PART - 5 - Precalculus Fifth Edition Mathematics For Calculus

852 CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series
Example 5 Calculating Monthly Mortgage Payments

A couple borrows $100,000 at 9% interest as a mortage loan on a house. They
expect to make monthly payments for 30 years to repay the loan. What is the size
of each payment?
Solution The mortgage payments form an annuity whose present value is
Ap $100,000. Also, i 0.09/12 0.0075, and n 12 30 360. We are
looking for the amount R of each payment. From the formula for installment
buying, we get
iAp
R
1 11 i 2 n
10.00752 1100,0002
⬇ 804.623
1 11 0.00752 360
Thus, the monthly payments are $804.62. ■
We now illustrate the use of graphing devices in solving problems related to

installment buying.
Example 6 Calculating the Interest Rate from the Size

of Monthly Payments
A car dealer sells a new car for $18,000. He offers the buyer payments of $405 per
month for 5 years. What interest rate is this car dealer charging?
Solution The payments form an annuity with present value Ap $18,000,
R 405, and n 12 5 60. To find the interest rate, we must solve for i in the
equation
iAp
R
1 11 i 2 n
A little experimentation will convince you that it’s not possible to solve this
equation for i algebraically. So, to find i we use a graphing device to graph R as a
function of the interest rate x, and we then use the graph to find the interest rate cor-
responding to the value of R we want ($405 in this case). Since i x/12, we graph
the function
118,0002
x
450 12
R1x2
x 60
1 a1 b
405 12
in the viewing rectangle 30.06, 0.164 3350, 4504, as shown in Figure 2. We

also graph the horizontal line R1x 2 405 in the same viewing rectangle. Then,
350
0.06 0.125 0.16
by moving the cursor to the point of intersection of the two graphs, we find that
the corresponding x-value is approximately 0.125. Thus, the interest rate is
Figure 2 about 12 12 %. ■
SECTION 11.4 Mathematics of Finance 853
11.4 Exercises
1. Annuity Find the amount of an annuity that consists of couple intends to secure a 30-year mortgage, how much can
10 annual payments of $1000 each into an account that pays they borrow?
6% interest per year.
15. Mortgage A couple secures a 30-year loan of $100,000
2. Annuity Find the amount of an annuity that consists of at 9 34 % per year, compounded monthly, to buy a house.
24 monthly payments of $500 each into an account that
(a) What is the amount of their monthly payment?
pays 8% interest per year, compounded monthly.
(b) What total amount will they pay over the 30-year period?
3. Annuity Find the amount of an annuity that consists of
(c) If, instead of taking the loan, the couple deposits the
20 annual payments of $5000 each into an account that pays
monthly payments in an account that pays 9 34 % interest
interest of 12% per year.
per year, compounded monthly, how much will be in
4. Annuity Find the amount of an annuity that consists of the account at the end of the 30-year period?
20 semiannual payments of $500 each into an account that
pays 6% interest per year, compounded semiannually. 16. Financing a Car Jane agrees to buy a car for a down pay-
ment of $2000 and payments of $220 per month for 3 years.
5. Annuity Find the amount of an annuity that consists of If the interest rate is 8% per year, compounded monthly,
16 quarterly payments of $300 each into an account that what is the actual purchase price of her car?
pays 8% interest per year, compounded quarterly.
17. Financing a Ring Mike buys a ring for his fiancee by
6. Saving How much money should be invested every quar-
paying $30 a month for one year. If the interest rate is 10%
ter at 10% per year, compounded quarterly, in order to have
per year, compounded monthly, what is the price of the ring?
$5000 in 2 years?
7. Saving How much money should be invested monthly at 18. Interest Rate Janet’s payments on her $12,500 car are
6% per year, compounded monthly, in order to have $2000 $420 a month for 3 years. Assuming that interest is com-
in 8 months? pounded monthly, what interest rate is she paying on the
car loan?
8. Annuity What is the present value of an annuity that con-
sists of 20 semiannual payments of $1000 at the interest rate 19. Interest Rate John buys a stereo system for $640. He
of 9% per year, compounded semiannually? agrees to pay $32 a month for 2 years. Assuming that inter-
9. Funding an Annuity How much money must be invested est is compounded monthly, what interest rate is he paying?
now at 9% per year, compounded semiannually, to fund an 20. Interest Rate A man purchases a $2000 diamond ring for
annuity of 20 payments of $200 each, paid every 6 months, a down payment of $200 and monthly installments of $88
the first payment being 6 months from now? for 2 years. Assuming that interest is compounded monthly,
10. Funding an Annuity A 55-year-old man deposits what interest rate is he paying?
$50,000 to fund an annuity with an insurance company. The 21. Interest Rate An item at a department store is priced at
money will be invested at 8% per year, compounded semi- $189.99 and can be bought by making 20 payments of
annually. He is to draw semiannual payments until he $10.50. Find the interest rate, assuming that interest is com-
reaches age 65. What is the amount of each payment? pounded monthly.
11. Financing a Car A woman wants to borrow $12,000 in
order to buy a car. She wants to repay the loan by monthly
installments for 4 years. If the interest rate on this loan is Discovery • Discussion
10 12 % per year, compounded monthly, what is the amount of
each payment? 22. Present Value of an Annuity (a) Draw a time line as in
Example 1 to show that the present value of an annuity is
12. Mortgage What is the monthly payment on a 30-year
the sum of the present values of each payment, that is,
mortgage of $80,000 at 9% interest? What is the monthly
payment on this same mortgage if it is to be repaid over a R R R R
Ap ...
15-year period? 1i 11 i 2 2
11 i 2 3
11 i2 n
13. Mortgage What is the monthly payment on a 30-year
mortgage of $100,000 at 8% interest per year, compounded (b) Use part (a) to derive the formula for Ap given in the text.
monthly? What is the total amount paid on this loan over the 23. An Annuity That Lasts Forever An annuity in
30-year period? perpetuity is one that continues forever. Such annuities
14. Mortgage A couple can afford to make a monthly mort- are useful in setting up scholarship funds to ensure that
gage payment of $650. If the mortgage rate is 9% and the the award continues.
(a) Draw a time line (as in Example 1) to show that to set bank gave them an amortization schedule, which is a table
up an annuity in perpetuity of amount R per time pe- showing how much of each payment is interest, how much
riod, the amount that must be invested now is goes toward the principal, and the remaining principal after
each payment. The table below shows the first few entries in
R R R R
Ap ... ... the amortization schedule.
1i 11 i 2 2 11 i2 3 11 i2 n
Payment Total Interest Principal Remaining
where i is the interest rate per time period.
number payment payment payment principal
(b) Find the sum of the infinite series in part (a) to show that
1 724.17 675.00 49.17 89,950.83
R 2 724.17 674.63 49.54 89,901.29
Ap
i 3 724.17 674.26 49.91 89,851.38
(c) How much money must be invested now at 10% per 4 724.17 673.89 50.28 89,801.10
year, compounded annually, to provide an annuity in
perpetuity of $5000 per year? The first payment is due After 10 years they have made 120 payments and are won-
in one year. dering how much they still owe, but they have lost the amor-
(d) How much money must be invested now at 8% per tization schedule.
year, compounded quarterly, to provide an annuity in (a) How much do John and Mary still owe on their mort-
perpetuity of $3000 per year? The first payment is gage? [Hint: The remaining balance is the present value
due in one year. of the 240 remaining payments.]
24. Amortizing a Mortgage When they bought their house, (b) How much of their next payment is interest and how
John and Mary took out a $90,000 mortgage at 9% interest, much goes toward the principal? [Hint: Since 9%
repayable monthly over 30 years. Their payment is $724.17 12 0.75%, they must pay 0.75% of the remaining
per month (check this using the formula in the text). The principal in interest each month.]
11.5 Mathematical Induction

There are two aspects to mathematics—discovery and proof—and both are of equal
importance. We must discover something before we can attempt to prove it, and we
can only be certain of its truth once it has been proved. In this section we examine the
relationship between these two key components of mathematics more closely.
Conjecture and Proof

Let’s try a simple experiment. We add more and more of the odd numbers as follows:
11
134
1359
1 3 5 7 16
1 3 5 7 9 25
What do you notice about the numbers on the right side of these equations? They are
in fact all perfect squares. These equations say the following:
The sum of the first 1 odd number is 12.
The sum of the first 2 odd numbers is 22.
SECTION 11.5 Mathematical Induction 855
Consider the polynomial This leads naturally to the following question: Is it true that for every natural number
p1n2 n2 n 41 n, the sum of the first n odd numbers is n2? Could this remarkable property be true?
Here are some values of p1n 2 : We could try a few more numbers and find that the pattern persists for the first 6, 7,
p11 2 41 p12 2 43
8, 9, and 10 odd numbers. At this point, we feel quite sure that this is always true, so
we make a conjecture:
p13 2 47 p14 2 53
p15 2 61 p16 2 71 The sum of the first n odd numbers is n 2.
p17 2 83 p18 2 97
Since we know that the nth odd number is 2n 1, we can write this statement more
All the values so far are prime num- precisely as
bers. In fact, if you keep going, you
will find p1n2 is prime for all natural 1 3 5 . . . 12n 12 n2
numbers up to n 40. It may seem
reasonable at this point to conjecture It’s important to realize that this is still a conjecture. We cannot conclude by check-
that p1n2 is prime for every natural ing a finite number of cases that a property is true for all numbers (there are infinitely
number n. But out conjecture would be many). To see this more clearly, suppose someone tells us he has added up the first
too hasty, because it is easily seen that
p141 2 is not prime. This illustrates that
trillion odd numbers and found that they do not add up to 1 trillion squared. What
would you tell this person? It would be silly to say that you’re sure it’s true because
we cannot be certain of the truth of a
statement no matter how many special you’ve already checked the first five cases. You could, however, take out paper and
cases we check. We need a convincing pencil and start checking it yourself, but this task would probably take the rest of your
argument—a proof—to determine the life. The tragedy would be that after completing this task you would still not be sure
truth of a statement. of the truth of the conjecture! Do you see why?
Herein lies the power of mathematical proof. A proof is a clear argument that
demonstrates the truth of a statement beyond doubt.
Mathematical Induction
Let’s consider a special kind of proof called mathematical induction. Here is how it
works: Suppose we have a statement that says something about all natural numbers
n. Let’s call this statement P. For example, we could consider the statement
P: For every natural number n, the sum of the first n odd numbers is n 2.
Since this statement is about all natural numbers, it contains infinitely many state-
ments; we will call them P(1), P(2), . . . .
P112: The sum of the first 1 odd number is 12.

P122: The sum of the first 2 odd numbers is 22.
P132: The sum of the first 3 odd numbers is 32.
. .
. .
. .
How can we prove all of these statements at once? Mathematical induction is a clever
way of doing just that.
The crux of the idea is this: Suppose we can prove that whenever one of these
statements is true, then the one following it in the list is also true. In other words,
For every k, if P1k2 is true, then P1k 1 2 is true.
This is called the induction step because it leads us from the truth of one statement
to the next. Now, suppose that we can also prove that
P112 is true.
The induction step now leads us through the following chain of statements:
P112 is true, so P122 is true.
. .
. .
. .
So we see that if both the induction step and P112 are proved, then statement P is
proved for all n. Here is a summary of this important method of proof.
Principle of Mathematical Induction
For each natural number n, let P1n2 be a statement depending on n. Suppose

that the following two conditions are satisfied.
1. P112 is true.
2. For every natural number k, if P1k 2 is true then P1k 12 is true.
Then P1n2 is true for all natural numbers n.
To apply this principle, there are two steps:

Step 1 Prove that P112 is true.
Step 2 Assume that P1k2 is true and use this assumption to prove that P1k 12
is true.
Notice that in Step 2 we do not prove that P1k2 is true. We only show that if P1k2
is true, then P1k 12 is also true. The assumption that P1k2 is true is called the
induction hypothesis.
Used by permission. Courtesy of Andrejs Dunkels, Sweden.
©1979 National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
We now use mathematical induction to prove that the conjecture we made at the
beginning of this section is true.
Example 1 A Proof by Mathematical Induction

Prove that for all natural numbers n,
1 3 5 . . . 12n 12 n2
Solution Let P1n 2 denote the statement 1 3 5 . . . 12n 12 n2.
Step 1 We need to show that P112 is true. But P112 is simply the statement that
1 12, which is of course true.
Step 2 We assume that P1k 2 is true. Thus, our induction hypothesis is
1 3 5 . . . 12k 12 k 2
We want to use this to show that P1k 12 is true, that is,
1 3 5 . . . 12k 12 321k 12 14 1k 12 2
[Note that we get P1k 12 by substituting k 1 for each n in the state-
ment P1n2 .] We start with the left side and use the induction hypothesis to
obtain the right side of the equation:
1 3 5 . . . 12k 12 321k 12 14
31 3 5 . . . 12k 12 4 321k 12 14 Group the first
2
This equals k by the induction k terms
k 2 321k 12 14
hypothesis. Induction
hypothesis
k 2 32k 2 14 Distributive
Property
k 2 2k 1 Simplify
1k 12 2
Factor
Thus, P1k 12 follows from P1k2 and this completes the induction step.
Having proved Steps 1 and 2, we conclude by the Principle of Mathematical

Induction that P1n2 is true for all natural numbers n. ■
Example 2 A Proof by Mathematical Induction

Prove that for every natural number n,
n1n 1 2
123...n
2
Solution Let P1n2 be the statement 1 2 3 . . . n n1n 12/2. We
want to show that P1n2 is true for all natural numbers n.
Step 1 We need to show that P112 is true. But P112 says that
111 1 2
1
2
and this statement is clearly true.
Step 2 Assume that P1k2 is true. Thus, our induction hypothesis is

k1k 12
123...k
2
Archivo Inconograpico, S.A. /Corbis

1k 12 3 1k 1 2 1 4
1 2 3 . . . k 1k 12
2
So, we start with the left side and use the induction hypothesis to obtain
the right side:
1 2 3 . . . k 1k 12
Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) is con-
sidered one of the most versatile
minds in modern history. He was a 31 2 3 . . . k4 1k 12 Group the first k terms
writer and philosopher as well as a
k1k 12
1k 12
gifted mathematician and physi-
cist. Among his contributions that Induction hypothesis
2
appear in this book are Pascal’s tri-
1k 12 a 1b
angle and the Principle of Mathe- k
Factor k 1
matical Induction. 2
Pascal’s father, himself a math-
k2
ematician, believed that his son
1k 12 a b Common denominator
should not study mathematics until 2
1k 12 3 1k 12 1 4
he was 15 or 16. But at age 12,
Blaise insisted on learning geome- Write k 2 as k 1 1
try, and proved most of its elemen- 2
tary theorems himself. At 19, he
invented the first mechanical Thus, P1k 12 follows from P1k2 and this completes the induction step.
adding machine. In 1647, after Having proved Steps 1 and 2, we conclude by the Principle of Mathematical
writing a major treatise on the Induction that P1n2 is true for all natural numbers n. ■
conic sections, he abruptly aban-
doned mathematics because he felt
his intense studies were contribut-
Formulas for the sums of powers of the first n natural numbers are important in
ing to his ill health. He devoted calculus. Formula 1 in the following box is proved in Example 2. The other formulas
himself instead to frivolous recre- are also proved using mathematical induction (see Exercises 4 and 7).
ations such as gambling, but this
only served to pique his interest in Sums of Powers
probability. In 1654 he miracu-
lously survived a carriage accident n n n1n 12
in which his horses ran off a 0. a 1 n 1. a k
k1 k1 2
n1n 12 12n 12 1n
bridge. Taking this to be a sign
from God, he entered a monastery,
n n n 2
12 2
2. a k 2 3. a k 3
where he pursued theology and k1 6 k1 4
philosophy, writing his famous
Pensées. He also continued his
mathematical research. He valued It might happen that a statement P1n2 is false for the first few natural numbers, but
faith and intuition more than rea- true from some number on. For example, we may want to prove that P1n2 is true for
son as the source of truth, declaring n 5. Notice that if we prove that P15 2 is true, then this fact, together with the
that “the heart has its own reasons, induction step, would imply the truth of P152 , P162 , P172 , . . . . The next example
which reason cannot know.” illustrates this point.
Example 3 Proving an Inequality

by Mathematical Induction
Prove that 4n 2n for all n 5.
Solution Let P1n 2 denote the statement 4n 2n.

#
Step 1 P152 is the statement that 4 5 25, or 20 32, which is true.
Step 2 Assume that P1k 2 is true. Thus, our induction hypothesis is
4k 2k
We get P(k 1) by replacing k by 41k 12 2k1

k 1 in the statement P(k). So, we start with the left side of the inequality and use the induction
hypothesis to show that it is less than the right side. For k 5, we have
41k 12 4k 4
2k 4 Induction hypothesis
2 4k
k
Because 4 4k
2k 2k Induction hypothesis
2#2 k
2k1 Property of exponents
Thus, P1k 12 follows from P1k2 and this completes the induction step.
Induction that P1n 2 is true for all natural numbers n 5. ■
11.5 Exercises
1–12 ■ Use mathematical induction to prove that the formula 1 1 1 1 n
...
1#2 2#3 3#4 1n 1 2
10.
is true for all natural numbers n. n1n 12
1. 2 4 6 . . . 2n n1n 1 2 11. 1 # 2 2 # 22 3 # 23 4 # 24 . . . n # 2n
n13n 1 2 231 1n 1 22n 4
2. 1 4 7 . . . 13n 2 2
2 12. 1 2 22 . . . 2n1 2n 1
n13n 7 2
3. 5 8 11 . . . 13n 2 2 13. Show that n2 n is divisible by 2 for all natural numbers n.
2
14. Show that 5n 1 is divisible by 4 for all natural numbers n.
n1n 12 12n 1 2
4. 12 22 32 . . . n2 15. Show that n2 n 41 is odd for all natural numbers n.
6
16. Show that n3 n 3 is divisible by 3 for all natural
5. 1 # 2 2 # 3 3 # 4 . . . n1n 1 2 numbers n.
n1n 12 1n 2 2 17. Show that 8n 3n is divisible by 5 for all natural numbers n.

