of the

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To assess the degree of anisotropy and
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data (such as carbon content in coal) major-direction of spatial continuity Before calculating a variogram, several
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with periodic variation with depth, may data analyses should be done to ensure

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(along which the variogram range is
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show a cyclic-pattern of the sill (hole- that the data comes from a single
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expected to be largest among all

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effect)4 model along a vertical direction, directions), a variogram map is a very (statistical) population, one single
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which is not common in the case of a homogenous geological/geochemical
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useful tool (Figure 1). As seen in Figure

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massive sulfide type mineral deposit such 1, the variable, Fe, seems to be spatially unit without any major structural
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as a porphyry-copper deposit. displacements. For an example, a single
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autocorrelated for a longer distance

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along the NE-SW orientation; hence unfolded coal seam bound by other
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Omnidirectional vs. Directional lithological layers (e.g., sandstone/shale)
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NE-SW should be considered as the

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Variograms

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major orientation for calculation of the and any planar structural elements
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directional variogram. Even though one (faults) should be considered as a

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Depending on the complexity of the can find more than one minor direction homogenous geological unit. Mixed
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geology, and the statistical and spatial for any given variable, typically the ○
populations of data should be split into
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characteristics of the data under minor direction perpendicular to the subsets with unique population
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V
253.1267
246.4130
239.6994
N3

232.9857
30

N3

226.2720
219.5583
212.8447
206.1310
N3 199.4173
0 0 0 192.7037
N6
185.9900
179.2763
172.5626
165.8490
159.1353
152.4216
145.7079
N270 U 138.9943
132.2806
125.5669
118.8533
112.1396
105.4259
98.7122
91.9986
N1 85.2849
40 20
N2 78.5712
71.8576
65.1439
58.4302
51.7165
45.0029
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38.2892
N2

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N180

N/A

FIGURE 1 FIGURE 2
An Example of a Variogram Map (Fe content A Spherical Variogram Model Fitted to the
in a limonitic rock type) Experimental-Variogram Points

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less than or equal to the sample different directions, an anisotropic set

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parameters because variogram analysis

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using mixed populations can produce (population) variance (V). Because above of variograms should be fitted to the

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misleading results. Further, spatial the variance line (see Figure 2) the experimental variogram. If the sills of

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distribution of the samples should be sample behaves as a random variable, the variograms change with direction

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examined and care should be taken to the variogram values above the variance so that they cannot be considered the

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reduce the impact of “data clustering.” A (V) should not be included for the same for all directions, a variogram

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popular way of dealing with the cluster variogram model, hence are not helpful model with components having “Zonal

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effect is to assign weights to the samples in modeling. anisotropy” can be fitted to the

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during variography. Sometimes drill-hole experimental variograms. A modeling

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data are logged at unequal length The slope at the beginning of the technique is proposed by Deraisme5 to

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intervals. If variograms are calculated with variogram model (at 0 < h < R) address this situation. If the sills of the

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samples of various sizes, the variogram represents the structural part of the variograms are comparable but the
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○ variogram. The tangent drawn to this ranges of the variograms change with
may not represent the underlying

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structure of the variable in consideration. part of the variogram meets the sill at direction, a variogram with components
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Samples of unequal size may not produce approximately 95 percent of the range. of “geometric anisotropy” type should

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a realistic representative variogram This property is helpful in estimating be fitted to the experimental variogram.
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because a larger sample may not provide the range from the first few In this case the nugget effect and the

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experimental-variogram points at the sills of the variograms should remain
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information of equal weighting as the

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beginning. constant in all directions. It is important

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smaller samples do. Compositing the drill-
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to note that only admissible models,
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hole data at equal length should reduce

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The nugget-effect represents the namely spherical, exponential, hole-

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this effect (support-effect). Ideally, drill-
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randomness of the variables at hÆ0, effect, nugget-effect, gaussian model,
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holes of unequal size should be treated

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separately or their thickness should be which is a characteristic of the variable, etc., should be fitted to the
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weighed differently for variography hence should remain constant in all experimental variograms. These models

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analyses. directions. A nugget-effect for a variable ensure the positive definite condition of
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can be calculated by using the the variograms, which means that the
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Variogram Modeling omnidirectional variogram. But if the ○

covariance of the variable must be
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drill-holes are vertical and equal-length positive definite functions2.

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As discussed earlier, depending on the composited drill-hole data are available,

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Summary
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type of data under consideration and the the nugget-effect can preferably be
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structural and lithological nature of the calculated by modeling down-the-hole

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geology of the deposit, the variogram (DTH) vertical variogram. This normally In summary, the ten steps listed below
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analysis may be as simple as a single provides the closest pairs for should be followed to develop a
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omnidirectional variogram or as complex interpretations close to the zero reasonable variogram model for a
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deposit:
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as multiple structures along each direction distance.