3
6. 1 # 3 2 # 4 3 # 5 . . . n1n 2 2
19. Prove that n 2n for all natural numbers n.
n1n 1 2 12n 7 2
20. Prove that 1n 12 2 2n2 for all natural numbers n 3.
21. Prove that if x 1, then 11 x 2 n 1 nx for all natural
6
n2 1n 1 2 2 numbers n.
7. 13 23 33 . . . n3
4
22. Show that 100n
n2 for all n 100.
8. 1 3 5
3 3 .
3 . . 12n 12 n2 12n2 1 2
3
23. Let an1 3an and a1 5. Show that an 5 ⴢ 3n1 for all
9. 23 43 63 . . . 12n2 3 2n2 1n 1 2 2 natural numbers n.
24. A sequence is defined recursively by an1 3an 8 and (b) n2 n for all n 2.
a1 4. Find an explicit formula for an and then use mathe- (c) 22n1 1 is divisible by 3 for all n 1.
(d) n3 1n 12 2 for all n 2.
matical induction to prove that the formula you found is true.
25. Show that x y is a factor of x y for all natural
n n
(e) n3 n is divisible by 3 for all n 2.
numbers n.
(f) n3 6n2 11n is divisible by 6 for all n 1.
3Hint: x k1
y k1
x 1x y 2 1x y 2 y4
k k k
36. All Cats Are Black? What is wrong with the following
26. Show that x y is a factor of x 2n1 y 2n1 for all natural “proof” by mathematical induction that all cats are black?
numbers n. Let P1n 2 denote the statement: In any group of n cats, if one
is black, then they are all black.
27–31 ■ Fn denotes the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence
discussed in Section 11.1. Use mathematical induction to prove Step 1 The statement is clearly true for n 1.
the statement. Step 2 Suppose that P1k 2 is true. We show that P1k 1 2
is true.
27. F3n is even for all natural numbers n.
Suppose we have a group of k 1 cats, one of
28. F1 F2 F3 . . . Fn Fn2 1 whom is black; call this cat “Midnight.” Remove
some other cat (call it “Sparky”) from the group.
29. F 12 F 22 F 32 . . . F n2 FnFn1
We are left with k cats, one of whom (Midnight) is
30. F1 F3 . . . F2n1 F2n black, so by the induction hypothesis, all k of these
31. For all n 2, are black. Now put Sparky back in the group and
take out Midnight. We again have a group of k cats,
c d c n1 d
1 1 n F Fn all of whom—except possibly Sparky—are black.
1 0 Fn Fn1 Then by the induction hypothesis, Sparky must be
black, too. So all k 1 cats in the original group
32. Let an be the nth term of the sequence defined recursively by are black.
1 Thus, by induction P1n 2 is true for all n. Since everyone has
a n1
1 an seen at least one black cat, it follows that all cats are black.
and a1 1. Find a formula for an in terms of the Fibonacci
numbers Fn. Prove that the formula you found is valid for all
natural numbers n.
33. Let Fn be the nth term of the Fibonacci sequence. Find and
prove an inequality relating n and Fn for natural numbers n.
34. Find and prove an inequality relating 100n and n3.
Midnight Sparky
Discovery • Discussion
35. True or False? Determine whether each statement is true
or false. If you think the statement is true, prove it. If you
think it is false, give an example where it fails.
(a) p1n 2 n2 n 11 is prime for all n.
11.6 The Binomial Theorem

An expression of the form a b is called a binomial. Although in principle it’s easy
to raise a b to any power, raising it to a very high power would be tedious. In this
section we find a formula that gives the expansion of 1a b 2 n for any natural num-
ber n and then prove it using mathematical induction.
SECTION 11.6 The Binomial Theorem 861
Expanding (a ⴙ b)n
To find a pattern in the expansion of 1a b2 n, we first look at some special cases:
1a b2 1 a b
1a b2 2 a 2 2ab b 2
1a b2 3 a 3 3a 2b 3ab 2 b 3
1a b2 4 a 4 4a 3b 6a 2b 2 4ab 3 b 4
1a b2 5 a 5 5a 4b 10a 3b 2 10a 2b 3 5ab 4 b 5
.
.
.
The following simple patterns emerge for the expansion of 1a b2 n:
1. There are n 1 terms, the first being an and the last bn.
2. The exponents of a decrease by 1 from term to term while the exponents of b
increase by 1.
3. The sum of the exponents of a and b in each term is n.
For instance, notice how the exponents of a and b behave in the expansion of
1a b2 5.
The exponents of a decrease:
1a b 2 5 a 5a b 1 10a b 2 10a b 3 5a
5 4 3 2 1
b4 b5
The exponents of b increase:
1a b2 5 a 5 5a 4b 10a 3b 10a 2b
1 2 3 4 5
5a 1b b
With these observations we can write the form of the expansion of 1a b2 n for any
natural number n. For example, writing a question mark for the missing coefficients,
we have
Óa bÔ8 a8 ? a7b ? a6b2 ? a5b3 ? a4b4 ? a3b5 ? a2b6 ? ab7 b8
To complete the expansion, we need to determine these coefficients. To find a pattern,

let’s write the coefficients in the expansion of 1a b2 n for the first few values of n in
a triangular array as shown in the following array, which is called Pascal’s triangle.
1a b2 0 1
1a b2 1 1 1
1a b2 2 1 2 1
1a b2 3 1 3 3 1
1a b2 4
1 4 6 4 1
1a b2 5 1 5 10 10 5 1
The row corresponding to 1a b2 0 is called the zeroth row and is included to show
Pascal’s triangle appears in this the symmetry of the array. The key observation about Pascal’s triangle is the follow-
Chinese document by Chu Shikie,
ing property.
dated 1303. The title reads “The
Old Method Chart of the Seven
Multiplying Squares.” The triangle
was rediscovered by Pascal (see
Key Property of Pascal’s Triangle
page 858).
Every entry (other than a 1) is the sum of the two entries diagonally above it.
From this property it’s easy to find any row of Pascal’s triangle from the row above
it. For instance, we find the sixth and seventh rows, starting with the fifth row:
1a b2 5 1 5 10 10 5 1
씮
1a b2
씮 씮
씮 씮
씮 씮
씮 씮
씮
6
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
씮
1a b2 7
씮
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
To see why this property holds, let’s consider the following expansions:
1a b2 5 a 5 5a 4b 10a 3b 2 10a 2b 3 5ab 4 b 5
–
씯–
씯
1a b2 6 a 6 6a 5b 15a 4b 2 20a 3b 3 15a 2b 4 6ab 5 b 6
We arrive at the expansion of 1a b2 6 by multiplying 1a b2 5 by 1a b2 . Notice,
for instance, that the circled term in the expansion of 1a b2 6 is obtained via this
multiplication from the two circled terms above it. We get this term when the two
terms above it are multiplied by b and a, respectively. Thus, its coefficient is the sum
of the coefficients of these two terms. We will use this observation at the end of this
section when we prove the Binomial Theorem.
Having found these patterns, we can now easily obtain the expansion of any bino-
mial, at least to relatively small powers.
Example 1 Expanding a Binomial Using Pascal’s Triangle

Find the expansion of 1a b2 7 using Pascal’s triangle.
Solution The first term in the expansion is a7, and the last term is b7. Using the
fact that the exponent of a decreases by 1 from term to term and that of b increases
by 1 from term to term, we have
1a b2 7 a7 ? a6b ? a5b2 ? a4b3 ? a3b4 ? a2b5 ? ab6 b7
The appropriate coefficients appear in the seventh row of Pascal’s triangle. Thus
1a b2 7 a 7 7a 6b 21a 5b 2 35a 4b 3 35a 3b 4 21a 2b 5 7ab 6 b 7 ■
Example 2 Expanding a Binomial Using

Pascal’s Triangle
Use Pascal’s triangle to expand 12 3x2 5.
Solution We find the expansion of 1a b2 5 and then substitute 2 for a and 3x
for b. Using Pascal’s triangle for the coefficients, we get
1a b 2 5 a 5 5a 4b 10a 3b 2 10a 2b 3 5ab 4 b 5
Substituting a 2 and b 3x gives

12 3x2 5 122 5 5122 4 13x2 10122 3 13x2 2 10122 2 13x2 3 5122 13x2 4 13x2 5
32 240x 720x 2 1080x 3 810x 4 243x 5 ■
The Binomial Coefficients

Although Pascal’s triangle is useful in finding the binomial expansion for reasonably
small values of n, it isn’t practical for finding 1a b 2 n for large values of n. The rea-
son is that the method we use for finding the successive rows of Pascal’s triangle is
recursive. Thus, to find the 100th row of this triangle, we must first find the preced-
ing 99 rows.
We need to examine the pattern in the coefficients more carefully to develop a for-
mula that allows us to calculate directly any coefficient in the binomial expansion.
Such a formula exists, and the rest of this section is devoted to finding and proving it.
However, to state this formula we need some notation.
The product of the first n natural numbers is denoted by n! and is called
4! 1 # 2 # 3 # 4 24 n factorial:
7! 1 # 2 # 3 # 4 # 5 # 6 # 7 5040
n! 1 # 2 # 3 # . . . # 1n 12 # n
10! 1 # 2 # 3 # 4 # 5 # 6 # 7 # 8 # 9 # 10
3,628,800
We also define 0! as follows:
0! 1
This definition of 0! makes many formulas involving factorials shorter and easier to
write.
The Binomial Coefficient
Let n and r be nonnegative integers with r

n. The binomial coefficient is
denoted by (nr) and is defined by
a b
n n!
r r!1n r 2!
Example 3 Calculating Binomial Coefficients

1#2#3#4#5#6#7#8#9
(a) a b
9 9! 9!
# # #
4 4!19 42! 4!5! 11 2 3 42 11 # 2 # 3 # 4 # 52
6#7#8#9
126
1#2#3#4
1 # 2 # 3 # p # 97 # 98 # 99 # 100
(b) a b
100 100!

3 3!1100 32! 11 # 2 # 32 11 # 2 # 3 # p # 972
98 # 99 # 100
161,700
1#2#3
1 # 2 # 3 # p # 97 # 98 # 99 # 100
(c) a b
100 100!

97 97!1100 972! 11 # 2 # 3 # p # 972 11 # 2 # 32
98 # 99 # 100
161,700
1#2#3
■
Although the binomial coefficient (nr) is defined in terms of a fraction, all the re-
sults of Example 3 are natural numbers. In fact, (nr) is always a natural number (see
Exercise 50). Notice that the binomial coefficients in parts (b) and (c) of Example 3
are equal. This is a special case of the following relation, which you are asked to
prove in Exercise 48.
a b a b
n n
r nr
To see the connection between the binomial coefficients and the binomial expan-
sion of 1a b2 n, let’s calculate the following binomial coefficients:
a b 1 a b 5 a b 10 a b 10 a b 5 a b 1
5 5 5 5 5 5
a b
5 5!
10
2 2!15 22 ! 0 1 2 3 4 5
These are precisely the entries in the fifth row of Pascal’s triangle. In fact, we can
write Pascal’s triangle as follows.
a b
0
0
a b a b
1 1
0 1
a b a b a b
2 2 2
0 1 2
a b a b a b a b
3 3 3 3
0 1 2 3
a b a b a b a b a b
4 4 4 4 4
0 1 2 3 4
a b a b a b a b a b a b
5 5 5 5 5 5
0 1 2 3 4 5
# # # # # # #
a b
n
a b
n
a b
n # # # a
n
b a b
n
0 1 2 n1 n
To demonstrate that this pattern holds, we need to show that any entry in this version
of Pascal’s triangle is the sum of the two entries diagonally above it. In other words,
we must show that each entry satisfies the key property of Pascal’s triangle. We now
state this property in terms of the binomial coefficients.
Key Property of the Binomial Coefficients
For any nonnegative integers r and k with r

k,
k1
a b a b a b
k k
r1 r r
Notice that the two terms on the left side of this equation are adjacent entries in the
kth row of Pascal’s triangle and the term on the right side is the entry diagonally be-
low them, in the 1k 12 st row. Thus, this equation is a restatement of the key prop-
erty of Pascal’s triangle in terms of the binomial coefficients. A proof of this formula
is outlined in Exercise 49.
The Binomial Theorem

We are now ready to state the Binomial Theorem.
The Binomial Theorem
1a b2 n a b an a b an1b a b an2b 2 . . . a b ab n1 a b b n

n n n n n
0 1 2 n1 n
We prove this theorem at the end of this section. First, let’s look at some of its
applications.

the Binomial Theorem
Use the Binomial Theorem to expand 1x y2 4.
Solution By the Binomial Theorem,
1x y2 4 a b x 4 a b x 3y a b x 2y 2 a b xy 3 a b y 4
4 4 4 4 4
0 1 2 3 4
Verify that
a b 1 a b 4 a b 6 a b 4 a b 1
4 4 4 4 4
0 1 2 3 4
It follows that
1x y2 4 x 4 4x 3y 6x 2y 2 4xy 3 y 4 ■

the Binomial Theorem
Use the Binomial Theorem to expand A 1x 1B 8.
Solution We first find the expansion of 1a b2 8 and then substitute 1x for a
and 1 for b. Using the Binomial Theorem, we have
1a b2 8 a b a 8 a b a 7b a b a 6b 2 a b a 5b 3 a b a 4b 4
8 8 8 8 8
0 1 2 3 4
a b a 3b 5 a b a 2b 6 a b ab 7 a b b 8
8 8 8 8
5 6 7 8
Verify that
a b 1 a b 8 a b 28 a b 56 a b 70
8 8 8 8 8
0 1 2 3 4
a b 56 a b 28 a b 8 a b 1
8 8 8 8
5 6 7 8
So
1a b2 8 a 8 8a 7b 28a 6b 2 56a 5b 3 70a 4b 4 56a 3b 5

28a 2b 6 8ab 7 b 8
Performing the substitutions a x1/2 and b 1 gives
A 1x 1B 8 1x 1/2 2 8 81x 1/2 2 7 112 281x 1/2 2 6 112 2 561x 1/2 2 5 112 3
701x 1/2 2 4 112 4 561x 1/2 2 3 112 5 281x 1/2 2 2 112 6
81x 1/2 2 112 7 112 8
This simplifies to
1 1x 12 8 x 4 8x 7/2 28x 3 56x 5/2 70x 2 56x 3/2 28x 8x 1/2 1 ■
The Binomial Theorem can be used to find a particular term of a binomial expan-
sion without having to find the entire expansion.
General Term of the Binomial Expansion
The term that contains ar in the expansion of 1a b2 n is
a b a rb nr
n
nr
Example 6 Finding a Particular Term in a Binomial Expansion

Find the term that contains x5 in the expansion of 12x y2 20.
Solution The term that contains x5 is given by the formula for the general term
with a 2x, b y, n 20, and r 5. So, this term is
a ba b 12x2 5y15
20 5 15 20! 20!
32x 5y15 496,128x 5y15 ■
15 15!120 152! 15!5!
Example 7 Finding a Particular Term in a Binomial Expansion
Find the coefficient of x8 in the expansion of a x 2 b .

1 10
x
Solution Both x2 and 1/x are powers of x, so the power of x in each term of
the expansion is determined by both terms of the binomial. To find the required
coefficient, we first find the general term in the expansion. By the formula we
have a x2, b 1/x, and n 10, so the general term is
a b 1x 2 2 r a b a b x 2r 1x 1 2 10r a b x 3r10
10 1 10r 10 10
10 r x 10 r 10 r
Thus, the term that contains x8 is the term in which
3r 10 8
r6
So the required coefficient is
a b a b 210
10 10
■
10 6 4
Proof of the Binomial Theorem

We now give a proof of the Binomial Theorem using mathematical induction.
■ Proof Let P1n2 denote the statement
1a b 2 n a b a n a b a n1b a b a n2b 2 . . . a b ab n1 a b b n

n n n n n
0 1 2 n1 n
Step 1 We show that P112 is true. But P112 is just the statement
1a b2 1 a b a 1 a b b 1 1a 1b a b
1 1
0 1
which is certainly true.
Step 2 We assume that P1k 2 is true. Thus, our induction hypothesis is
1a b2 k a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k

k k k k k
0 1 2 k1 k
We use this to show that P1k 12 is true.
1a b2 k1 1a b2 3 1a b2 k 4
1a b2 c a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k d

k k k k k Induction
0 1 2 k1 k hypothesis
a c a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k d

k k k k k
0 1 2 k1 k
b c a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k d Property

k k k k k Distributive
0 1 2 k1 k
a b a k1 a b a kb a b a k1b 2 . . . a b a 2b k1 a b ab k

k k k k k
0 1 2 k1 k
a b a kb a b a k1b 2 a b a k2b 3 . . . a b ab k a b b k1

k k k k k Distributive
0 1 2 k1 k Property
a b a k1 c a b a b d a kb c a b a b d a k1b 2
k k k k k
0 0 1 1 2
... ca b a b d ab k a b b k1
k k k
Group like terms
k1 k k
Using the key property of the binomial coefficients, we can write each of the
expressions in square brackets as a single binomial coefficient. Also, writing
the first and last coefficients as (k1 k1
0 ) and (k1) (these are equal to 1 by Exer-
cise 46) gives
k 1 k1 k1 k k 1 k1 2 . . . k1 k 1 k1

1a b 2 k1 a ba a ba b a ba b a b ab k a bb
0 1 2 k k1
But this last equation is precisely P1k 12 , and this completes the induc-
tion step.
Induction that the theorem is true for all natural numbers n. ■
11.6 Exercises
1–12 ■ Use Pascal’s triangle to expand the expression. 13–20 ■ Evaluate the expression.
1. 1x y 2 6 2. 12x 1 2 4 3. a x b 13. a b 14. a b 15. a b

4
1 6 8 100
x 4 3 98
4. 1x y 2 5 5. 1x 1 2 5 6. A 1a 1bB 6
16. a b 17. a b a b 18. a b a b
10 3 4 5 5
7. 1x y 1 2
2 5
8. A1 12B 6
9. 12x 3y 2 3 5 1 2 2 3
10. 11 x 3 2 3 11. a 1x b b
5
12. a 2
x 5
19. a b a b a b a b a b a b
1 5 5 5 5 5 5
x 2 0 1 2 3 4 5
■
20. a b a b a b a b a b a b
5 5 5 5 5 5 43–44 Simplify using the Binomial Theorem.
0 1 2 3 4 5 1x h2 3 x 3 1x h2 4 x 4
43. 44.
h h
21–24 ■ Use the Binomial Theorem to expand the expression. 45. Show that 11.01 2 100 2.
21. 1x 2y 2 4 22. 11 x2 5 [Hint: Note that 11.012 100 11 0.012 100 and use the Bino-
mial Theorem to show that the sum of the first two terms of
23. a 1 b 24. 12A B 2 2 4
1 6 the expansion is greater than 2.]
x
46. Show that a b 1 and a b 1.
n n
25. Find the first three terms in the expansion of 1x 2y 2 20. 0 n
26. Find the first four terms in the expansion of 1x 1/2 1 2 30.
47. Show that a b a b n.
n n
n1
27. Find the last two terms in the expansion of 1a 2 .
1
2/3
a 1/3 25
48. Show that a b a b

n n
28. Find the first three terms in the expansion of for 0
r
n.
r nr
ax b
1 40
49. In this exercise we prove the identity
x
n1
a b a b a b
n n
29. Find the middle term in the expansion of 1x 2 1 2 18.
r1 r r
30. Find the fifth term in the expansion of 1ab 1 2 20. (a) Write the left side of this equation as the sum of two
fractions.
31. Find the 24th term in the expansion of 1a b 2 25.
(b) Show that a common denominator of the expression
32. Find the 28th term in the expansion of 1A B 2 30. you found in part (a) is r!1n r 1 2!.
(c) Add the two fractions using the common denominator
33. Find the 100th term in the expansion of 11 y2 100. in part (b), simplify the numerator, and note that the
resulting expression is equal to the right side of the
34. Find the second term in the expansion of equation.
a x2 b
1 25 50. Prove that 1 nr 2 is an integer for all n and for 0
r
n.
x [Suggestion: Use induction to show that the statement is
35. Find the term containing x4 in the expansion of 1x 2y 2 10.
true for all n, and use Exercise 49 for the induction step.]
36. Find the term containing y3 in the expansion of A 12 yB 12.
37. Find the term containing b8 in the expansion of 1a b 2 2 12. Discovery • Discussion
38. Find the term that does not contain x in the expansion of 51. Powers of Factorials Which is larger, 1100! 2 101 or
1101!2 100? [Hint: Try factoring the expressions. Do they
a 8x b
1 8 have any common factors?]
2x
52. Sums of Binomial Coefficients Add each of the
first five rows of Pascal’s triangle, as indicated. Do you
39–42 ■ Factor using the Binomial Theorem. see a pattern?
39. x 4 4x 3y 6x 2y 2 4xy 3 y 4 11 ?
40. 1x 12 5 51x 12 4 101x 12 3 121 ?

101x 1 2 2 51x 12 1 1331 ?
41. 8a 12a b 6ab b
3 2 2 3
14641 ?
42. x 8 4x 6y 6x 4y 2 4x 2y 3 y 4 1 5 10 10 5 1 ?
Based on the pattern you have found, find the sum of the 53. Alternating Sums of Binomial Coefficients Find
nth row: the sum
a b a b a b ... a b a b a b a b . . . 112 n a b
n n n n n n n n
0 1 2 n 0 1 2 n
Prove your result by expanding 11 12 n using the Binomial by finding a pattern as in Exercise 52. Prove your result by
Theorem. expanding 11 1 2 n using the Binomial Theorem.
11 Review
Concept Check
n
1. (a) What is a sequence?
4. (a) Write the sum a a k without using 兺-notation.
(b) What is an arithmetic sequence? Write an expression k1
for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence. (b) Write b 1 b2 b3 . . . bn using 兺-notation.
(c) What is a geometric sequence? Write an expression for 5. Write an expression for the amount Af of an annuity consist-
the nth term of a geometric sequence. ing of n regular equal payments of size R with interest rate i
2. (a) What is a recursively defined sequence? per time period.
(b) What is the Fibonacci sequence? 6. State the Principle of Mathematical Induction.
3. (a) What is meant by the partial sums of a sequence? 7. Write the first five rows of Pascal’s triangle. How are the
(b) If an arithmetic sequence has first term a and common entries related to each other?
difference d, write an expression for the sum of its first
8. (a) What does the symbol n! mean?
Write an expression for the binomial coefficient 1 nr 2.
n terms.
(b)
(c) If a geometric sequence has first term a and common
ratio r, write an expression for the sum of its first (c) State the Binomial Theorem.
n terms. (d) Write the term that contains ar in the expansion of
(d) Write an expression for the sum of an infinite geometric 1a b2 n.
series with first term a and common ratio r. For what
values of r is your formula valid?
Exercises
1–6 ■ Find the first four terms as well as the tenth term of the a n1
8. a n , a1 1
sequence with the given nth term. n
2. an 11 2 n
n2 2n 9. an an1 2an2, a1 1, a2 3
1. a n
n1 n
10. a n 23a n1, a 1 13
11 2 n 1 n1n 1 2
3. a n 4. a n 11–14 ■ The nth term of a sequence is given.
n3 2
(a) Find the first five terms of the sequence.
12n 2 ! n1
6. a n a b
(b) Graph the terms you found in part (a).
5. a n
2nn! 2 (c) Determine if the series is arithmetic or geometric. Find the
common difference or the common ratio.
5
7–10 ■ A sequence is defined recursively. Find the first seven 11. an 2n 5 12. a n
2n
terms of the sequence. 3n n
13. a n 14. a n 4
7. an an1 2n 1, a1 1 2n1 2
CHAPTER 11 Review 871
15–22 ■ The first four terms of a sequence are given. Deter- 35. Find the values of x for which the sequence 6, x, 12, . . . is
mine whether they can be the terms of an arithmetic sequence, a (a) arithmetic (b) geometric
geometric sequence, or neither. If the sequence is arithmetic or
geometric, find the fifth term. 36. Find the values of x and y for which the sequence 2, x, y,
17, . . . is
15. 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, . . . 16. 1, 32, 2, 52, . . . (a) arithmetic (b) geometric
17. 12, 2 12, 3 12, 4 12, . . . 18. 12, 2, 2 12, 4, . . .
19. t 3, t 2, t 1, t, . . . 20. t 3, t 2, t, 1, . . . 37–40 ■ Find the sum.
37. a 1k 12 2
6 4
3 1 1 2 1 1 2i
21. , , , ,... 22. a, 1, , 2 , . . . 38. a
4 2 3 9 a a k3 i1 2i 1
39. a 1k 12 2k1
6 5
23. Show that 3, 6i, 12, 24i, . . . is a geometric sequence, 40. a 3m2
and find the common ratio. (Here i 11.) k1 m1
24. Find the nth term of the geometric sequence 2, 2 2i, 4i,
4 4i, 8, . . . (Here i 11.) 41–44 ■ Write the sum without using sigma notation. Do not
25. The sixth term of an arithmetic sequence is 17, and the evaluate.
fourth term is 11. Find the second term.
41. a 1k 12 2
10 100
1
42. a
26. The 20th term of an arithmetic sequence is 96, and the com- k1 j2 j 1
mon difference is 5. Find the nth term. 50
3k 10
43. a k1 44. a n22n
27. The third term of a geometric sequence is 9, and the com- k1 2 n1
mon ratio is 23 . Find the fifth term.
28. The second term of a geometric sequence is 10, and the fifth 45–48 ■ Write the sum using sigma notation. Do not evaluate.
term is 1250
27 . Find the nth term.
45. 3 6 9 12 . . . 99
29. A teacher makes $32,000 in his first year at Lakeside
School, and gets a 5% raise each year. 46. 12 22 32 . . . 1002
(a) Find a formula for his salary An in his nth year at this 47. 1 # 23 2 # 24 3 # 25 4 # 26 . . . 100 # 2102
school.
1 1 1 1
# # ...
1#2 999 # 1000
(b) List his salaries for his first 8 years at this school. 48.
2 3 3 4
30. A colleague of the teacher in Exercise 29, hired at the same
time, makes $35,000 in her first year, and gets a $1200 raise
each year. 49–54 ■ Determine whether the expression is a partial sum of
(a) What is her salary An in her nth year at this school? an arithmetic or geometric sequence. Then find the sum.
(b) Find her salary in her eighth year at this school, and 49. 1 0.9 10.92 2 . . . 10.9 2 5
compare it to the salary of the teacher in Exercise 29 in 50. 3 3.7 4.4 . . . 10
his eighth year.
51. 15 2 15 3 15 . . . 100 15
31. A certain type of bacteria divides every 5 s. If three of these
bacteria are put into a petri dish, how many bacteria are in 52. 1 2 1 4 . . . 33
3 3 3
the dish at the end of 1 min?
53. a 314 2 n 54. a 715 2 k/2
6 8
32. If a1, a2, a3, . . . and b1, b2, b3, . . . are arithmetic sequences, n0 k0
show that a1 b1, a2 b2, a3 b3, . . . is also an arithmetic 55. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is a 7, and the
sequence. common difference is d 3. How many terms of this
33. If a1, a2, a3, . . . and b1, b2, b3, . . . are geometric sequences, sequence must be added to obtain 325?
show that a1b1, a2b2, a3b3, . . . is also a geometric sequence. 56. The sum of the first three terms of a geometric series is 52,
34. (a) If a1, a2, a3, . . . is an arithmetic sequence, is the and the common ratio is r 3. Find the first term.
sequence a1 2, a2 2, a3 2, . . . arithmetic? 57. A person has two parents, four grandparents, eight great-
(b) If a1, a2, a3, . . . is a geometric sequence, is the sequence grandparents, and so on. What is the total number of a
5a1, 5a2, 5a3, . . . geometric? person’s ancestors in 15 generations?
67. a 1 b a1 b a1 b . . . a1 b n 1
58. Find the amount of an annuity consisting of 16 annual pay- 1 1 1 1
ments of $1000 each into an account that pays 8% interest 1 2 3 n
per year, compounded annually.
59. How much money should be invested every quarter at 12%
per year, compounded quarterly, in order to have $10,000 in 69. Let an1 3an 4 and a1 4. Show that an 2 # 3n 2
one year? for all natural numbers n.
60. What are the monthly payments on a mortgage of $60,000 70. Prove that the Fibonacci number F4n is divisible by 3 for all
at 9% interest if the loan is to be repaid in natural numbers n.
(a) 30 years? (b) 15 years? 71. Find and prove an inequality that relates 2n and n!.
61–64 ■
Find the sum of the infinite geometric series.
61. 1 254 125
2
5
8
... ■
72–75 Evaluate the expression.
62. 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 . . .
72. a b a b 73. a b a b
5 5 10 10
1 1 1 2 3 2 6
63. 1 1/2 3/2 . . .
3 3 3
74. a a b 75. a a b a b
5 8
5 8 8
64. a ab 2 ab 4 ab 6 . . . k0 k k0 k 8 k
65–67 ■ Use mathematical induction to prove that the formula

is true for all natural numbers n.
76–77 ■ Expand the expression.
n13n 12
65. 1 4 7 . . . 13n 2 2 76. 11 x 2 2 6 77. 12x y 2 4
2
78. Find the 20th term in the expansion of 1a b 2 22.
1 1 1 1
...
1#3 3#5 5#7 12n 1 2 12n 12
66.
79. Find the first three terms in the expansion of
1b 2/3 b 1/3 2 20.
n

2n 1 80. Find the term containing A 6 in the expansion of 1A 3B2 10.
CHAPTER 11 Test 873
11 Test
1. Find the first four terms and the tenth term of the sequence whose nth term is
an n 2 1.
2. A sequence is defined recursively by a n2 a 2n a n1, with a1 1 and a2 1.
Find a5.
3. An arithmetic sequence begins 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, . . . .
(a) Find the common difference d for this sequence.
(b) Find a formula for the nth term an of the sequence.
(c) Find the 35th term of the sequence.
4. A geometric sequence begins 12, 3, 3/4, 3/16, 3/64, . . . .
(a) Find the common ratio r for this sequence.
(b) Find a formula for the nth term an of the sequence.
(c) Find the tenth term of the sequence.
5. The first term of a geometric sequence is 25, and the fourth term is 15 .
(a) Find the common ratio r and the fifth term.
(b) Find the partial sum of the first eight terms.
6. The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 10 and the tenth term is 2.
(a) Find the common difference and the 100th term of the sequence.
(b) Find the partial sum of the first ten terms.
7. Let a1, a2, a3, . . . be a geometric sequence with initial term a and common ratio r.
Show that a 21, a 22, a 23, . . . is also a geometric sequence by finding its common ratio.
8. Write the expression without using sigma notation, and then find the sum.
(a) a 11 n2 2 (b) a 112 n2n2

5 6
n1 n3
9. Find the sum.

1 2 22 23 29
(a) 2 3 4 . . . 10
3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1
(b) 1 1/2 3/2 . . .
2 2 2
10. Use mathematical induction to prove that, for all natural numbers n,
n1n 12 12n 1 2
12 22 32 . . . n2
6
11. Expand 12x y2 2 5.

12. Find the term containing x 3 in the binomial expansion of 13x 2 2 10.
13. A puppy weighs 0.85 lb at birth, and each week he gains 24% in weight. Let an be his
weight in pounds at the end of his nth week of life.
(a) Find a formula for an.
(b) How much does the puppy weigh when he is six weeks old?
(c) Is the sequence a1, a2, a3, . . . arithmetic, geometric, or neither?
Focus on Modeling
Modeling with Recursive Sequences
Many real-world processes occur in stages. Population growth can be viewed in

stages—each new generation represents a new stage in population growth. Com-
pound interest is paid in stages—each interest payment creates a new account bal-
ance. Many things that change continuously are more easily measured in discrete
stages. For example, we can measure the temperature of a continuously cooling
object in one-hour intervals. In this Focus we learn how recursive sequences are used
to model such situations. In some cases, we can get an explicit formula for a sequence
from the recursion relation that defines it by finding a pattern in the terms of the
sequence.
Recursive Sequences as Models

Suppose you deposit some money in an account that pays 6% interest compounded
monthly. The bank has a definite rule for paying interest: At the end of each month
the bank adds to your account 12 % (or 0.005) of the amount in your account at that
time. Let’s express this rule as follows:
amount at the end of amount at the end of amount at the end of

0.005
this month last month last month
Using the Distributive Property, we can write this as
amount at the end of amount at the end of

1.005
this month last month
To model this statement using algebra, let A0 be the amount of the original deposit,
A1 the amount at the end of the first month, A2 the amount at the end of the second
month, and so on. So An is the amount at the end of the nth month. Thus
An 1.005An1
We recognize this as a recursively defined sequence—it gives us the amount at each
stage in terms of the amount at the preceding stage.
0.005An−1
A0 A1 A2 An−1
874
Modeling with Recursive Sequences 875
To find a formula for An, let’s find the first few terms of the sequence and look for
a pattern.
A1 1.005A0
A2 1.005A1 11.0052 2A0
A3 1.005A2 11.0052 3A0
A4 1.005A3 11.0052 4A0
We see that in general, An 11.0052 nA0.
Example 1 Population Growth

A certain animal population grows by 2% each year. The initial population is 5000.
(a) Find a recursive sequence that models the population Pn at the end of the nth
year.
(b) Find the first five terms of the sequence Pn.
(c) Find a formula for Pn.
Solution
(a) We can model the population using the following rule:
population at the end of this year 1.02 population at the end of last year
Algebraically we can write this as the recursion relation
Pn 1.02Pn1
(b) Since the initial population is 5000, we have
P0 5000
P1 1.02P0 11.0225000
P2 1.02P1 11.022 25000
P3 1.02P2 11.022 35000
P4 1.02P3 11.022 45000
(c) We see from the pattern exhibited in part (b) that Pn 11.022 n5000. (Note that
Pn is a geometric sequence, with common ratio r 1.02.) ■
Example 2 Daily Drug Dose

A patient is to take a 50-mg pill of a certain drug every morning. It is known that
the body eliminates 40% of the drug every 24 hours.
(a) Find a recursive sequence that models the amount An of the drug in the patient’s
body after each pill is taken.
876 Focus on Modeling
(b) Find the first four terms of the sequence An.

(c) Find a formula for An.
(d) How much of the drug remains in the patient’s body after 5 days? How much
will accumulate in his system after prolonged use?
Solution
(a) Each morning 60% of the drug remains in his system plus he takes an addi-
tional 50 mg (his daily dose).
amount of drug this amount of drug

morning 0.6 yesterday morning 50 mg
We can express this as a recursion relation
An 0.6An1 50
(b) Since the initial dose is 50 mg, we have
A0 50
A1 0.6A0 50 0.61502 50
A2 0.6A1 50 0.6 30.61502 504 50
0.62 1502 0.61502 50
5010.62 0.6 12
A3 0.6A2 50 0.630.62 1502 0.61502 504 50
0.63 1502 0.62 1502 0.61502 50
5010.63 0.62 0.6 1 2
(c) From the pattern in part (b), we see that

An 5011 0.6 0.62 . . . 0.6n 2
Plot1 Plot2 Plot3
Min=0
u( )=125(1-.6^( +1))
1 0.6n1
50 a b Sum of a geometric sequence:
1 0.6
1 r n1
Sn a a b
1r
Enter sequence 12511 0.6n1 2 Simplify
(d) To find the amount remaining after 5 days, we substitute n 5 and get
A5 12511 0.651 2 ⬇ 119 mg.
150
To find the amount remaining after prolonged use, we let n become large. As
n gets large, 0.6n approaches 0. That is, 0.6n 씮 0 as n 씮 q (see Section 4.1).
So as n 씮 q,
An 12511 0.6n1 2 씮 12511 02 125
16
0 Thus, after prolonged use the amount of drug in the patient’s system approaches
Graph sequence
125 mg (see Figure 1, where we have used a graphing calculator to graph the
Figure 1 sequence). ■
Problems
1. Retirement Accounts Many college professors keep retirement savings with TIAA,
the largest annuity program in the world. Interest on these accounts is compounded and
credited daily. Professor Brown has $275,000 on deposit with TIAA at the start of 2006,
and receives 3.65% interest per year on his account.
(a) Find a recursive sequence that models the amount An in his account at the end of the
nth day of 2006.
(b) Find the first eight terms of the sequence An , rounded to the nearest cent.
2. Fitness Program Sheila decides to embark on a swimming program as the best way
to maintain cardiovascular health. She begins by swimming 5 min on the first day, then
1
adds 1 2 min every day after that.
(a) Find a recursive formula for the number of minutes Tn that she swims on the nth day
of her program.
(b) Find the first 6 terms of the sequence Tn.
(c) Find a formula for Tn. What kind of sequence is this?
(d) On what day does Sheila attain her goal of swimming at least 65 min a day?
(e) What is the total amount of time she will have swum after 30 days?
3. Monthly Savings Program Alice opens a savings account paying 3% interest per
year, compounded monthly. She begins by depositing $100 at the start of the first month,
and adds $100 at the end of each month, when the interest is credited.
(a) Find a recursive formula for the amount An in her account at the end of
the nth month. (Include the interest credited for that month and her monthly
deposit.)
(b) Find the first 5 terms of the sequence An.
(c) Use the pattern you observed in (b) to find a formula for An. [Hint: To find the pat-
tern most easily, it’s best not to simplify the terms too much.]
(d) How much has she saved after 5 years?
4. Stocking a Fish Pond A pond is stocked with 4000 trout, and through reproduction
the population increases by 20% per year. Find a recursive sequence that models the
trout population Pn at the end of the nth year under each of the following circumstances.
Find the trout population at the end of the fifth year in each case.
(a) The trout population changes only because of reproduction.
(b) Each year 600 trout are harvested.
(c) Each year 250 additional trout are introduced into the pond.
(d) Each year 10% of the trout are harvested and 300 additional trout are introduced
into the pond.
5. Pollution A chemical plant discharges 2400 tons of pollutants every year into an
adjacent lake. Through natural runoff, 70% of the pollutants contained in the lake at the
beginning of the year are expelled by the end of the year.
(a) Explain why the following sequence models the amount An of the pollutant in the
lake at the end of the nth year that the plant is operating.
An 0.30An1 2400
(b) Find the first five terms of the sequence An.

(d) How much of the pollutant remains in the lake after 6 years? How much will remain
after the plant has been operating a long time?
(e) Verify your answer to part (d) by graphing An with a graphing calculator, for n 1
to n 20.
6. Annual Savings Program Ursula opens a one-year CD that yields 5% interest per
year. She begins with a deposit of $5000. At the end of each year when the CD matures,
she reinvests at the same 5% interest rate, also adding 10% to the value of the CD from
her other savings. (So for example, after the first year her CD has earned 5% of $5000 in
interest, for a value of $5250 at maturity. She then adds 10%, or $525, bringing the total
value of her renewed CD to $5775.)
(a) Find a recursive formula for the amount Un in her CD when she reinvests at the end
of the nth year.
(b) Find the first 5 terms of the sequence Un. Does this appear to be a geometric sequence?
(c) Use the pattern you observed in (b) to find a formula for Un.
(d) How much has she saved after 10 years?
7. Annual Savings Program Victoria opens a one-year CD with a 5% annual interest

yield at the same time as her friend Ursula in Problem 6. She also starts with an initial
deposit of $5000. However, Victoria decides to add $500 to her CD when she reinvests at
the end of the first year, $1000 at the end of the second, $1500 at the end of the third,
and so on.
(a) Explain why the recursive formula displayed below gives the amount Vn in her CD
when she reinvests at the end of the nth year.
Entering the sequences
Vn 1.05Vn1 500n
u( ) v( ) (b) Using the Seq (“sequence”) mode on your graphing calculator, enter the
0 5000 5000 sequences Un and Vn as shown in the figure to the left. Then use the TABLE
1 5750 5750
2 6612.5 7037.5
command to compare the two sequences. For the first few years, Victoria seems to
3 7604.4 8889.4 be accumulating more savings than Ursula. Scroll down in the table to verify that
4 8745 11334
5 10057 14401 Ursula eventually pulls ahead of Victoria in the savings race. In what year does
6 11565 18121
this occur?
=0
Table of values 8. Newton’s Law of Cooling A tureen of soup at a temperature of 170 F is placed on
of the sequences a table in a dining room in which the thermostat is set at 70 F. The soup cools according
to the following rule, a special case of Newton’s Law of Cooling: Each minute, the tem-
perature of the soup declines by 3% of the difference between the soup temperature and
the room temperature.
(a) Find a recursive sequence that models the soup temperature Tn at the nth
minute.
(b) Enter the sequence Tn in your graphing calculator, and use the TABLE command
to find the temperature at 10-min increments from n 0 to n 60. (See
Problem 7(b).)
(c) Graph the sequence Tn. What temperature will the soup be after a long time?
9. Logistic Population Growth Simple exponential models for population growth

do not take into account the fact that when the population increases, survival becomes
harder for each individual because of greater competition for food and other resources.
We can get a more accurate model by assuming that the birth rate is proportional to the
size of the population, but the death rate is proportional to the square of the population.
Using this idea, researchers find that the number of raccoons Rn on a certain island is
modeled by the following recursive sequence:
Population at end Number of

of year births
Rn Rn1 0.08Rn1 0.00041Rn1 2 2, R0 100
Population at beginning Number of

of year deaths
Here n represents the number of years since observations began, R 0 is the initial
population, 0.08 is the annual birth rate, and 0.0004 is a constant related to the
death rate.
(a) Use the TABLE command on a graphing calculator to find the raccoon population
for each year from n 1 to n 7.
(b) Graph the sequence Rn. What happens to the raccoon population as n becomes
large?
12 Limits: A Preview
of Calculus
12.1 Finding Limits Numerically and Graphically
12.2 Finding Limits Algebraically
12.3 Tangent Lines and Derivatives
12.4 Limits at Infinity; Limits of Sequences
12.5 Areas
Chapter Overview
A⁄ In this chapter we study the central idea underlying calculus—the concept of limit.
Calculus is used in modeling numerous real-life phenomena, particularly situations
Afi that involve change or motion. To understand the basic idea of limits let’s consider
A¤
two fundamental examples.
A‹ A›
To find the area of a polygonal figure we simply divide it into triangles and add the
areas of the triangles, as in the figure to the left. However, it is much more difficult to
A=A⁄+A¤+A‹+A›+Afi find the area of a region with curved sides. One way is to approximate the area by in-
scribing polygons in the region. The figure illustrates how this is done for a circle.
A‹ A› Afi Afl A‡ ... A⁄¤ ...
If we let An be the area of the inscribed regular polygon with n sides, then we see
that as n increases An gets closer and closer to the area of the circle. We say that the
area A of the circle is the limit of the areas An and write
area lim An
nSq
If we can find a pattern for the areas An, then we may be able to determine the limit
A exactly. In this chapter we use a similar idea to find areas of regions bounded by
graphs of functions.
In Chapter 2 we learned how to find the average rate of change of a function. For
example, to find average speed we divide the total distance traveled by the total time.
But how can we find instantaneous speed—that is, the speed at a given instant? We
can’t divide the total distance traveled by the total time, because in an instant the to-
tal distance traveled is zero and the total time spent traveling is zero! But we can find
the average rate of change on smaller and smaller intervals, zooming in on the instant
we want. For example, suppose f1t2 gives the distance a car has traveled at time t. To
Karl Ronstrom /Reuters/Landov
find the speed of the car at exactly 2:00 P.M., we first find the average speed on an in-
terval from 2 to a little after 2, that is, on the interval 32, 2 h 4 . We know that the
average speed on this interval is 3f12 h2 f122 4/h. By finding this average speed
881
882 CHAPTER 12 Limits: A Preview of Calculus
for smaller and smaller values of h (letting h go to zero), we zoom in on the instant
we want. We can write
f12 h2 f122
instantaneous speed lim
hS0 h
If we find a pattern for the average speed, we can evaluate this limit exactly.
The ideas in this chapter have wide-ranging applications. The concept of “instan-
taneous rate of change” applies to any varying quantity, not just speed. The concept
of “area under the graph of a function” is a very versatile one. Indeed, numerous phe-
nomena, seemingly unrelated to area, can be interpreted as area under the graph of a
function. We explore some of these in Focus on Modeling, page 929.
12.1 Finding Limits Numerically and Graphically