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in a set of anisotropic variograms. In the

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1) Review the geology: One variable

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latter case, it is advised to perform the The other major aspect of directional
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per lithologic unit should be

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following analyses in order to develop a variogram modeling is examination of

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reasonable variogram model. anisotropy of the variable in the deposit. analyzed and modeled at a time.
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For more details of the anisotropy Ore bodies controlled by different

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An important first step of a variogram readers are referred to Armstrong structural units should also be
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analysis is to model and review the (1998) 2, Isaaks and Srivastava (1989)1, treated separately for this purpose.
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omnidirectional variogram to infer the sill Wackernegel (2003) 3, Journel and Vein type mineralization should be
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of the anisotropic variograms. The total sill Huigibregts (2004) 4. treated separately from the
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of an omnidirectional variogram provides disseminated type deposit and data

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an approximate idea of the total sill of When experimental variograms of a in the oxidized zone should be
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specific directional variograms. The total variable show different behaviors separated from the unoxidized
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sill of the directional variogram should be (different variogram parameters) in zones for variography.
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3
Wackernagel, H., 2003, Multivariate Geostatistics: An Introduction with Applications, Springer
4
Journel, A. G., and Huijbregts , C, J., 2004, Mining Geostatistics, The Blackburn Press
5
Zonal Anisotropy: how to model the variogram? at www.geovariances.com/IMG/pdf/Zonal_Anisotropy.pdf

33
2) Sample size: Review the data set for
the deposit, specifically different
sample length, drill-hole size,
channel-sample vs. R.C. drill-hole
samples, etc. Samples of different
sizes should be separated into
different groups for variogram
analyses or different weights should
be assigned to samples of different
sizes to ensure the minimum
support-effect.
3) Sample distribution: To avoid the
cluster effect in areas where samples
are closely spaced, the samples
should be de-clustered. Samples with
an irregular distribution should be
visually analyzed to ensure an
approximately uniform sample
distribution for variography. Low-
angle drill-hole samples and channel
should be treated carefully to avoid
unrealistic mathematical artifacts.
Such samples should be declustered
or should not be included (with other
uniformly distributed samples) during
variography.
4) Statistical characteristics: Perform
classical statistical analysis on the data
set to identify data set issues and
multiple populations. Include
calculating means, ranges, standard
deviations, coefficients of variation,
etc., and create cumulative frequency
distribution plots, histograms, and
scatter plots of data as necessary to
gain an understanding of the nature
of the element. If required, a
Gaussian transformation (which
transforms the original distribution
of the variable into a normal
distribution) should be performed
before variography. The readers are
Consultants for Mining and Financial Solutions
cautioned that such a transformation
can be complex and will require a
post-processing (post kriging or post
simulation) transformation to bring
the data back to its original
characteristics.
5) Cleanse the data set if required
(e.g., apply a cap and cut assay
values above the cap or throw out
high fliers or erroneous looking
data). Composites of too small a
length should be filtered out, as too
many of them may create problems
related to the support effect.
6) Generate omnidirectional
experimental variograms for each
population and identify the sill.
7) Generate down-the-hole
variograms for the primary element
in order to identify your nugget
value. Sometimes if samples are
well distributed in an equi-
dimensional 3-D grid, an
omnidirectional variogram can also
be used for estimating the nugget.
8) Analyze the variogram maps to
identify the anisotropy and major
direction(s) of variogram analyses.
9) Generate multi-directional
variograms along identified
directions and model them.
10) Repeat for other elements of
interest and look for correlations
between elements such as gold/
silver, gold/arsenic, etc. This may
lead to multi-variate cross-
variogram analyses for co-kriging
or, conditional-simulation.
Pincock, Allen & Holt is a consulting and engineering firm serving the international mineral resource
industry. Your comments and suggestions are always welcome. Contact Pincock, Allen & Holt • 165 S.
Union Blvd., Suite 950, Lakewood, Colorado 80228 • TEL 303.986.6950 • FAX 303.987.8907 •
www.pincock.com. Pincock Perspectives is published as a free information service for friends and clients.
Concluding Remarks
The application of variogram modeling
in designing search and estimation
parameters for kriging and other
simulation methodologies are well-
known in the mining industry. Good
variogram analysis can provide an
understanding of population and spatial
information important to the production
of a realistic grade or lithologic model.
An unrealistic nugget or sill can result in
erroneous variances (and errors) of
estimation and hence make it difficult to
obtain good deposit models. Also,
mistakes made in interpretation of
variogram ranges often lead to
overestimation of resource tonnes.
An important first step in variography
analysis is a detailed statistical analysis of
the data set. The spatial distribution of
samples should be carefully examined to
determine if the data is adequate for
geostatistical (variogram) analysis. If not,
then a statistical analysis should be
conducted to prepare for estimation
using interpolation techniques other
than kriging. A typical reason that data
sets are not conducive to variogram
analysis is that there are not enough
sample points of a given variable within
a lithological unit, spread uniformly to
develop a good structure.
Acknowledgment:
This month’s article was provided by
Abani Samal, Ph.D., Geologist/
Geostatistician abani.samal@pincock.com.
Thanks to Mr. Jeffrey Duvall and Mr.
Richard Lambert for their insightful
comments and suggestions.