In this section we use tables of values and graphs of functions to answer the question,
What happens to the values f1x2 of a function f as the variable x approaches the
number a?
Definition of Limit
We begin by investigating the behavior of the function f defined by
f1x2 x 2 x 2
for values of x near 2. The following table gives values of f1x2 for values of x close
to 2 but not equal to 2.
f1x 2 f1x 2
y
x x
1.0 2.000000 3.0 8.000000
1.5 2.750000 2.5 5.750000 Ï
1.8 3.440000 2.2 4.640000 y=≈- x+2
approaches 4
1.9 3.710000 2.1 4.310000 4.
1.95 3.852500 2.05 4.152500
1.99 3.970100 2.01 4.030100
1.995 3.985025 2.005 4.015025
1.999 3.997001 2.001 4.003001
0 2 x
As x approaches 2,
Figure 1
From the table and the graph of f (a parabola) shown in Figure 1 we see that when
x is close to 2 (on either side of 2), f1x 2 is close to 4. In fact, it appears that we can
make the values of f1x2 as close as we like to 4 by taking x sufficiently close to 2. We
express this by saying “the limit of the function f1x2 x 2 x 2 as x approaches
2 is equal to 4.” The notation for this is
lim 1x 2 x 22 4
xS2
SECTION 12.1 Finding Limits Numerically and Graphically 883
In general, we use the following notation.
Definition of the Limit of a Function
We write
lim f1x2 L
xSa
and say
“the limit of f1x 2, as x approaches a, equals L”
if we can make the values of f1x2 arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we
like) by taking x to be sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
Roughly speaking, this says that the values of f1x2 get closer and closer to the num-
ber L as x gets closer and closer to the number a (from either side of a) but x a.
An alternative notation for limxSa f1x2 L is
f1x2 씮 L as x씮a
which is usually read “f1x 2 approaches L as x approaches a.” This is the notation we
used in Section 3.6 when discussing asymptotes of rational functions.
Notice the phrase “but x a” in the definition of limit. This means that in finding
the limit of f1x 2 as x approaches a, we never consider x a. In fact, f1x 2 need not
even be defined when x a. The only thing that matters is how f is defined near a.
Figure 2 shows the graphs of three functions. Note that in part (c), f 1a2 is not
defined and in part (b), f1a2 L. But in each case, regardless of what happens at a,
limxSa f1x2 L.
y y y
L L L
0 a x 0 a x 0 a x
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2
lim f 1x 2 L in all three cases
xSa
Estimating Limits Numerically and Graphically

In Section 12.2 we will develop techniques for finding exact values of limits. For now,
we use tables and graphs to estimate limits of functions.
Example 1 Estimating a Limit Numerically and Graphically

x1
Guess the value of lim . Check your work with a graph.
xS1 x2 1
Solution Notice that the function f1x2 1x 12/1x 2 12 is not defined
when x 1, but this doesn’t matter because the definition of limxSa f1x2 says that
1 we consider values of x that are close to a but not equal to a. The following tables
give values of f1x2 (correct to six decimal places) for values of x that approach 1
(but are not equal to 1).
(1, 0.5)
x1 f 1x 2 x 1 f 1x 2
0.5 0.666667 1.5 0.4000000
0 2
0.9 0.526316 1.1 0.476190
0.99 0.502513 1.01 0.497512
Figure 3 0.999 0.500250 1.001 0.499750
0.9999 0.500025 1.0001 0.499975
0.6
On the basis of the values in the two tables, we make the guess that
(1, 0.5)
x1
lim 0.5
xS1 x 1
2
As a graphical verification we use a graphing device to produce Figure 3. We

0.9 1.1
0.4 see that when x is close to 1, y is close to 0.5. If we use the ZOOM and TRACE
features to get a closer look, as in Figure 4, we notice that as x gets closer and
Figure 4 closer to 1, y becomes closer and closer to 0.5. This reinforces our conclusion. ■
Example 2 Finding a Limit from a Table

2t 2 9 3 2t 9 3
2
t Find lim .
t2 tS0 t2
1.0 0.16228 Solution The table in the margin lists values of the function for several values
0.5 0.16553 of t near 0. As t approaches 0, the values of the function seem to approach
0.1 0.16662 0.1666666 . . . , and so we guess that
0.05 0.16666
0.01 0.16667 2t 2 9 3 1
lim 2 ■
tS0 t 6
What would have happened in Example 2 if we had taken even smaller values of
t? The table in the margin shows the results from one calculator; you can see that
2t 2 9 3 something strange seems to be happening.
t
t2 If you try these calculations on your own calculator, you might get different val-
0.0005 0.16800 ues, but eventually you will get the value 0 if you make t sufficiently small. Does this
0.0001 0.20000 mean that the answer is really 0 instead of 61 ? No, the value of the limit is 16 , as we will
0.00005 0.00000 show in the next section. The problem is that the calculator gave false values because
0.00001 0.00000 2t 2 9 is very close to 3 when t is small. (In fact, when t is sufficiently small, a cal-
culator’s value for 2t 2 9 is 3.000 . . . to as many digits as the calculator is capable
of carrying.)
Something similar happens when we try to graph the function of Example 2 on a
graphing device. Parts (a) and (b) of Figure 5 show quite accurate graphs of this func-
tion, and when we use the TRACE feature, we can easily estimate that the limit is
about 16 . But if we zoom in too far, as in parts (c) and (d), then we get inaccurate
graphs, again because of problems with subtraction.
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
(a) [_5, 5] by [_0.1, 0.3] (b) [_0.1, 0.1] by [_0.1, 0.3] (c) [_10–§, 10–§] by [_0.1, 0.3] (d) [_10–¶, 10–¶] by [_0.1, 0.3]
Figure 5
Limits That Fail to Exist

Functions do not necessarily approach a finite value at every point. In other words,
it’s possible for a limit not to exist. The next three examples illustrate ways in which
this can happen.
Example 3 A Limit That Fails to Exist (A Function

with a Jump)
y
The Heaviside function H is defined by
0 if t 0
1 H1t2 e
1 if t 0
0 x
[This function is named after the electrical engineer Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925)
and can be used to describe an electric current that is switched on at time t 0.]
Its graph is shown in Figure 6. Notice the “jump” in the graph at x 0.
Figure 6 As t approaches 0 from the left, H1t2 approaches 0. As t approaches 0 from
the right, H1t2 approaches 1. There is no single number that H1t2 approaches as
t approaches 0. Therefore, limtS0 H1t 2 does not exist. ■

That Oscillates)
p
Find lim sin .
xS0 x
Solution The function f1x2 sin1p/x2 is undefined at 0. Evaluating the
function for some small values of x, we get
f112 sin p 0 fA 12 B sin 2p 0
fA 13 B sin 3p 0 fA 14 B sin 4p 0
f10.12 sin 10p 0 f10.012 sin 100p 0
Similarly, f10.0012 f10.00012 0. On the basis of this information we might be
tempted to guess that
p ?
lim sin 0
xS0 x
but this time our guess is wrong. Note that although f11/n2 sin np 0 for any
integer n, it is also true that f1x2 1 for infinitely many values of x that approach
0. (See the graph in Figure 7.)
y
y=ß(π/x)
1
_1
1 x
_1
Figure 7
The broken lines indicate that the values of sin1p/x2 oscillate between 1 and 1
infinitely often as x approaches 0. Since the values of f1x 2 do not approach a fixed
number as x approaches 0,
p
lim sin does not exist ■
x씮0 x
Example 4 illustrates some of the pitfalls in guessing the value of a limit. It is easy
to guess the wrong value if we use inappropriate values of x, but it is difficult to know
when to stop calculating values. And, as the discussion after Example 2 shows, some-
times calculators and computers give incorrect values. In the next two sections, how-
ever, we will develop foolproof methods for calculating limits.

with a Vertical Asymptote)
1
Find lim if it exists.
xS0 x2
Solution As x becomes close to 0, x 2 also becomes close to 0, and 1/x 2 becomes
very large. (See the table in the margin.) In fact, it appears from the graph of the
1
x function f1x2 1/x 2 shown in Figure 8 that the values of f1x2 can be made
x2
arbitrarily large by taking x close enough to 0. Thus, the values of f1x2 do not
1 1 approach a number, so limx씮0 11/x 2 2 does not exist.
0.5 4
0.2 25 y
0.1 100
0.05 400
0.01 10,000
0.001 1,000,000
y= 1
≈
0 x
Figure 8 ■
To indicate the kind of behavior exhibited in Example 5, we use the notation

1
lim q
xS0 x2
This does not mean that we are regarding q as a number. Nor does it mean that the
limit exists. It simply expresses the particular way in which the limit does not exist:
1/x 2 can be made as large as we like by taking x close enough to 0. Notice that the
line x 0 (the y-axis) is a vertical asymptote in the sense we described in Section 3.6.
One-Sided Limits
We noticed in Example 3 that H1t 2 approaches 0 as t approaches 0 from the left and
H1t 2 approaches 1 as t approaches 0 from the right. We indicate this situation sym-
bolically by writing
lim H1t 2 0 and lim H1t 2 1
tS0 tS0
The symbol “t 씮 0” indicates that we consider only values of t that are less than 0.
Likewise, “t 씮 0” indicates that we consider only values of t that are greater than 0.
Definition of a One-Sided Limit
We write
lim f1x2 L
xSa
and say the “left-hand limit of f1x2 as x approaches a” [or the “limit of f1x2
as x approaches a from the left”] is equal to L if we can make the values of
f1x2 arbitrarily close to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to a and x less
than a.
Notice that this definition differs from the definition of a two-sided limit only in
that we require x to be less than a. Similarly, if we require that x be greater than a, we
get “the right-hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a is equal to L” and we write
lim f1x2 L
xSa
Thus, the symbol “x씮a ” means that we consider only x a. These definitions are
illustrated in Figure 9.
y y
L Ï
Ï L
0 x a x 0 a x x
(a) lim_ Ï=L (b) lim Ï=L

Figure 9 x a x a +
By comparing the definitions of two-sided and one-sided limits, we see that the
following is true.
lim f1x2 L if and only if lim f1x2 L and lim f1x2 L

xSa xSa xSa
Thus, if the left-hand and right-hand limits are different, the (two-sided) limit does
not exist. We use this fact in the next two examples.
Example 6 Limits from a Graph

y The graph of a function g is shown in Figure 10. Use it to state the values
4 (if they exist) of the following:
3 (a) lim g1x2 , lim g1x2, lim g1x2
y=˝ xS2 xS2 xS2
(b) lim g1x2 , lim g1x2, lim g1x2
xS5 xS5 xS5
1
Solution
0 1 2 3 4 5 x
(a) From the graph we see that the values of g1x2 approach 3 as x approaches
2 from the left, but they approach 1 as x approaches 2 from the right.
Figure 10 Therefore
lim g1x2 3 and lim g1x2 1
xS2 xS2
Since the left- and right-hand limits are different, we conclude that limx씮2 g1x2
does not exist.
(b) The graph also shows that
lim g1x2 2 and lim g1x2 2
xS5 xS5
This time the left- and right-hand limits are the same, and so we have
lim g1x2 2
xS5
Despite this fact, notice that g152 2. ■
Example 7 A Piecewise-Defined Function

Let f be the function defined by
if x 1
f 1x2 e
2x 2
y 4x if x 1
4 Graph f, and use the graph to find the following:
3 (a) lim f1x2 (b) lim f1x2 (c) lim f 1x2
xS1 xS1 xS1
2
1
Solution The graph of f is shown in Figure 11. From the graph we see that the
values of f1x2 approach 2 as x approaches 1 from the left, but they approach 3 as x
0 1 x approaches 1 from the right. Thus, the left- and right-hand limits are not equal. So
we have
(a) lim f1x2 2 (b) lim f1x2 3 (c) lim f1x2 does not exist. ■
Figure 11 xS1 xS1 xS1
12.1 Exercises
11. lim a b
1–6 ■ Complete the table of values (to five decimal places) and 1 1 tan 2x
12. lim
use the table to estimate the value of the limit. xS1 ln x x1 xS0 tan 3x
2x 2 13. For the function f whose graph is given, state the value of the
1. lim
xS4 x4 given quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.
(a) lim f 1x 2 (b) lim f 1x 2 (c) lim f 1x 2
xS1 xS1 xS1
x 3.9 3.99 3.999 4.001 4.01 4.1
(d) lim f 1x 2 (e) f 15 2
f 1x 2 xS5
y
x2
2. lim 2
xS2 x x 6
4
x 1.9 1.99 1.999 2.001 2.01 2.1

2
f 1x 2
0 2 4 x
x1
3. lim 3
xS1 x 1
14. For the function f whose graph is given, state the value of the
given quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.
x 0.9 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01 1.1 (a) lim f 1x 2 (b) lim f 1x 2 (c) lim f 1x 2
f 1x 2
xS0 xS3 xS3
(d) lim f 1x 2 (e) f 13 2

xS3
e 1
x
y
4. lim
xS0 x
4
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
f 1x 2 2
sin x 0 2 4 x
5. lim
xS0 x
15. For the function g whose graph is given, state the value of the
x 1 0.5 0.1 0.05 0.01 given quantity, if it exists. If it does not exist, explain why.
f 1x 2 (a) lim g1t2 (b) lim g1t2 (c) lim g1t2
tS0 tS0 tS0
(d) lim g1t2 (e) lim g1t2 (f) lim g1t2

tS2 tS2 tS2
6. lim x ln x
xS0
(g) g122 (h) lim g1t2
tS4
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0.00001
y
f 1x 2
4
7–12 ■ Use a table of values to estimate the value of the limit.
Then use a graphing device to confirm your result graphically. 2
x4 x 1
3
7. lim 8. lim
xS4 x 2 7x 12 xS1 x2 1 2 4 t
5 3
x x
1x 9 3
9. lim 10. lim
xS0 x xS0 x
x 3 if x 1
25. f 1x2 e
16. State the value of the limit, if it exists, from the given graph
of f. If it does not exist, explain why. 3 if x 1
(a) lim f 1x 2 (b) lim f 1x2 (c) lim f 1x2 (a) lim f 1x 2 (b) lim f 1x 2 (c) lim f 1x 2
xS3 xS1 xS3
xS1 xS1 xS1
(d) lim f 1x 2 (e) lim f 1x2 (f) lim f 1x2 2x 10 if x

2
xS2 xS2 xS2
26. f 1x2 e
y x 4 if x 2
2 xS2 xS2 xS2
1
_3 _2 0 1 2 3 x 27. A Function with Specified Limits Sketch the graph of
_1 an example of a function f that satisfies all of the following
_2 conditions.
lim f 1x 2 2 lim f 1x 2 0
xS0 xS0
17–22 ■ Use a graphing device to determine whether the limit lim f 1x 2 1 f 102 2 f 122 3
exists. If the limit exists, estimate its value to two decimal xS2
places.
How many such functions are there?
x 3 x 2 3x 5 x 3 6x 2 5x 1
17. lim 18. lim 3 28. Graphing Calculator Pitfalls
xS1 2x 2 5x 3 xS2 x x 8x 12
2
(a) Evaluate h1x 2 1tan x x2 /x 3 for x 1, 0.5, 0.1,

19. lim ln1sin2 x 2
x2
20. lim 0.05, 0.01, and 0.005.
xS0 xS0 cos 5x cos 4x
tan x x
1 1 (b) Guess the value of lim .
21. lim cos 22. lim xS0 x3
xS0 x xS0 1 e 1/x (c) Evaluate h1x2 for successively smaller values of
x until you finally reach 0 values for h1x2 . Are you
23–26 ■ Graph the piecewise-defined function and use your
still confident that your guess in part (b) is correct?
graph to find the values of the limits, if they exist.
Explain why you eventually obtained 0 values.
23. f 1x2 e
x2 if x
2 (d) Graph the function h in the viewing rectangle 31, 14
6x if x 2 by 30, 14. Then zoom in toward the point where the
graph crosses the y-axis to estimate the limit of h1x 2 as
(a) lim f 1x 2 (b) lim f 1x2 (c) lim f 1x2
xS2 xS2 xS2 x approaches 0. Continue to zoom in until you observe
distortions in the graph of h. Compare with your results
if x 0
24. f 1x2 e
2
in part (c).
x 1 if x 0
(a) lim f 1x 2 (b) lim f 1x2 (c) lim f 1x2
xS0 xS0 xS0
12.2 Finding Limits Algebraically

In Section 12.1 we used calculators and graphs to guess the values of limits, but we
saw that such methods don’t always lead to the correct answer. In this section, we use
algebraic methods to find limits exactly.
Limit Laws
We use the following properties of limits, called the Limit Laws, to calculate limits.
SECTION 12.2 Finding Limits Algebraically 891
Limit Laws
Suppose that c is a constant and that the following limits exist:

lim f1x2 and lim g1x2
x씮a x씮a
Then
1. lim 3f1x2 g1x2 4 lim f1x2 lim g1x2 Limit of a Sum
x씮a x씮a x씮a
2. lim 3f1x2 g1x2 4 lim f1x2 lim g1x2 Limit of a Difference

x씮a x씮a x씮a
3. lim 3cf1x2 4 c lim f1x2 Limit of a Constant Multiple

x씮a x씮a
4. lim 3f1x2g1x2 4 lim f1x2 # lim g1x2 Limit of a Product

x씮a x씮a x씮a
f1x2 lim f1x2

x씮a
if lim g1x2 0
x씮a g1x 2
5. lim Limit of a Quotient
lim g1x2 x씮a
x씮a
These five laws can be stated verbally as follows:

Limit of a Sum 1. The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits.
Limit of a Difference 2. The limit of a difference is the difference of the limits.
Limit of a Constant Multiple 3. The limit of a constant times a function is the constant times the limit of the
function.
Limit of a Product 4. The limit of a product is the product of the limits.
Limit of a Quotient 5. The limit of a quotient is the quotient of the limits (provided that the limit
of the denominator is not 0).
It’s easy to believe that these properties are true. For instance, if f 1x 2 is close to
L and g1x 2 is close to M, it is reasonable to conclude that f1x2 g1x2 is close to
L M. This gives us an intuitive basis for believing that Law 1 is true.
If we use Law 4 (Limit of a Product) repeatedly with g1x2 f1x2 , we obtain the
following Law 6 for the limit of a power. A similar law holds for roots.
Limit Laws
6. lim 3f1x2 4 n 3 lim f1x2 4 n where n is a positive integer Limit of a Power

x씮a x씮a
n n
7. lim 1 f1x2 1lim f1x2 where n is a positive integer Limit of a Root
x씮a x씮a
[If n is even, we assume that limx씮a f1x2 0.]
In words, these laws say:

Limit of a Power 6. The limit of a power is the power of the limit.
Limit of a Root 7. The limit of a root is the root of the limit.
Example 1 Using the Limit Laws

y Use the Limit Laws and the graphs of f and g in Figure 1 to evaluate the following
f limits, if they exist.
(a) lim 3f1x2 5g1x2 4 (b) lim 3f1x2g1x2 4
1 x씮2 x씮1
(d) lim 3f1x2 4 3

f1x2
0 1 x (c) lim
x씮2 g1x2 x씮1
g
Solution
(a) From the graphs of f and g we see that
Figure 1 lim f1x2 1 and lim g1x2 1
x씮2 x씮2
Therefore, we have
lim 3f1x2 5g1x2 4 lim f1x2 lim 35g1x2 4 Limit of a Sum
x씮2 x씮2 x씮2
lim f1x2 5 lim g1x2 Limit of a Constant Multiple

x씮2 x씮2
1 5112 4
(b) We see that limxS1 f1x2 2. But limxS1 g1x2 does not exist because the
left- and right-hand limits are different:
lim g1x2 2 lim g1x2 1
x씮1 x씮1
So we can’t use Law 4 (Limit of a Product). The given limit does not exist,
since the left-hand limit is not equal to the right-hand limit.
(c) The graphs show that
lim f1x2 ⬇ 1.4 and lim g1x2 0
x씮2 x씮2
Because the limit of the denominator is 0, we can’t use Law 5 (Limit of a Quo-
tient). The given limit does not exist because the denominator approaches 0
while the numerator approaches a nonzero number.
(d) Since limxS1 f1x2 2, we use Law 6 to get
lim 3f1x2 4 3 3 lim f1x2 4 3 Limit of a Power

x씮1 x씮1
23 8 ■
Applying the Limit Laws

In applying the Limit Laws, we need to use four special limits.
Some Special Units
1. lim c c
x씮a
2. lim x a
x씮a
3. lim x n a n where n is a positive integer
x씮a
n n
4. lim 1 x 1 a where n is a positive integer and a 0
x씮a
Special Limits 1 and 2 are intuitively obvious—looking at the graphs of y c and

y x will convince you of their validity. Limits 3 and 4 are special cases of Limit
Laws 6 and 7 (Limits of a Power and of a Root).
Example 2 Using the Limit Laws

Evaluate the following limits and justify each step.
x 3 2x 2 1
(a) lim 12x 2 3x 42 (b) lim
x씮5 x씮2 5 3x
Solution
(a) lim 12x 2 3x 42 lim 12x 2 2 lim 13x2 lim 4 Limits of a Difference
x씮5 x씮5 x씮5 x씮5 and Sum
2 lim x 2 3 lim x lim 4 Limit of a
x씮5 x씮5 x씮5 Constant Multiple
2152 2 3152 4 Special Limits 3, 2, and 1

39
(b) We start by using Law 5, but its use is fully justified only at the final stage
when we see that the limits of the numerator and denominator exist and the
limit of the denominator is not 0.
lim 1x 3 2x 2 12
x 3 2x 2 1 x씮2

lim 15 3x2
lim Limit of a Quotient
x씮2 5 3x
x씮2
lim x 2 lim x 2 lim 1
3
Limits of Sums, Differ-
x씮2 x씮2 x씮2
ences, and Constant
lim 5 3 lim x Multiples
x씮2 x씮2
122 2122 1
3 2
Special Limits 3, 2, and 1
5 3122
1
■
11
If we let f 1x2 2x 2 3x 4, then f152 39. In Example 2(a), we found that

limxS5 f1x2 39. In other words, we would have gotten the correct answer by sub-
stituting 5 for x. Similarly, direct substitution provides the correct answer in part (b).
The functions in Example 2 are a polynomial and a rational function, respectively,
and similar use of the Limit Laws proves that direct substitution always works for
such functions. We state this fact as follows.
Limits by Direct Substitution
If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of f, then

lim f1x2 f1a2
x씮a
Functions with this direct substitution property are called continuous at a. You
will learn more about continuous functions when you study calculus.
Example 3 Finding Limits by Direct Substitution

Bill Sanederson /SPL /Photo Researchers, Inc.
Evaluate the following limits.

x 2 5x
(a) lim 12x 3 10x 82 (b) lim
x씮1 x 2
4
x씮3
Solution
(a) The function f1x2 2x 3 10x 12 is a polynomial, so we can find the limit
by direct substitution:
lim 12x 3 10x 122 2132 3 10132 8 16
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is x씮3
(b) The function f1x2 1x 2 5x2/1x 4 22 is a rational function, and x 1 is

universally regarded as one of the
giants of physics and mathematics.
He is well known for discovering in its domain (because the denominator is not zero for x 1). Thus, we can
the laws of motion and gravity and find the limit by direct substitution:
for inventing the calculus, but he
x 2 5x 112 2 5112 4

112 2
also proved the Binomial Theorem lim ■
x씮1 x 2
4 4
and the laws of optics, and devel- 3
oped methods for solving poly-
nomial equations to any desired
Finding Limits Using Algebra and the Limit Laws
accuracy. He was born on Christ-
mas Day, a few months after the As we saw in Example 3, evaluating limits by direct substitution is easy. But not all
death of his father. After an un- limits can be evaluated this way. In fact, most of the situations in which limits are use-
happy childhood, he entered Cam- ful requires us to work harder to evaluate the limit. The next three examples illustrate
bridge University, where he learned how we can use algebra to find limits.
mathematics by studying the writ-
ings of Euclid and Descartes.
During the plague years of Example 4 Finding a Limit by Canceling a Common Factor
1665 and 1666, when the univer- x1
sity was closed, Newton thought Find lim .
x씮1 x 1
2
and wrote about ideas that, once
published, instantly revolutionized Solution Let f1x 2 1x 1 2/1x 2 12 . We can’t find the limit by substituting
the sciences. Imbued with a patho- x 1 because f112 isn’t defined. Nor can we apply Law 5 (Limit of a Quotient)
logical fear of criticism, he pub-
because the limit of the denominator is 0. Instead, we need to do some preliminary
lished these writings only after
many years of encouragement
algebra. We factor the denominator as a difference of squares:
from Edmund Halley (who discov- x1 x1

ered the now-famous comet) and x 1
2
1x 12 1x 12
other colleagues.
Newton’s works brought him The numerator and denominator have a common factor of x 1. When we take the
enormous fame and prestige. Even limit as x approaches 1, we have x 1 and so x 1 0. Therefore, we can cancel
poets were moved to praise; the common factor and compute the limit as follows:
Alexander Pope wrote:
x1 x1
lim
x씮1 1x 12 1x 12
Nature and Nature’s Laws lim Factor
x씮1 x 1
2
lay hid in Night.
God said, “Let Newton be” 1
lim Cancel
and all was Light. x씮1 x1
(continued)
1 1
Let x 씮 1
11 2
This calculation confirms algebraically the answer we got numerically and
graphically in Example 1 in Section 12.1. ■
Newton was far more modest Example 5 Finding a Limit by Simplifying

about his accomplishments. He 13 h2 2 9
said, “I seem to have been only like Evaluate lim .
a boy playing on the seashore . . . h씮0 h
while the great ocean of truth lay Solution We can’t use direct substitution to evaluate this limit, because the limit
all undiscovered before me.” New- of the denominator is 0. So we first simplify the limit algebraically.
ton was knighted by Queen Anne
in 1705 and was buried with great
13 h2 2 9 19 6h h 2 2 9
honor in Westminster Abbey. lim lim Expand
h씮0 h h씮0 h
6h h 2
lim Simplify
h씮0 h
lim 16 h2 Cancel h
h씮0
6 Let h 씮 0 ■
Example 6 Finding a Limit by Rationalizing

2t 2 9 3
Find lim .
t씮0 t2
Solution We can’t apply Law 5 (Limit of a Quotient) immediately, since the
limit of the denominator is 0. Here the preliminary algebra consists of rationalizing
the numerator:
2t 2 9 3 2t 2 9 3 # 2t 2 9 3
lim 2 lim Rationalize numerator
t씮0 t t씮0 t2 2t 2 9 3
1t 2 92 9 t2
lim lim
t씮0 t 2 A 2t 2 9 3B t씮0 t 2 A 2t 2 9 3B
1 1 1 1
lim
t씮0 2t 9 3
2
2lim 1t 92 3
2 33 6
t씮0
This calculation confirms the guess that we made in Example 2 in Section 12.1. ■
Using Left- and Right-Hand Limits

Some limits are best calculated by first finding the left- and right-hand limits. The
following theorem is a reminder of what we discovered in Section 12.1. It says that
a two-sided limit exists if and only if both of the one-sided limits exist and are
equal.
lim f1x2 L if and only if lim f1x2 L lim f1x2

x씮a x씮a x씮a
When computing one-sided limits, we use the fact that the Limit Laws also hold
for one-sided limits.
Example 7 Comparing Right and Left Limits

Show that lim 0 x 0 0.
x씮0
Solution Recall that
if x 0
0x0 e
The result of Example 7 looks plausible x
from Figure 2. x if x 0
y Since 0 x 0 x for x 0, we have
y=|x| lim 0 x 0 lim x 0

x씮0 x씮0
For x 0, we have 0 x 0 x and so
lim 0 x 0 lim 1x2 0

x씮0 x씮0
0 x
Therefore
Figure 2
lim 0 x 0 0 ■
x씮0
Example 8 Comparing Right and Left Limits

0x0
Prove that lim does not exist.
x씮0 x
Solution Since 0 x 0 x for x 0 and 0 x 0 x for x 0, we have
y 0x0 x
lim lim lim 1 1
|x| x씮0 x x씮0 x x씮0
y= x
0x0
1
x
lim lim lim 112 1
0 x x씮0 x x씮0 x x씮0
_1
Since the right-hand and left-hand limits exist and are different, it follows that
limx씮0 0 x 0 /x does not exist. The graph of the function f1x 2 0 x 0 /x is shown in
Figure 3 Figure 3 and supports the limits that we found. ■
Example 9 The Limit of a Piecewise-Defined Function

Let
2x 4 if x 4
f1x 2 e
8 2x if x 4
Determine whether lim f1x2 exists.

x씮4
Solution Since f1x2 1x 4 for x 4, we have
lim f1x2 lim 1x 4 14 4 0

x씮4 x씮4
y Since f1x 2 8 2x for x 4, we have

lim f1x2 lim 18 2x2 8 2 # 4 0
x씮4 x씮4
The right- and left-hand limits are equal. Thus, the limit exists and
0 4 x
lim f1x2 0
x씮4
Figure 4 The graph of f is shown in Figure 4. ■
12.2 Exercises
1. Suppose that 9–20 ■ Evaluate the limit, if it exists.
lim f 1x 2 3 lim g1x 2 0 lim h1x2 8 x2 x 6 x 2 5x 4
x씮a x씮a x씮a
9. lim 10. lim
Find the value of the given limit. If the limit does not exist, x씮2 x2 x씮4 x 2 3x 4
explain why. x x6
2
x3 1
(a) lim 3 f 1x 2 h1x 2 4 (b) lim 3f 1x 2 4 2 11. lim
x씮2 x2
12. lim
x씮1 x 1
2
x씮a x씮a
t2 9 11 h 1
(c) lim 1h1x 2
3 1
x씮a f 1x2
(d) lim 13. lim 14. lim
t씮3 2t 7t 3
2
xSa h씮0 h
f 1x 2 g1x 2 12 h 2 3 8 x 4 16
h1x 2 f 1x2
(e) lim (f) lim 15. lim 16. lim
x씮a x씮a h씮0 h x씮2 x 2
13 h 2 1 31
f 1x 2 2f 1x2 17. lim
1x 2 3
18. lim
g1x 2 h1x2 f 1x2
(g) lim (h) lim x씮7 x7 h씮0 h
x씮a x씮a
1 1
2. The graphs of f and g are given. Use them to evaluate each
20. lim a b
limit, if it exists. If the limit does not exist, explain why. 4 x 1 1
19. lim 2
(a) lim 3 f 1x 2 g1x 2 4 (b) lim 3f 1x 2 g1x 2 4 x씮4 4 x t씮0 t t t
x씮2 x씮1
f 1x2
(c) lim 3 f 1x 2 g1x 2 4
21–24 ■ Find the limit and use a graphing device to confirm
(d) lim your result graphically.
x씮0 x씮1 g1x2
x2 1 14 x 2 3 64
(e) lim x 3f 1x 2 (f) lim 23 f 1x 2 21. lim 22. lim
x씮2 x씮1 x씮1 1x 1 x씮0 x
y y x x2
2
x 1
8
23. lim 24. lim
x씮1 x3 x x씮1 x5 x
y=Ï y=˝ 25. (a) Estimate the value of
1 1
x
lim
1 x 0 1 x x씮0 21 3x 1
by graphing the function f1x2 x/A 11 3x 1B .
(b) Make a table of values of f 1x2 for x close to 0 and guess
3–8 ■ Evaluate the limit and justify each step by indicating the the value of the limit.
appropriate Limit Law(s). (c) Use the Limit Laws to prove that your guess is correct.
3. lim 15x 2 2x 32 4. lim 1x 3 2 2 1x 2 5x 2 26. (a) Use a graph of
x씮4 x씮3
23 x 13
5. lim
x2
6. lim a
x4 x2 6 2
b f 1x 2
x씮1 x 4x 3
2
x씮1 x 4 2x 3 x
7. lim 1t 1 2 1t 1 2
9 2
8. lim 2u 4 3u 6 to estimate the value of limxS0 f 1x 2 to two decimal
t씮2 u씮2 places.
(b) Use a table of values of f 1x2 to estimate the limit to Discovery • Discussion
four decimal places.
35. Cancellation and Limits
(c) Use the Limit Laws to find the exact value of the limit.
(a) What is wrong with the following equation?
27–32 ■ Find the limit, if it exists. If the limit does not exist, x2 x 6
explain why. x3
x2
0x40
27. lim 0 x 4 0 28. lim (b) In view of part (a), explain why the equation
x씮4 x씮4 x4
x2 x 6
0x20 2x 2 3x lim lim 1x 32
x2
x씮1.5 0 2x 3 0
29. lim 30. lim x씮2 x씮2
x씮2 x2
is correct.
31. lim a b 32. lim a b
1 1 1 1
x씮0 x 0x0 x씮0 x 0x0 36. The Lorentz Contraction In the theory of relativity, the
33. Let Lorentz contraction formula
L L 0 21 √ 2/c 2
x1 if x 2
f1x 2 e 2 expresses the length L of an object as a function of its
x 4x 6 if x 2
velocity √ with respect to an observer, where L 0 is the
(a) Find limxS2 f 1x2 and limxS2 f 1x2 . length of the object at rest and c is the speed of light. Find
(b) Does limx씮2 f 1x2 exist? lim√ Sc L and interpret the result. Why is a left-hand limit
(c) Sketch the graph of f. necessary?
34. Let 37. Limits of Sums and Products

x if x 0 (a) Show by means of an example that
h1x 2 • x 2
if 0 x
2 limx씮a 3f 1x2 g1x 2 4 may exist even though neither
8 x if x 2 limx씮a f 1x 2 nor limx씮a g1x2 exists.
(b) Show by means of an example that
limx씮a 3f 1x2 g1x 2 4 may exist even though neither
(a) Evaluate each limit, if it exists.
(i) lim h1x 2
limx씮a f 1x 2 nor limx씮a g1x2 exists.
(iv) lim h1x2
x씮0 x씮2
(ii) lim h1x 2 (v) lim h1x2
x씮0 x씮2
(iii) lim h1x 2 (vi) lim h1x2
x씮1 x씮2
(b) Sketch the graph of h.
12.3 Tangent Lines and Derivatives
y In this section we see how limits arise when we attempt to find the tangent line to a
t curve or the instantaneous rate of change of a function.
y=≈ The Tangent Problem

P (1, 1)
A tangent line is a line that just touches a curve. For instance, Figure 1 shows the
0 x parabola y x 2 and the tangent line t that touches the parabola at the point P11, 12 .
We will be able to find an equation of the tangent line t as soon as we know its slope
m. The difficulty is that we know only one point, P, on t, whereas we need two points
Figure 1 to compute the slope. But observe that we can compute an approximation to m by
SECTION 12.3 Tangent Lines and Derivatives 899
choosing a nearby point Q1x, x 2 2 on the parabola (as in Figure 2) and computing the
y
QÓx, ≈Ô t
slope mPQ of the secant line PQ.
We choose x 1 so that Q P. Then
y=≈
P (1, 1)
x2 1
m PQ
x1
0 x
Now we let x approach 1, so Q approaches P along the parabola. Figure 3 shows how
the corresponding secant lines rotate about P and approach the tangent line t.
Figure 2
y y y
Q
t t t
Q
Q
P P P
0 x 0 x 0 x
Q approaches P from the right

y y y
t t t
Q P P P
Q Q
0 x 0 x 0 x
Q approaches P from the left
Figure 3
The slope of the tangent line is the limit of the slopes of the secant lines:
m lim m PQ
Q씮P
So, using the method of Section 12.2, we have

x2 1 1x 12 1x 12
m lim lim
x씮1 x1 x씮1 x1
The point-slope form for the equation lim 1x 12 1 1 2
of a line through the point 1x 1, y1 2 with
x씮1
slope m is Now that we know the slope of the tangent line is m 2, we can use the point-slope
y y1 m1x x 1 2 form of the equation of a line to find its equation:
(See Section 1.10.) y 1 21x 12 or y 2x 1
We sometimes refer to the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a point as the slope
of the curve at the point. The idea is that if we zoom in far enough toward the point,
the curve looks almost like a straight line. Figure 4 illustrates this procedure for the
curve y x 2. The more we zoom in, the more the parabola looks like a line. In other
words, the curve becomes almost indistinguishable from its tangent line.
2 1.5 1.1
(1, 1) (1, 1) (1, 1)
0 2 0.5 1.5 0.9 1.1
Figure 4
Zooming in toward the point 11, 1 2 on the parabola y x 2
If we have a general curve C with equation y f1x2 and we want to find the tan-
gent line to C at the point P1a, f1a22 , then we consider a nearby point Q1x, f1x22 ,
where x a, and compute the slope of the secant line PQ:
f1x2 f1a2
m PQ
xa
Then we let Q approach P along the curve C by letting x approach a. If mPQ
approaches a number m, then we define the tangent t to be the line through P with
slope m. (This amounts to saying that the tangent line is the limiting position of the
secant line PQ as Q approaches P. See Figure 5.)
y y
t
QÓ x, Ï Ô Q
Q
Ï- f(a)
P Q
PÓa, f(a)Ô
x-a
0 a x x 0 x
Figure 5
Definition of a Tangent Line
The tangent line to the curve y f1x2 at the point P1a, f1a22 is the line
through P with slope
f1x2 f1a2
m lim
x씮a xa
provided that this limit exists.
Example 1 Finding a Tangent Line to a Hyperbola

Find an equation of the tangent line to the hyperbola y 3/x at the point 13, 12 .
Solution Let f1x2 3/x. Then the slope of the tangent line at 13, 12 is
f1x2 f132
m lim Definition of m
x씮3 x3
3
1
f 1x 2
x 3
lim x
x씮3 x 3
3x Multiply numerator

lim
x씮3 x1x 32 and denominator by x
lim a b
1
Cancel x 3
y x씮3 x
x+3y-6=0 3 1
y= x Let x 씮 3
3
(3, 1) Therefore, an equation of the tangent at the point 13, 12 is
0 x y 1 13 1x 32
which simplifies to
x 3y 6 0
Figure 6
The hyperbola and its tangent are shown in Figure 6. ■
There is another expression for the slope of a tangent line that is sometimes easier
to use. Let h x a. Then x a h, so the slope of the secant line PQ is
f1a h2 f1a2
m PQ
h
See Figure 7 where the case h 0 is illustrated and Q is to the right of P. If it hap-
pened that h 0, however, Q would be to the left of P.
y
t
QÓa+h, f(a+h)Ô
f(a+h)-f(a)
PÓa, f(a)Ô
0 a a+h x
Figure 7
Notice that as x approaches a, h approaches 0 (because h x a), and so the ex-
pression for the slope of the tangent line becomes
f1a h2 f1a2
m lim
h씮0 h
Newton and Limits Example 2 Finding a Tangent Line

In 1687 Isaac Newton (see page
Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y x 3 2x 3 at the
point 11, 22 .
894) published his masterpiece
Principia Mathematica. In this
work, the greatest scientific treatise
ever written, Newton set forth his Solution If f1x2 x 3 2x 3, then the slope of the tangent line where
version of calculus and used it to a 1 is
investigate mechanics, fluid dy-
f11 h2 f112
namics, and wave motion, and to m lim Definition of m
explain the motion of planets and h씮0 h
comets. 3 11 h 2 3 211 h 2 34 313 2112 34
The beginnings of calculus are lim f 1x 2 x3 2x 3
found in the calculations of areas h씮0 h
and volumes by ancient Greek 1 3h 3h 2 h 3 2 2h 3 2
scholars such as Eudoxus and lim Expand numerator
Archimedes. Although aspects of h씮0 h
the idea of a limit are implicit in h 3h 2 h 3
their “method of exhaustion,” Eu- lim Simplify
doxus and Archimedes never ex-
h씮0 h
plicitly formulated the concept of lim 11 3h h 2 2 Cancel h
a limit. Likewise, mathematicians h씮0
such as Cavalieri, Ferinat, and Bar-
1 Let h 씮 0
row, the immediate precursors of
Newton in the development of cal- So an equation of the tangent line at 11, 22 is
culus, did not actually use limits. It
was Isaac Newton who first talked y 2 11x 12 or yx1 ■
explicitly about limits. He ex-
plained that the main idea behind
limits is that quantities “approach
nearer than by any given differ- Derivatives
ence.” Newton stated that the limit
was the basic concept in calculus We have seen that the slope of the tangent line to the curve y f1x2 at the point
but it was left to later mathemati- 1a, f1a22 can be written as
cians like Cauchy to clarify these
ideas. f1a h2 f1a2
lim
h씮0 h
It turns out that this expression arises in many other contexts as well, such as finding
velocities and other rates of change. Because this type of limit occurs so widely, it is
given a special name and notation.
Definition of a Derivative
The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f¿1a2 , is

f1a h2 f1a2
f¿1a2 lim
h씮0 h
if this limit exists.
Example 3 Finding a Derivative at a Point

Find the derivative of the function f1x2 5x 2 3x 1 at the number 2.
Solution According to the definition of a derivative, with a 2, we have

f12 h2 f122
f¿122 lim Definition of f ¿12 2
h씮0 h
3512 h2 2 312 h 2 14 35122 2 3122 14
lim f 1x 2 5x 2 3x 1
h씮0 h
20 20h 5h 2 6 3h 1 25
lim Expand
h씮0 h
23h 5h 2
lim Simplify
h씮0 h
lim 123 5h2 Cancel h
h씮0
23 Let h 씮 0 ■
We see from the definition of a derivative that the number f¿1a2 is the same as the
slope of the tangent line to the curve y f1x2 at the point 1a, f1a22 . So the result of
Example 2 shows that the slope of the tangent line to the parabola y 5x 2 3x 1
at the point 12, 252 is f¿122 23.
Example 4 Finding a Derivative

Let f 1x2 1x.
(a) Find f¿1a2 .
(b) Find f¿ 112, f¿142, and f¿192 .
Solution
(a) We use the definition of the derivative at a:
f1a h2 f1a2
f¿ 1a 2 lim Definition of derivative
h씮 0 h
1a h 1a
lim f 1x 2 1x
h씮0 h
1a h 1a # 1a h 1a
lim Rationalize numerator
h씮0 h 1a h 1a
1a h2 a
lim Difference of squares
h씮0 hA 1a h 1aB
h
lim Simplify numerator
h씮0 hA 1a h 1aB
1
lim Cancel h
h씮0 1a h 1a
1 1
Let h 씮 0
1a 1a 2 1a
(b) Substituting a 1, a 4, and a 9 into the result of part (a), we get
1 1 1 1 1 1
f¿112 f¿142 f¿192
2 11 2 2 14 4 2 19 6
These values of the derivative are the slopes of the tangent lines shown in
Figure 8.
1 y=œ∑
x
0 1 4 9 x
Figure 8 ■
Instantaneous Rates of Change

In Section 2.3 we defined the average rate of change of a function f between the num-
bers a and x as
change in y f1x2 f1a2
average rate of change
change in x xa
Suppose we consider the average rate of change over smaller and smaller intervals by
letting x approach a. The limit of these average rates of change is called the instanta-
neous rate of change.
Instantaneous Rate of Change
If y f1x 2 , the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x

a is the limit of the average rates of change as x approaches a:
f1x2 f1a2
instantaneous rate of change lim f¿1a2
x씮a xa
Notice that we now have two ways of interpreting the derivative:

■ f¿1a2 is the slope of the tangent line to y f1x2 at x a
■ f¿ 1a2 is the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x a
In the special case where x t time and s f1t2 displacement 1directed dis-
tance2 at time t of an object traveling in a straight line, the instantaneous rate of
change is called the instantaneous velocity.
Example 5 Instantaneous Velocity

of a Falling Object
If an object is dropped from a height of 3000 ft, its distance above the ground (in
feet) after t seconds is given by h1t 2 3000 16t 2. Find the object’s instanta-
neous velocity after 4 seconds.
h(t)
Solution After 4 s have elapsed, the height is h142 2744 ft. The instantaneous
velocity is
h1t2 h142
h¿142 lim Definition of h¿142
t씮4 t4
3000 16t 2 2744
lim h1t2 3000 16t 2
t씮4 t4
256 16t 2
lim Simplify
t씮4 t4
1614 t 2 14 t 2
lim Factor numerator
t씮4 t4
lim 1614 t 2 Cancel t 4
t씮4
1614 42 128 ft/s Let t 씮 4
The negative sign indicates that the height is decreasing at a rate of 128 ft/s. ■
t P1t 2
Example 6 Estimating an Instantaneous
1996 269,667,000 Rate of Change
1998 276,115,000
2000 282,192,000 Let P1t2 be the population of the United States at time t. The table in the margin
2002 287,941,000 gives approximate values of this function by providing midyear population esti-
2004 293,655,000 mates from 1996 to 2004. Interpret and estimate the value of P¿120002 .
P1t 2 P12000 2
Solution The derivative P¿120002 means the rate of change of P with respect to t
t when t 2000, that is, the rate of increase of the population in 2000.
t 2000 According to the definition of a derivative, we have
P1t 2 P120002
1996 3,131,250
1998 3,038,500 P¿120002 lim
2002 2,874,500 t씮2000 t 2000
2004 2,865,750
So we compute and tabulate values of the difference quotient (the average rates of
change) as shown in the table in the margin. We see that P(2000) lies somewhere
Here we have estimated the derivative between 3,038,500 and 2,874,500. (Here we are making the reasonable assumption
by averaging the slopes of two secant that the population didn’t fluctuate wildly between 1996 and 2004.) We estimate
lines. Another method is to plot the that the rate of increase of the U.S. population in 2000 was the average of these two
population function and estimate numbers, namely
the slope of the tangent line when
t 2000. P¿120002 ⬇ 2.96 million people/year ■
12.3 Exercises
1–6 ■ Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at the 23. (a) If f 1x 2 x 3 2x 4, find f¿1a2 .
given point. (b) Find equations of the tangent lines to the graph of
1. f 1x2 3x 4 at 11, 7 2 f at the points whose x-coordinates are 0, 1, and 2.
2. f 1x 2 5 2x at 13, 11 2
(c) Graph f and the three tangent lines.
24. (a) If g1x2 1/12x 12 , find g¿ 1a2 .
3. f 1x 2 4x 2 3x at 11, 7 2
(b) Find equations of the tangent lines to the graph
4. f 1x 2 1 2x 3x 2 at 11, 0 2 of g at the points whose x-coordinates are 1, 0,
5. f 1x2 2x 3 at 12, 16 2 and 1.
(c) Graph g and the three tangent lines.
6. f 1x2 at 12, 2 2
6
x1
Applications
7–12 ■ Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve at the
given point. Graph the curve and the tangent line. 25. Velocity of a Ball If a ball is thrown into the air
7. y x x 2 at 11, 0 2
with a velocity of 40 ft/s, its height (in feet) after t
seconds is given by y 40t 16t 2. Find the velocity
8. y 2x x 3 at 11, 1 2 when t 2.
26. Velocity on the Moon If an arrow is shot upward on the
at 12, 2 2
x
9. y moon with a velocity of 58 m/s, its height (in meters) after t
x1
seconds is given by H 58t 0.83t 2.
at 11, 1 2
1
10. y (a) Find the velocity of the arrow after one second.
x2 (b) Find the velocity of the arrow when t a.
11. y 1x 3 at 11, 2 2 (c) At what time t will the arrow hit the moon?
12. y 11 2x at 14, 3 2 (d) With what velocity will the arrow hit the moon?
13–18 ■ Find the derivative of the function at the

given number.
13. f 1x2 1 3x 2 at 2
14. f 1x2 2 3x x 2 at 1
15. g1x 2 x 4
at 1
16. g1x 2 2x x 3 2
at 1
17. F1x 2
1
at 4
1x 27. Velocity of a Particle The displacement s (in meters) of
18. G1x 2 1 21x at 4 a particle moving in a straight line is given by the equation
of motion s 4t 3 6t 2, where t is measured in seconds.
Find the velocity of the particle s at times t a, t 1,
19–22 ■ Find f¿ 1a2 , where a is in the domain of f. t 2, t 3.
19. f 1x2 x 2 2x 28. Inflating a Balloon A spherical balloon is being inflated.
Find the rate of change of the surface area AS 4pr 2 B with
20. f 1x 2 2
1
x respect to the radius r when r 2 ft.
29. Temperature Change A roast turkey is taken from an
21. f 1x2
x
oven when its temperature has reached 185F and is placed
x1
on a table in a room where the temperature is 75F. The
22. f 1x 2 1x 2 graph shows how the temperature of the turkey decreases
and eventually approaches room temperature. By measuring 32. World Population Growth The table gives the world’s
the slope of the tangent, estimate the rate of change of the population in the 20th century.
temperature after an hour.
Population Population
T (°F) Year (in millions) Year (in millions)
1900 1650 1960 3040

1910 1750 1970 3710
200
1920 1860 1980 4450
1930 2070 1990 5280
P
1940 2300 2000 6080
100 1950 2560
Estimate the rate of population growth in 1920 and in 1980

0 30 60 90 120 150 t
(min) by averaging the slopes of two secant lines.
30. Heart Rate A cardiac monitor is used to measure the Discovery • Discussion
heart rate of a patient after surgery. It compiles the number 33. Estimating Derivatives from a Graph For the function
of heartbeats after t minutes. When the data in the table are g whose graph is given, arrange the following numbers in
graphed, the slope of the tangent line represents the heart increasing order and explain your reasoning.
g¿ 122 g¿ 102 g¿ 122 g¿ 142
rate in beats per minute.
0
t (min) 36 38 40 42 44 y
2 y=˝
Heartbeats 2530 2661 2806 2948 3080
1
(a) Find the average heart rates (slopes of the secant lines) 0 x
over the time intervals 340, 424 and 342, 444.
_1 1 2 3 4
_1
(b) Estimate the patient’s heart rate after 42 minutes by
averaging the slopes of these two secant lines.
34. Estimating Velocities from a Graph The graph shows
31. Water Flow A tank holds 1000 gallons of water, which
the position function of a car. Use the shape of the graph to
drains from the bottom of the tank in half an hour. The
explain your answers to the following questions.
values in the table show the volume V of water remaining
in the tank (in gallons) after t minutes. (a) What was the initial velocity of the car?
(b) Was the car going faster at B or at C?
(c) Was the car slowing down or speeding up at A, B,
t (min) 5 10 15 20 25 30 and C?
V (gal) 694 444 250 111 28 0 (d) What happened between D and E?
s
(a) Find the average rates at which water flows from the D E
tank (slopes of secant lines) for the time intervals C
310, 154 and 315, 204. B
(b) The slope of the tangent line at the point 115, 250 2
represents the rate at which water is flowing A
from the tank after 15 minutes. Estimate this rate
by averaging the slopes of the secant lines in 0 t
part (a).
908 CHAPTER 12 A Preview of Calculus
Designing a Roller Coaster

DISCOVERY Suppose you are asked to design the first ascent and drop for a new roller
PROJECT coaster. By studying photographs of your favorite coasters, you decide to make
the slope of the ascent 0.8 and the slope of the drop 1.6. You then connect
these two straight stretches y L 1 1x2 and y L 2 1x2 with part of a parabola
y f1x2 ax 2 bx c
where x and f1x2 are measured in feet. For the track to be smooth there can’t
be abrupt changes in direction, so you want the linear segments L1 and L2 to be
tangent to the parabola at the transition points P and Q, as shown in the figure.
f
L⁄ P
Q
L¤
1. To simplify the equations, you decide to place the origin at P. As a

consequence, what is the value of c?
2. Suppose the horizontal distance between P and Q is 100 ft. To ensure that the
track is smooth at the transition points, what should the values of f¿102 and
f¿11002 be?
3. If f1x2 ax 2 bx c, show that f¿1x2 2ax b.
4. Use the results of problems 2 and 3 to determine the values of a and b. That
is, find a formula for f1x2 .
5. Plot L1, f, and L2 to verify graphically that the transitions are smooth.
6. Find the difference in elevation between P and Q.
12.4 Limits at Infinity; Limits of Sequences

In this section we study a special kind of limit called a limit at infinity. We examine
the limit of a function f1x2 as x becomes large. We also examine the limit of a
sequence an as n becomes large. Limits of sequences will be used in Section 12.5 to
help us find the area under the graph of a function.
SECTION 12.4 Limits at Infinity; Limits of Sequences 909
Limits at Infinity
f 1x 2
x Let’s investigate the behavior of the function f defined by
1.000000 x2 1
0 f1x2
1 0.000000 x2 1
2 0.600000
as x becomes large. The table in the margin gives values of this function correct to six
3 0.800000
4 0.882353 decimal places, and the graph of f has been drawn by a computer in Figure 1.
5 0.923077 y
10 0.980198
y=1
50 0.999200
100 0.999800
1000 0.999998
0 1 x
≈-1
y=
≈+1
Figure 1
As x grows larger and larger, you can see that the values of f1x2 get closer and
closer to 1. In fact, it seems that we can make the values of f1x2 as close as we like
to 1 by taking x sufficiently large. This situation is expressed symbolically by writing
x2 1
lim 1
xSq x2 1
In general, we use the notation
lim f1x2 L
xSq
to indicate that the values of f1x 2 become closer and closer to L as x becomes larger
and larger.
Limit at Infinity
Let f be a function defined on some interval 1a, q 2 . Then

lim f1x2 L
xSq
means that the values of f1x 2 can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x
sufficiently large.
Another notation for lim f1x2 L is

xSq
Limits at infinity are also discussed in f1x 2 씮 L as x씮q
Section 3.6.
The symbol q does not represent a number. Nevertheless, we often read the expres-
sion lim f1x2 L as
xSq
“the limit of f1x2 , as x approaches infinity, is L”
or “the limit of f1x2 , as x becomes infinite, is L”
or “the limit of f1x2 , as x increases without bound, is L”
Geometric illustrations are shown in Figure 2. Notice that there are many ways for
the graph of f to approach the line y L (which is called a horizontal asymptote) as
we look to the far right.
y y y
y=L
y=Ï y=L
y=Ï
y=Ï
y=L
0 x 0 x 0 x
Figure 2
Examples illustrating lim f1x 2 L
xSq
Referring back to Figure 1, we see that for numerically large negative values of x,
the values of f1x2 are close to 1. By letting x decrease through negative values with-
out bound, we can make f1x2 as close as we like to 1. This is expressed by writing
x2 1
lim 1
xSq x2 1
The general definition is as follows.
y Limit at Negative Infinity

y=Ï
Let f be a function defined on some interval 1q, a 2 . Then
lim f1x2 L
y=L xSq
means that the values of f1x2 can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x
0 x sufficiently large negative.
y
Again, the symbol q does not represent a number, but the expression
y=Ï lim f1x2 L is often read as
xSq
y=L
“the limit of f1x2, as x approaches negative infinity, is L”
0 The definition is illustrated in Figure 3. Notice that the graph approaches the line
x
y L as we look to the far left.
Figure 3
Examples illustrating lim f 1x2 L Horizontal Asymptote
xS q
The line y L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y f1x 2 if

either
lim f1x2 L or lim f1x2 L
xSq xSq
y For instance, the curve illustrated in Figure 1 has the line y 1 as a horizontal
π asymptote because
2
x2 1
lim 1
0 xSq x2 1
x
As we discovered in Section 7.4, an example of a curve with two horizontal
π
asymptotes is y tan1 x (see Figure 4). In fact,
_2
p p
lim tan1 x and lim tan1 x
Figure 4 xSq 2 xSq 2
y tan1 x
so both of the lines y p/2 and y p/2 are horizontal asymptotes. (This
follows from the fact that the lines x p/2 are vertical asymptotes of the graph
of tan.)
Example 1 Limits at Infinity

1 1
Find lim and lim .
xSq x xSq x
We first investigated horizontal Solution Observe that when x is large, 1/x is small. For instance,
asymptotes and limits at infinity for
rational functions in Section 3.6. 1 1 1
0.01 0.0001 0.000001
100 10,000 1,000,000
In fact, by taking x large enough, we can make 1/x as close to 0 as we please.

Therefore
1
lim 0
xSq x
y Similar reasoning shows that when x is large negative, 1/x is small negative, so we
also have
1
y= x
1
lim 0
xSq x
0 x It follows that the line y 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote of the curve
y 1/x. (This is a hyperbola; see Figure 5.) ■
The Limit Laws that we studied in Section 12.2 also hold for limits at infinity. In
particular, if we combine Law 6 (Limit of a Power) with the results of Example 1, we
Figure 5 obtain the following important rule for calculating limits.
1 1
lim 0, lim 0
xSq x xSq x
If k is any positive integer, then

1 1
lim 0 and lim 0
xSq xk xSq xk
Example 2 Finding a Limit at Infinity

3x 2 x 2
Evaluate lim .
xSq 5x 2 4x 1
Solution To evaluate the limit at infinity of a rational function, we first divide
both the numerator and denominator by the highest power of x that occurs in the
denominator. (We may assume that x 0 since we are interested only in large val-
ues of x.) In this case, the highest power of x in the denominator is x 2, so we have
1 2
23
3x x 2
2
x x Divide numerator and
lim 2 lim
xSq 5x 4x 1 xSq 4 1 denominator by x 2
5 2
x x
lim a 3 2b
1 2
y
xSq x x
y=0.6 Limit of a Quotient
lim a 5 2 b
4 1
0 1 x xSq x x
1 1
lim 3 lim 2 lim 2
xSq x
xSq xSq x Limits of Sums and

1 1 Differences
lim 5 4 lim lim 2
xSq xSq x xSq x
300 3
Let x 씮 q
500 5
Figure 6 A similar calculation shows that the limit as x 씮 q is also 35 . Figure 6 illustrates
the results of these calculations by showing how the graph of the given rational
function approaches the horizontal asymptote y 35. ■
Example 3 A Limit at Negative Infinity

Use numerical and graphical methods to find lim e x.
xSq
Solution From the graph of the natural exponential function y e x in Figure 7

and the corresponding table of values, we see that
lim e x 0
xSq
It follows that the line y 0 (the x-axis) is a horizontal asymptote.
y
x ex
y=Æ 0 1.00000
1 0.36788
2 0.13534
3 0.04979
1 5 0.00674
8 0.00034
10 0.00005
0 1 x
Figure 7 ■
y Example 4 A Function with No Limit at Infinity

y=ß x
Evaluate lim sin x.
xSq
0 x Solution From the graph in Figure 8 and the periodic nature of the sine function,
we see that, as x increases, the values of sin x oscillate between 1 and 1 infinitely
often and so they don’t approach any definite number. Therefore, limxSq sin x
Figure 8 does not exist. ■
Limits of Sequences
a›
a⁄ a¤ a‹ In Section 11.1 we introduced the idea of a sequence of numbers a1, a2, a3, . . . . Here
we are interested in their behavior as n becomes large. For instance, the sequence
0 1 1
2 defined by
Figure 9 n
an
n1
an is pictured in Figure 9 by plotting its terms on a number line and in Figure 10 by
plotting its graph. From Figure 9 or 10 it appears that the terms of the sequence
a n n/1n 12 are approaching 1 as n becomes large. We indicate this by writing
1
n
7 lim 1
a‡= 8 nSq n1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n
Definition of the Limit of a Sequence
Figure 10 A sequence a1, a2, a3, . . . has the limit L and we write
lim a n L or a n 씮 L as n 씮 q
nSq
if the nth term an of the sequence can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking
n sufficiently large. If limnSq a n exists, we say the sequence converges (or is
convergent). Otherwise, we say the sequence diverges (or is divergent).
This definition is illustrated by Figure 11.
an an
Figure 11 L L
Graphs of two
sequences with
lim a n L 0 1 2 3 n 0 1 2 3 n
nSq
If we compare the definitions of limnSq a n L and limxSq f1x2 L, we see that

the only difference is that n is required to be an integer. Thus, the following is true.
If lim f1x2 L and f1n2 an when n is an integer, then lim a n L.

xSq nSq
In particular, since we know that limxSq 11/x k 2 0 when k is a positive integer,

we have
1
lim 0 if k is a positive integer
nSq nk
Note that the Limit Laws given in Section 12.2 also hold for limits of sequences.
Example 5 Finding the Limit of a Sequence

n
Find lim .
nSq n1
Solution The method is similar to the one we used in Example 2: Divide the
numerator and denominator by the highest power of n and then use the Limit Laws.
n 1
lim lim Divide numerator and
nSq n 1 nSq 1
1 denominator by n
n
lim 1
nSq
Limits of a Quotient
1 and a Sum
lim 1 lim
nSq nSq n
This result shows that the guess we
made earlier from Figures 9 and 1
10 was correct. 1 Let n 씮 q
10
Therefore, the sequence a n n/1n 12 is convergent. ■
Example 6 A Sequence That Diverges

an Determine whether the sequence a n 112 n is convergent or divergent.
1 Solution If we write out the terms of the sequence, we obtain
1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . .
0 1 2 3 4 n
_1 The graph of this sequence is shown in Figure 12. Since the terms oscillate between
1 and 1 infinitely often, an does not approach any number. Thus, limnSq 112 n
does not exist; that is, the sequence a n 112 n is divergent. ■
Figure 12
Example 7 Finding the Limit of a Sequence

Find the limit of the sequence given by
15 n1n 12 12n 12
an c d
n3 6
Solution Before calculating the limit, let’s first simplify the expression for an.
Because n 3 n # n # n, we place a factor of n beneath each factor in the numerator
that contains an n:
15 # n # n 1 # 2n 1
# 1 # a1 b a2 b
5 1 1
an
6 n n n 2 n n
Now we can compute the limit:
a1 b a2 b
5 1 1
lim a n lim Definition of an
nSq nSq 2 n n
lim a 1 b lim a 2 b
5 1 1
Limit of a Product
2 nSq n nSq n
112 122 5
5
Let n 씮 q ■
2
12.4 Exercises
18. lim a 1 b
1–2 ■ (a) Use the graph of f to find the following limits. x5 2 3x
17. lim
(i) lim f1x2 xSq ex xSq x
(ii) lim f1x 2
xSq
xSq
(b) State the equations of the horizontal asymptotes. 19–30 ■ If the sequence is convergent, find its limit. If it is
divergent, explain why.
1. y 2. y
1n 5n
19. a n 20. a n
n n2 n5
1 1 n2 n1
21. a n 22. a n
1 x 1 x n1 n3 1
1 11 2 n
23. a n 24. a n
3n n
25. a n sin1np/2 2
3–14 ■ Find the limit. 26. an cos np
3 n1n 12
c d
6 3
3. lim 4. lim 27. a n
xSq x xSq x4 n2 2
4 n1n 12
an c db
2x 1 2 3x 5
5. lim 6. lim 28. a n
xSq 5x 1 xSq 4x 5 n n 2
24 n1n 12 12n 1 2
c d
4x 1
2
x2 2
7. lim 8. lim 29. a n
xSq 2 3x 2 xSq x x1
3 n3 6
12 n1n 12 2
c d
8t t 3
4r 3 r 2
30. a n
12t 1 2 12t 2 1 2 1r 1 2 3
9. lim 10. lim
tSq rSq n4 2
12. lim a b
4
x 1 2t
11. lim
xSq 1 x2 x3 tSq t t1
x1 Applications
13. lim a 6b 14. lim cos x
xSq x1 xSq 31. Salt Concentration
(a) A tank contains 5000 L of pure water. Brine that con-
tains 30 g of salt per liter of water is pumped into the
15–18 ■ Use a table of values to estimate the limit. Then use a
tank at a rate of 25 L/min. Show that the concentration
graphing device to confirm your result graphically.
of salt after t minutes (in grams per liter) is
2x 2 4x
15. lim 30t
xSq 4x 1 C1t2
200 t
16. lim A 29x 2 x 3xB
xSq (b) What happens to the concentration as t 씮 q?
32. Velocity of a Raindrop The downward velocity of a Discovery • Discussion

falling raindrop at time t is modeled by the function
√1t2 1.211 e 8.2t 2
33. The Limit of a Recursive Sequence
(a) A sequence is defined recursively by a1 0 and
(a) Find the terminal velocity of the raindrop by evaluating
limtSq √1t 2 . (Use the result of Example 3.)
a n1 22 a n
(b) Graph √1t 2 , and use the graph to estimate how long it Find the first ten terms of this sequence correct to
takes for the velocity of the raindrop to reach 99% eight decimal places. Does this sequence appear to be
of its terminal velocity. convergent? If so, guess the value of the limit.
(b) Assuming the sequence in part (a) is convergent, let
limnSq a n L. Explain why limnSq a n1 L also,
and therefore
(t)=1.2(1-e–8.2t ) L 12 L
Solve this equation to find the exact value of L.
12.5 Areas
We have seen that limits are needed to compute the slope of a tangent line or an in-
stantaneous rate of change. Here we will see that they are also needed to find the area
of a region with a curved boundary. The problem of finding such areas has conse-
quences far beyond simply finding area. (See Focus on Modeling, page 929.)
The Area Problem

One of the central problems in calculus is the area problem: Find the area of the re-
gion S that lies under the curve y f1x2 from a to b. This means that S, illustrated in
Figure 1, is bounded by the graph of a function f (where f1x2 0), the vertical lines
x a and x b, and the x-axis.
y=Ï
x=a
S x=b
0 a b x
Figure 1
In trying to solve the area problem, we have to ask ourselves: What is the mean-
ing of the word area? This question is easy to answer for regions with straight sides.
SECTION 12.5 Areas 917
For a rectangle, the area is defined as the product of the length and the width. The area
of a triangle is half the base times the height. The area of a polygon is found by di-
viding it into triangles (as in Figure 2) and adding the areas of the triangles.
A¤ A‹
„ h A⁄ A›
l b
Figure 2 A=l„ A= 21 bh A=A⁄+A¤+A‹+A›
However, it is not so easy to find the area of a region with curved sides. We all have
an intuitive idea of what the area of a region is. But part of the area problem is to make
this intuitive idea precise by giving an exact definition of area.
Recall that in defining a tangent we first approximated the slope of the tangent line
by slopes of secant lines and then we took the limit of these approximations. We pur-
sue a similar idea for areas. We first approximate the region S by rectangles, and then
we take the limit of the areas of these rectangles as we increase the number of rec-
tangles. The following example illustrates the procedure.
y Example 1 Estimating an Area Using Rectangles

(1, 1)
Use rectangles to estimate the area under the parabola y x 2 from 0 to 1 (the para-
bolic region S illustrated in Figure 3).
y=≈
Solution We first notice that the area of S must be somewhere between 0 and 1
S because S is contained in a square with side length 1, but we can certainly do better
than that. Suppose we divide S into four strips S1, S2, S3, and S4 by drawing the ver-
tical lines x 14, x 12, and x 34 as in Figure 4(a). We can approximate each strip
0 1 x by a rectangle whose base is the same as the strip and whose height is the same as
the right edge of the strip (see Figure 4(b)). In other words, the heights of these
Figure 3 rectangles are the values of the function f1x2 x2 at the right endpoints of the
subintervals 30, 14 4, 3 14, 12 4, 3 12, 34 4, and 3 34, 14 .
y y
(1, 1) (1, 1)
y=≈ y=≈
S›
S¤
S‹
S⁄
0 1 1 3 1 x 0 1 1 3 1 x
4 2 4 4 2 4
Figure 4 (a) (b)

Each rectangle has width 14 and the heights are A 14 B 2, A 12 B 2, A 34 B 2, and 12. If we let R4
be the sum of the areas of these approximating rectangles, we get
R4 14 # A 14 B 14 # A 12 B 14 # A 34 B 14 # 1 15
2 2 2 2
y 32 0.46875
(1, 1) From Figure 4(b) we see that the area A of S is less than R4, so
y=≈ A 0.46875
Instead of using the rectangles in Figure 4(b), we could use the smaller rectan-
gles in Figure 5 whose heights are the values of f at the left endpoints of the
subintervals. (The leftmost rectangle has collapsed because its height is 0.) The
sum of the areas of these approximating rectangles is
L4 14 # 02 14 # A 14 B 2 14 # A 12 B 2 14 # A 34 B 2 327 0.21875
0 1 1 3 1 x
4 2 4
Figure 5 We see that the area of S is larger than L4, so we have lower and upper estimates for A:
0.21875 A 0.46875
We can repeat this procedure with a larger number of strips. Figure 6 shows
what happens when we divide the region S into eight strips of equal width. By com-
puting the sum of the areas of the smaller rectangles 1L 8 2 and the sum of the areas
of the larger rectangles 1R8 2 , we obtain better lower and upper estimates for A:
0.2734375 A 0.3984375
So one possible answer to the question is to say that the true area of S lies some-
where between 0.2734375 and 0.3984375.
y y
(1, 1) (1, 1)
y=≈
y=≈
0 1 1 x 0 1 1 x
8 8
Figure 6
Approximating S with eight rectangles (a) Using left endpoints (b) Using right endpoints
We could obtain better estimates by increasing the number of strips. The table
in the margin shows the results of similar calculations (with a computer) using n
rectangles whose heights are found with left endpoints 1L n 2 or right endpoints 1R n 2.
n Ln Rn
In particular, we see by using 50 strips that the area lies between 0.3234 and
10 0.2850000 0.3850000 0.3434. With 1000 strips we narrow it down even more: A lies between 0.3328335
20 0.3087500 0.3587500 and 0.3338335. A good estimate is obtained by averaging these numbers:
30 0.3168519 0.3501852 A ⬇ 0.3333335. ■
50 0.3234000 0.3434000
100 0.3283500 0.3383500
From the values in the table it looks as if Rn is approaching 13 as n increases. We
1000 0.3328335 0.3338335
confirm this in the next example.
Example 2 The Limit of Approximating Sums

For the region S in Example 1, show that the sum of the areas of the upper
approximating rectangles approaches 13 , that is,
lim Rn 13
n씮q
y Solution Rn is the sum of the areas of the n rectangles shown in Figure 7. Each
(1, 1) rectangle has width 1/n, and the heights are the values of the function f1x2 x 2
at the points 1/n, 2/n, 3/n, . . . , n/n. That is, the heights are 11/n2 2, 12/n2 2,
13/n2 2, . . . , 1n/n2 2. Thus
y=≈
a b a b a b a b
1 1 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 ... 1 n 2
Rn
n n n n n n n n
1# 1 2
0 1 x 11 22 32 . . . n2 2
1 n n2
n
11 22 32 . . . n2 2
1 2
Figure 7
n3
Here we need the formula for the sum of the squares of the first n positive
integers:
This formula was discussed in n1n 12 12n 12

Section 11.5.
12 22 32 . . . n2
6
Putting the preceding formula into our expression for Rn, we get
1 # n1n 12 12n 12 1n 12 12n 12

Rn 3
n 6 6n 2
Thus, we have
1n 12 12n 12
lim Rn lim
n씮q n씮q 6n2
1 n1 2n 1
lim a ba b
n씮q 6 n n
a1 b a2 b
1 1 1
lim
n씮q 6 n n
16 # 1 # 2 13 ■
It can be shown that the lower approximating sums also approach 31 , that is,
lim Ln 13
n씮q
From Figures 8 and 9 it appears that, as n increases, both Rn and Ln become better and
better approximations to the area of S. Therefore, we define the area A to be the limit
of the sums of the areas of the approximating rectangles, that is,
A lim Rn lim Ln 13
n씮q n씮q
y y y
n=10 R⁄‚=0.385 n=30 R‹‚Å0.3502 n=50 Rfi‚=0.3434
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
Figure 8
y y y
n=10 L⁄‚=0.285 n=30 L‹‚Å0.3169 n=50 Lfi‚=0.3234
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
Figure 9
Definition of Area
Let’s apply the idea of Examples 1 and 2 to the more general region S of Figure 1. We
start by subdividing S into n strips S1, S2, . . . , Sn of equal width as in Figure 10.
y
y=Ï
S⁄ S¤ S‹ Si Sn
0 a x⁄ x¤ x‹ . . . xi-1 xi . . . xn-1 b x

Figure 10
The width of the interval 3a, b4 is b a, so the width of each of the n strips is
ba
¢x
n
These strips divide the interval 3a, b4 into n subintervals
3x0, x1 4, 3x1, x2 4, 3x2, x3 4, ..., 3xn1, xn 4
where x0 a and xn b. The right endpoints of the subintervals are
x1 a ¢x, x2 a 2 ¢x, x3 a 3 ¢x, . . . , xk a k ¢x, . . .
Let’s approximate the kth strip Sk by a rectangle with width x and height f1xk 2 ,
which is the value of f at the right endpoint (see Figure 11). Then the area of the kth
rectangle is f1xk 2 ¢x. What we think of intuitively as the area of S is approximated by
the sum of the areas of these rectangles, which is
Rn f1x1 2 ¢x f1x2 2 ¢x . . . f1xn 2 ¢x
Figure 12 shows this approximation for n 2, 4, 8, and 12.
y
Îx
f(x k )
0 a x⁄ x¤ x‹ xk-1 xk b x
Figure 11
y y y y
0 a x⁄ b x 0 a x⁄ x¤ x‹ b x 0 a b x 0 a b x
(a) n=2 (b) n=4 (c) n=8 (d) n=12
Figure 12
Notice that this approximation appears to become better and better as the number
of strips increases, that is, as n 씮 q. Therefore, we define the area A of the region S
in the following way.
Definition of Area
The area A of the region S that lies under the graph of the continuous func-
tion f is the limit of the sum of the areas of approximating rectangles:
A lim Rn lim 3f1x1 2 ¢x f1x2 2 ¢x . . . f1xn 2 ¢x4
n씮q n씮q
Using sigma notation, we write this as follows:
A lim a f1xk 2 ¢x
n
n씮q k1
In using this formula for area, remember that x is the width of an approximating
rectangle, xk is the right endpoint of the kth rectangle, and f1xk 2 is its height. So
ba
Width: ¢x
n
Right endpoint: x k a k ¢x
Height: f1xk 2 f1a k ¢x 2

When working with sums, we will need the following properties from Section 11.1:
a 1a k bk 2 a a k a b k
n n n n n
a ca k c a a k
k1 k1 k1 k1 k1
We will also need the following formulas for the sums of the powers of the first n
natural numbers from Section 11.5.
n n n1n 12
a c nc ak 2
k1 k1
n n1n 12 12n 12 n n2 1n 12 2
ak ak
2 3
k1 6 k1 4
y
Example 3 Finding the Area under a Curve
Find the area of the region that lies under the parabola y x 2, 0
x
5.
25
Solution The region is graphed in Figure 13. To find the area, we first find the
y=≈ dimensions of the approximating rectangles at the nth stage.
ba 50 5
Width: ¢x
n n n
5
x k a k ¢x 0 k a b
5 5k
Right endpoint:
0 x n n
1 5
f1xk 2 f a b a b 2
5k 5k 2 25k 2
Height:
Figure 13 n n n
Now we substitute these values into the definition of area:
A lim a f1xk 2 ¢x
n
Definition of area
n씮q k1
lim a 2 #
n
25k 2 5
f 1xk 2
25k 2 5
, ¢x
n씮q k1 n n n2 n
n
125k 2
lim a Simplify
n씮q k1 n3
125 n 2 125
lim 3 ak Factor
n씮q n k1 n3
125 # n1n 12 12n 12

We can also calculate the limit by lim 3 Sum of squares formula
writing n씮q n 6
125 n1n 1 2 12n 12 12512n2 3n 12
# lim Cancel n and expand numerator
n3 6 n씮q 6n2
n1 2n 1
a ba ba b
125 n
a2 2 b
125 3 1
6 n n n lim Divide numerator and denominator by n 2
n씮q 6 n n
as in Example 2.
12 0 02
125 125
Let n 씮 q
6 3
3 ⬇ 41.7.
Thus, the area of the region is 125 ■
Example 4 Finding the Area under a Curve

Find the area of the region that lies under the parabola y 4x x 2, 1
x
3.
Solution We start by finding the dimensions of the approximating rectangles at
the nth stage.
ba 31 2
Width: ¢x
n n n
xk a k ¢x 1 k a b 1
2 2k
Right endpoint:
n n
Figure 14 shows the region whose area
f1xk 2 f a 1 b 4a1 b a1 b
is computed in Example 4. 2k 2k 2k 2
Height:
n n n
y
8k 4k 4k 2
y=4x-≈ 4 1 2
n n n
4k 4k 2
3 2
n n
Thus, according to the definition of area, we get
A lim a f1xk 2 ¢x lim a a 3 2 ba b

n n
4k 4k 2 2
0 n씮q k1 n씮q k1 n n n
1 3 4 x
lim a a 3 a k 2 a k 2 b a b
n
4 n 4 n 2
Figure 14 n씮q k1 n k1 n k1 n
lim a a 3 2 a k 3 a k 2 b
2 n 8 n 8 n
n씮q n k1 n k1 n k1
8 n1n 12 8 n1n 12 12n 12
lim a 13n2 2 c d 3c db
2
n씮q n n 2 n 6
n#n1 4 n n 1 2n 1
lim a 6 4 # # # # b
n씮q n n 3 n n n
lim c 6 4 a 1 b a1 b a2 b d
1 4 1 1
n씮q n 3 n n
64#1 # 1 # 2 22
4
■
3 3
12.5 Exercises
1. (a) By reading values from the given graph of f, use five 3–6 ■ Approximate the area of the shaded region under the
rectangles to find a lower estimate and an upper estimate graph of the given function by using the indicated rectangles.
for the area under the given graph of f from x 0 to (The rectangles have equal width.)
x 10. In each case, sketch the rectangles that you use.
3. f1x2 12 x 2 4. f1x2 4 x 2
(b) Find new estimates using ten rectangles in each case.
y y y
5 y=Ï
1
1
0 5 10 x 0 1 2 x _1 0 1 x
2. (a) Use six rectangles to find estimates of each type for the
area under the given graph of f from x 0 to x 12. 4
5. f1x2 6. f1x2 9x x 3
(i) L6 (using left endpoints) x
(ii) R6 (using right endpoints) y
y
(b) Is L6 an underestimate or an overestimate of the true 10
area? 4
(c) Is R6 an underestimate or an overestimate of the true
area?
5
y
1
8 0 0
1 7 x
1 2 x
y=Ï
4 7. (a) Estimate the area under the graph of f1x 2 1/x

from x 1 to x 5 using four approximating rectan-
gles and right endpoints. Sketch the graph and the
rectangles. Is your estimate an underestimate or an
overestimate?
0 4 8 12 x
(b) Repeat part (a) using left endpoints.
8. (a) Estimate the area under the graph of f1x 2 25 x 2 The following TI-83 program finds the approximate area
from x 0 to x 5 using five approximating rectangles under the graph of f on the interval [a, b] using n rectangles.
and right endpoints. Sketch the graph and the rectangles. To use the program, first store the function f in Y1. The
Is your estimate an underestimate or an overestimate? program prompts you to enter N, the number of rectangles,
(b) Repeat part (a) using left endpoints. and A and B, the endpoints of the interval.
9. (a) Estimate the area under the graph of f1x 2 1 x 2 from

(a) Approximate the area under the graph of
f1x 2 x 5 2x 3 on 31, 34 using 10, 20,
x 1 to x 2 using three rectangles and right end-
and 100 rectangles.
points. Then improve your estimate by using six rectan-
gles. Sketch the curve and the approximating rectangles. (b) Approximate the area under the graph of f on the given
interval using 100 rectangles.
(i) f1x2 sin x, on 30, p4
(b) Repeat part (a) using left endpoints.
10. (a) Estimate the area under the graph of f1x 2 ex, (ii) f1x2 ex , on 31, 14
2
0
x
4, using four approximating rectangles and
taking the sample points to be PROGRAM:AREA
(i) right endpoints :Prompt N
(ii) left endpoints :Prompt A
In each case, sketch the curve and the rectangles. :Prompt B
(b) Improve your estimates in part (a) by using eight :(B-A)/N씮D
rectangles. :0씮S
:A씮X
11–12 ■ Use the definition of area as a limit to find the area
:For (K,1,N)
of the region that lies under the curve. Check your answer by
:X+D씮X
sketching the region and using geometry.
:S+Y1씮S
11. y 3x, 0
x
5 12. y 2x 1, 1
x
3 :End
13–18 ■ Find the area of the region that lies under the graph of :D*S씮S
f over the given interval. :Disp "AREA IS"
13. f1x 2 3x 2, 0
x
2 :Disp S
14. f1x2 x x , 2
0
x
1 20. Regions with Straight Versus Curved Boundaries
15. f1x 2 x 2,
Write a short essay that explains how you would find the area
3
0
x
5 of a polygon, that is, a region bounded by straight line seg-
16. f1x 2 4x , 3
2
x
5 ments. Then explain how you would find the area of a region
17. f1x 2 x 6x 2,
whose boundary is curved, as we did in this section. What is
1
x
4 the fundamental difference between these two processes?
18. f1x 2 20 2x , 2
2
x
3
19. Approximating Area with a Calculator When we
approximate areas using rectangles as in Example 1, then
the more rectangles we use the more accurate the answer.
12 Review
Concept Check
1. Explain in your own words what is meant by the equation 2. Explain what it means to say that
lim f1x 2 5 lim f1x2 3 and lim f1x2 7

x씮2 x씮1 x씮1
Is it possible for this statement to be true and yet f12 2 3? In this situation is it possible that limx씮1f1x2 exists?
Explain. Explain.
3. Describe several ways in which a limit can fail to exist. 8. Explain the meaning of the equation
Illustrate with sketches.
lim f1x2 2
x씮q
4. State the following Limit Laws.
Draw sketches to illustrate the various possibilities.
(a) Sum Law
(b) Difference Law 9. (a) What does it mean to say that the line y L is a hori-
(c) Constant Multiple Law zontal asymptote of the curve y f1x 2 ? Draw curves
(d) Product Law to illustrate the various possibilities.
(e) Quotient Law (b) Which of the following curves have horizontal
(f) Power Law asymptotes?
(g) Root Law (i) y x 2 (iv) y tan1 x
(ii) y 1/x (v) y e x
5. Write an expression for the slope of the tangent line to the
(iii) y sin x (vi) y ln x
curve y f1x 2 at the point 1a, f1a 22 .
6. Define the derivative f¿1a 2 . Discuss two ways of interpret- 10. (a) What is a convergent sequence?
ing this number. (b) What does limn씮q an 3 mean?
7. If y f1x 2 , write expressions for the following. 11. Suppose S is the region that lies under the graph of
(a) The average rate of change of y with respect to x y f1x 2, a
x
b.
between the numbers a and x. (a) Explain how this area is approximated using rectangles.
(b) The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to (b) Write an expression for the area of S as a limit
x at x a. of sums.
Exercises
1–6 ■ Use a table of values to estimate the value of the (e) lim f1x2 (f) lim f1x2
x씮4 x씮q
limit. Then use a graphing device to confirm your result
(g) lim f1x2 (h) lim f1x2
graphically. x씮q x씮0
x2 y
1. lim
x씮2 x 2 3x 2
t1
2. lim
t씮1 t3 t
1
2x 1
3. lim
x씮0 x 1 x
sin 2x
4. lim
x씮0 x
5. lim ln 1x 1 8. Let
x씮1
tan x 2 if x 1
6. lim
x씮0 0x0 f 1x 2 • x 2 if 1
x
2
x 2 if x 2
7. The graph of f is shown in the figure. Find each limit or
explain why it does not exist. Find each limit or explain why it does not exist.
(a) lim f1x 2 (b) lim f1x 2 (a) lim f1x2 (b) lim f1x2
x씮2 x씮3
(c) lim f1x 2 (d) lim f1x 2
x씮1 x씮1
(c) lim f1x2 (d) lim f1x2
x씮3 x씮3 x씮1 x씮2
(e) lim f1x2 (f) lim f1x 2 35. A stone is dropped from the roof of a building 640 ft above
(g) lim f1x 2
x씮2
(h) lim 1f1x22
x씮2
2 the ground. Its height (in feet) after t seconds is given by
x씮0 x씮3 h1t2 640 16t 2.
■
(a) Find the velocity of the stone when t 2.
9–20 Use the Limit Laws to evaluate the limit, if it exists.
(b) Find the velocity of the stone when t a.
x1
9. lim 10. lim 1t 3 3t 6 2 (c) At what time t will the stone hit the ground?
x씮2 x3 t씮1
(d) With what velocity will the stone hit the ground?
x x 12
2
x2 4
11. lim 12. lim 36. If a gas is confined in a fixed volume, then according
x씮3 x3 x씮2 x x 2
2
to Boyle’s Law the product of the pressure P and the
1u 12 2 1 1z 3 temperature T is a constant. For a certain gas, PT 100,
13. lim 14. lim where P is measured in lb/in2 and T is measured in
u씮0 u z씮9 z9
kelvins (K).
x3
16. lim a b
1 2
2
0x30
15. lim (a) Express P as a function of T.
x씮3 x씮0 x x 2x
(b) Find the instantaneous rate of change of P with respect
2x x2 1 to T when T 300 K.
17. lim 18. lim
x씮q x4 x씮q x 3x 6
4
t4 37–42 ■ If the sequence is convergent, find its limit. If it is

19. lim cos2x 20. lim divergent, explain why.
x씮q t씮q t 1
3
n n3
21–24 ■ Find the derivative of the function at the given number. 37. a n 38. a n
5n 1 n 13
21. f1x2 3x 5, at 4 22. g1x 2 2x 2 1, at 1 n1n 12 n3

39. a n 40. a n
23. f1x 2 1x, 24. f1x 2
x 2n 2
2n 6
at 16 , at 1
x1
41. a n cos a b
np 10
42. a n
25–28 ■ (a) Find f¿ 1a2 . (b) Find f¿12 2 and f¿ 12 2 . 2 3n
25. f1x 2 6 2x 26. f1x 2 x 2 3x
43–44 ■ Approximate the area of the shaded region under the
28. f1x 2
4 graph of the given function by using the indicated rectangles.
27. f1x2 1x 6
x (The rectangles have equal width.)
29–30 ■ Find an equation of the tangent line shown in the 43. f1x2 1x 44. f1x2 4x x2
figure. y y
29. 30.
4
y
y
4 y=4x-≈
(1, 3) 1
y=œ∑
x
1
1
1 (1, 1) 0 x
1 3
0 1 3 x
0 1 2 x 0 1 4 x
45–48 ■ Use the limit definition of area to find the area of the
region that lies under the graph of f over the given interval.
31–34 ■ Find an equation of the line tangent to the graph of f at
the given point. 45. f1x 2 2x 3, 0
x
2
31. f1x2 2x, at 13, 62 32. f1x2 x 2 3, at 12, 12 46. f1x 2 x 2 1, 0

x
3
47. f1x2 x 2 x, 1
x
2
33. f1x 2 , at a 2, b 34. f1x 2 1x 1, at 13, 22
1 1
x 2 48. f1x2 x 3, 1
x
2
928 CHAPTER 12 Test
12 Test
1. (a) Use a table of values to estimate the limit
x
lim
x씮0 sin 2x
(b) Use a graphing calculator to confirm your answer graphically.

2. For the piecewise-defined function f whose graph is shown, find:
(d) lim f 1x2
x씮1
(e) lim f 1x 2
x씮1
(f) lim f 1x 2
x씮1
x씮0 x씮0 x씮0

(g) lim f 1x2 (h) lim f 1x 2 (i) lim f 1x 2
x씮2 x씮2 x씮2
y
1 if x 1 4
if x 1
f 1x2 µ 2
0
x if 1 x
2
4x if 2 x
1
0 1 2 x
3. Evaluate the limit, if it exists.

x 2 2x 8 x 2 2x 8 1
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
x씮2 x2 x씮2 x2 x씮2x2
x2 1x 2 2x 2 4
x씮2 0 x 2 0
(d) lim (e) lim (f) lim 2
x씮4 x 4 x씮q x x
4. Let f 1x 2 x 2 2x. Find:

(a) f¿1x2 (b) f¿ 112, f¿11 2, f¿12 2
5. Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of f 1x 2 1x at the point where
x 9.
6. Find the limit of the sequence.
n
y (a) a n 2 (b) an sec np
n 4
7. The region sketched in the figure in the margin lies under the graph of f 1x 2 4 x 2,
4 y=4-≈
above the interval 0
x
1.
(a) Approximate the area of the region with five rectangles, equally spaced along the
x-axis, using right endpoints to determine the heights of the rectangles.
(b) Use the limit definition of area to find the exact value of the area of the region.
1
0 1 x
Focus on Modeling
Interpretations of Area
The area under the graph of a function is used to model many quantities in physics,
economics, engineering, and other fields. That is why the area problem is so impor-
tant. Here we will show how the concept of work (Section 8.5) is modeled by area.
Several other applications are explored in the problems.
Recall that the work W done in moving an object is the product of the force F
applied to the object and the distance d that the object moves:
W Fd work force distance
This formula is used if the force is constant. For example, suppose you are pushing a
crate across a floor, moving along the positive x-axis from x a to x b, and you
apply a constant force F k. The graph of F as a function of the distance x is shown
in Figure 1(a). Notice that the work done is W Fd k1b a2 , which is the area
under the graph of F (see Figure 1(b)).
F F
work=area
k k
0 a b x 0 a b x
Figure 1
A constant force F (a) (b)
But what if the force is not constant? For example, suppose the force you apply
to the crate varies with distance (you push harder at certain places than you do at
others). More precisely, suppose that you push the crate along the x-axis in the posi-
tive direction, from x a to x b, and at each point x between a and b you apply
a force f1x2 to the crate. Figure 2 shows a graph of the force f as a function of the
distance x.
y
(force)
f
Figure 2 0 a x
b
A variable force (distance)
How much work was done? We can’t apply the formula for work directly because
the force is not constant. So let’s divide the interval 3a, b4 into n subintervals with end-
points x0, x1, . . . , xn and equal width x as shown in Figure 3(a) on the next page.
The force at the right endpoint of the interval 3xk1, xk 4 is f1xk 2 . If n is large, then x
is small, so the values of f don’t change very much over the interval 3xk1, xk 4. In other
929
words f is almost constant on the interval, and so the work Wk that is done in moving
the crate from xk1 to xk is approximately
Wk ⬇ f1xk 2 ¢x
Thus, we can approximate the work done in moving the crate from x a to x b by
W ⬇ a f1xk 2 ¢x
n
k1
It seems that this approximation becomes better as we make n larger (and so make
the interval 3xk1, xk 4 smaller). Therefore, we define the work done in moving an ob-
ject from a to b as the limit of this quantity as n 씮 q:
W lim a f1xk 2 ¢x
n
n씮q k1
Notice that this is precisely the area under the graph of f between x a and x b as
defined in Section 12.5. See Figure 3(b).
y y
(force) (force) work=area under
Îx
graph of f
0 x‚ x⁄ … … xn x 0 x
Figure 3 xk _ 1 xk
(distance) (distance)
Approximating work (a) (b)
Example The Work Done by a Variable Force

A man pushes a crate along a straight path a distance of 18 ft. At a distance x from
his starting point, he applies a force given by f1x2 340 x 2. Find the work done
by the man.
Solution The graph of f between x 0 and x 18 is shown in Figure 4. Notice
how the force the man applies varies—he starts by pushing with a force of 340 lb,
but steadily applies less force. The work done is the area under the graph of f on
y
(force)
Îx
350
50
0 5 x
xk (distance)
Figure 4 xk_ 1
Interpretations of Area 931
the interval 30, 184. To find this area, we start by finding the dimensions of the
approximating rectangles at the nth stage.
ba 18 0 18
Width: ¢x
n n n
xk a k ¢x 0 k a b
18 18k
Right endpoint:
n n
f1xk 2 f a b 340 a b
18k 18k 2
Height:
n n
324k 2
340
n2
Thus, according to the definition of work we get
W lim a f1xk 2 ¢x lim a a 340 ba b

n n
324k2 18
n씮q k1 n씮q k1 n2 n
1182 13242
lim a ak b
n n
18
a 340
2
n k1 3
n씮q n k1
5832 n1n 12 12n 12

lim a 340n 3 c db
18
n씮q n n 6
n # n 1 # 2n 1
lim a 6120 972 # b
n씮q n n n
6120 972 # 1 # 1 # 2 4176
So the work done by the man in moving the crate is 4176 ft-lb. ■
Problems
1. Work Done by a Winch A motorized winch is being used to pull a felled tree to
a logging truck. The motor exerts a force of f 1x 2 1500 10x 12 x 2 lb on the
tree at the instant when the tree has moved x ft. The tree must be moved a distance
of 40 ft, from x 0 to x 40. How much work is done by the winch in moving
the tree?
2. Work Done by a Spring Hooke’s law states that when a spring is stretched, it
pulls back with a force proportional to the amount of the stretch. The constant of
proportionality is a characteristic of the spring known as the spring constant. Thus,
a spring with spring constant k exerts a force f 1x 2 kx when it is stretched a
Ï=kx distance x.
A certain spring has spring constant k 20 lb/ft. Find the work done when the
x
spring is pulled so that the amount by which it is stretched increases from x 0 to
x 2 ft.
3. Force of Water As any diver knows, an object submerged in water experiences pres-
sure, and as depth increases, so does the water pressure. At a depth of x ft, the water
pressure is p1x 2 62.5x lb/ft2. To find the force exerted by the water on a surface,
we multiply the pressure by the area of the surface:
force pressure area
0 Suppose an aquarium that is 3 ft wide, 6 ft long, and 4 ft high is full of water. The
bottom of the aquarium has area 3 6 18 ft2, and it experiences water pressure of
4 ft p14 2 62.5 4 250 lb/ft2. Thus, the total force exerted by the water on the bottom
is 250 18 4500 lb.
Îx xk
The water also exerts a force on the sides of the aquarium, but this is not as easy to
6 ft x calculate because the pressure increases from top to bottom. To calculate the force on
3 ft (depth) one of the 4 ft by 6 ft sides, we divide its area into n thin horizontal strips of width ¢x,
as shown in the figure. The area of each strip is
length width 6 ¢x
If the bottom of the kth strip is at the depth xk, then it experiences water pressure
of approximately p1x k 2 62.5x k lb/ft2—the thinner the strip, the more accurate the
approximation. Thus, on each strip the water exerts a force of
pressure area 62.5x k 6 ¢x 375x k ¢x lb
(a) Explain why the total force exerted by the water on the 4 ft by 6 ft sides of the
aquarium is
n
lim a 375x k ¢x
n씮q k1
where ¢x 4/n and xk 4k/n.

(b) What area does the limit in part (a) represent?
(c) Evaluate the limit in part (a) to find the force exerted by the water on one of the 4 ft
by 6 ft sides of the aquarium.
(d) Use the same technique to find the force exerted by the water on one of the 4 ft by
3 ft sides of the aquarium.
NOTE Engineers use the technique outlined in this problem to find the total force
exerted on a dam by the water in the reservoir behind the dam.
4. Distance Traveled by a Car Since distance speed time, it is easy to see

that a car moving, say, at 70 mi/h for 5 h will travel a distance of 350 mi. But what if
the speed varies, as it usually does in practice?
(a) Suppose the speed of a moving object at time t is √1t 2 . Explain why the distance
traveled by the object between times t a and t b is the area under the graph
of √ between t a and t b.
(b) The speed of a car t seconds after it starts moving is given by the function
√1t 2 6t 0.1t 3 ft/s. Find the distance traveled by the car from t 0 to
t 5 s.
5. Heating Capacity If the outdoor temperature reaches a maximum of 90 F one day

and only 80 F the next, then we would probably say that the first day was hotter than
the second. Suppose, however, that on the first day the temperature was below 60 F
for most of the day, reaching the high only briefly, whereas on the second day the
temperature stayed above 75 F all the time. Now which day is the hotter one? To better
measure how hot a particular day is, scientists use the concept of heating degree-hour.
If the temperature is a constant D degrees for t hours, then the “heating capacity”
generated over this period is Dt heating degree-hours:
heating degree-hours temperature time
If the temperature is not constant, then the number of heating degree-hours equals the
Interpretations of Area 933
area under the graph of the temperature function over the time period in question.
(a) On a particular day, the temperature (in F) was modeled by the function
D1t 2 61 65 t 251 t 2, where t was measured in hours since midnight. How many
heating degree-hours were experienced on this day, from t 0 to t 24?
(b) What was the maximum temperature on the day described in part (a)?
(c) On another day, the temperature (in F) was modeled by the function
E1t 2 50 5t 14 t 2. How many heating degree-hours were experienced on
this day?
(d) What was the maximum temperature on the day described in part (c)?
(e) Which day was “hotter”?
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Cumulative Review
To get the most out of your precalculus course, you should periodically review what
you have studied over the past several chapters of the textbook. Each new topic
builds on the ideas you have learned before, so it is important that you clearly
understand everything you have studied since the beginning of the course. In the
pages that follow you will find study checklists and multichapter tests that will help
you organize your cumulative review and help you monitor your progress toward
mastery of precalculus mathematics.
Cumulative Review for Chapters 2, 3, and 4

Summary
In Chapter 2 we studied the concept of a function, one of the most fundamental
ideas in mathematics. Functions are important because scientists use them to model
real-life relationships. In Chapters 3 and 4 we learned about several special types of
functions: polynomial, rational, exponential, and logarithmic functions. Many basic
natural processes, such as population growth and radioactive decay, can be modeled
using exponential functions.
Make sure you are thoroughly familiar with the following concepts before at-
tempting the test.
Functions
• Independent and dependent variables, domain and range, function notation
• Graph of a function, Vertical Line Test
• Piecewise-defined functions
• Increasing and decreasing functions, average rate of change
• Vertical and horizontal shifting; vertical and horizontal stretching, shrinking,
and reflecting
• Quadratic functions, maximum and minimum values of a function
• Composition of functions
• One-to-one functions, Horizontal Line Test, inverse of a function
CR1
CR2 Cumulative Review
Polynomial Functions
• Zero of a polynomial, multiplicity of a zero, graph of a polynomial, end
behavior
• Synthetic division, Rational Zeros Theorem, factoring a polynomial
• Complex numbers, Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Rational Functions
• Vertical and horizontal asymptotes
• Graph of a rational function
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
• Graph of an exponential function, horizontal asymptote
• Graph of a logarithmic function, vertical asymptote
• Laws of Logarithms, combining and expanding logarithmic expressions
• Solving exponential and logarithmic equations
• Exponential and logarithmic models
Cumulative Review Test

1. Let f 1 x2 x 2 4x and g1x 2 1x 4. Find each of the following:
(a) The domain of f
(b) The domain of g
(c) f 122, f102, f 142, g102, g182, g162
(d) f 1 x 22, g1 x 22, f 12 h2
(e) The average rate of change of g between x 5 and x 21
(f) f ⴰ g, g ⴰ f, f 1g11222, g1f 11222
(g) The inverse of g
if x
2
2. Let f 1 x2 e
4
x 3 if x 2
(a) Evaluate f102, f112, f 122, f 132, and f 142.
(b) Sketch the graph of f.
3. Let f be the quadratic function f 1 x2 2x 2 8x 5.
(a) Express f in standard form.
(b) Find the maximum or minimum value of f.
(c) Sketch the graph of f.
(d) Find the interval on which f is increasing and the interval on which f is decreasing.
(e) How is the graph of g1x 2 2x 2 8x 10 obtained from the graph of f?
(f) How is the graph of h 1x 2 21 x 32 2 81x 32 5 obtained from the graph
of f?
4. Without using a graphing calculator, match each of the following functions to the
graphs at the top of the facing page. Give reasons for your choices.
2x 3
f 1 x 2 x 3 8x g1 x 2 x 4 8x 2 r 1x 2
x2 9
2x 3
s 1x 2 h1 x 2 2 x 5 k 1 x2 2x 3
x2 9
Cumulative Review CR3
A y B y C y D y E y F y
0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x 0 x
5. Let P 1 x2 2x 3 11x 2 10x 8.

(a) List all possible rational zeros of P.
(b) Determine which of the numbers you listed in part (a) actually are zeros of P.
(c) Factor P completely.
(d) Sketch a graph of P.
6. Let Q 1x 2 x 5 3x 4 3x 3 x 2 4x 2.
(a) Find all zeros of Q, real and complex, and state their multiplicities.
(b) Factor Q completely.
(c) Factor Q into linear and irreducible quadratic factors.
3x 2 6x
7. Let r 1x 2 . Find the x- and y-intercepts and the horizontal and vertical
x2 x 2
asymptotes. Then sketch the graph of r.
8. Sketch graphs of the following functions on the same coordinate plane.
(a) f 1x 2 2 e x (b) g1x 2 ln1 x 12
9. (a) Find the exact value of log3 16 2 log3 36.
(b) Use the Laws of Logarithms to expand the expression
x 5 2x 1
log a b
2x 3
10. Solve the equations.
(a) log2 x log2 1x 22 3
(b) 2e 3x 11e 2x 10e x 8 0 [Hint: Compare to the polynomial in problem 5.]
11. A sum of $25,000 is deposited into an account paying 5.4% interest per year, com-
pounded daily.
(a) What will the amount in the account be after 3 years?
(b) When will the account have grown to $35,000?
(c) How long will it take for the initial deposit to double?
12. After a shipwreck, 120 rats manage to swim from the wreckage to a deserted island.
The rat population on the island grows exponentially, and after 15 months there are
280 rats on the island.
(a) Find a function that models the population t months after the arrival of the rats.
(b) What will the population be 3 years after the shipwreck?
(c) When will the population reach 2000?
Cumulative Review for Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8

Summary
In Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8 we studied trigonometric functions. Trigonometric func-
tions are used in the physical, life, and social sciences to model periodic phenomena,
such as the pulsation of variable stars or the increase and decrease of predator/prey
populations. Right triangle trigonometry is used in surveying and astronomy to cal-
culate distances and angles and in physics to calculate vectors and trajectories. In
Chapters 7 and 8 we studied trigonometric identities and equations, as well as polar
coordinates and other applications of trigonometry to mathematical analysis. You
will need a clear understanding of these topics when you study calculus.
tempting the test.
Trigonometric Functions of Real Numbers

• Unit circle, terminal point, reference number
• Definitions of the six trigonometric functions
• Pythagorean identities, reciprocal identities
• Graphs of the trigonometric functions
• Sine and cosine curves; period, frequency, amplitude, phase shift
• Harmonic motion
Trigonometric Functions of Angles
• Angle measure, degrees, radians, reference angle
• Definitions of the six trigonometric ratios
• Solving for the sides and angles of right triangles
• The Law of Sines, the Law of Cosines
• Solving a triangle: SAS, ASA, SSA, SSS cases; the ambiguous case
Trigonometric Identities
• Basic identities, proving identities
• Addition and subtraction formulas for sine, cosine, and tangent
• Double- and half-angle formulas for sine, cosine, and tangent
• Product-to-sum and sum-to-product identities for sine and cosine
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
• Definitions of the six inverse trigonometric functions
• Using inverse trigonometric functions to solve trigonometric equations
Polar Coordinates
• Definition of polar coordinates 1r, u 2
• Relationship between polar and rectangular coordinates
• Graphing polar curves
Polar Form of Complex Numbers

• Definition of polar form: z r 1cos u i sin u 2
• Multiplying and dividing complex numbers in polar form
• DeMoivre’s Theorem
• nth roots of a complex number
Vectors
• Sums, differences, scalar multiples of vectors
• Using vectors to model displacement, velocity, acceleration, and force
• Dot product of vectors, length of a vector, angle between vectors
• Using the dot product to calculate work

1. The point P1 x, y 2 shown in the figure has y-coordinate 15/3. Find:
(a) sin t (b) cos t (c) tan t (d) csc t
P t
0 1 x
2. For the angle u shown in the figure, find:

(a) sin u (b) sec u (c) cot u
3. Find the exact value:
(d) sin a b
7p 9p
(a) cos (b) tan 135 (c) csc 240
6 2
7
4. Suppose that cos t and tan t 0. Find the values of sin t, tan t, cot t, sec t,
25
and csc t.
5. Let f 1x2 2 sin a 2x b.

p
2
(a) Find the amplitude, period, and phase shift of f.
(b) Sketch the graph of one complete period of f.
6. One period of a function of the form y a cos k1x b2 is shown in the figure.
Determine the function.
y
3
0 π 7π 13π x
3 3 3
_3
7. The figure below shows a model ferris wheel that a child has constructed using a toy
building kit. The wheel has a radius of 40 cm, and the center of the wheel is 45 cm
above the floor. An electric motor turns the wheel at 4 rotations per minute.
(a) Let h 1 t2 be the vertical distance between the point P and the floor at time t.
Express the function h in the form h 1t2 a b cos kt. (Assume that at t 0 the
point P is at the lowest point of its travel.)
(b) The support struts AB and AC are each 50 cm long. Find the distance between B
and C.
B C
8. Find the side or angle labeled x:
x x
13.0 15.2
70* 65*
5.6 20.5
(a) (b)
9. Verify each identity:

sec u 1 tan u
(a) (b) 8 sin 2 u cos 2 u 1 cos 4u
tan u sec u 1
10. Write cos 3x cos 4x as a product of trigonometric functions.
11. (a) What are the domain and range of the function f 1x 2 cos1 x? Sketch a graph of
this function.
(b) Find the exact value of cos1 1cos 17p/622.
(c) Express tan 1cos1 x2 as an algebraic function of x.
12. Find all solutions of the equation cos 2x sin x 0 in the interval 30, 2p2.
13. Find two polar coordinate representations of the point 18, 82, one with r 0 and one
with r 0, and both with 0
u 2p.
14. The graph of the equation r 2 sin 2u is called a four-leafed rose.
(a) Sketch a graph of this equation.
(b) Convert the equation to rectangular coordinates.
15. Let z 13 i and let „ 6 a cos b.

5p 5p
i sin
12 12
(a) Write z in polar form.
(b) Find z„ and z/„.
(c) Find z10.
(d) Find the three cubic roots of z.
16. Let u 具8, 6典 and v 5i 10j.
(a) Graph u and v in the coordinate plane, with initial point (0, 0).
(b) Find u v, 2u v, the angle between u and v, and proj v u.
(c) Assuming u is a force vector, calculate the work done by u when a particle moves
under its influence along the line segment from (2, 0) to (10, 3).
Cumulative Review for Chapters 9 and 10

Summary
In Chapter 9 we studied systems of equations and inequalities, and in Chapter 10
we studied conic sections. Systems of linear equations are used in all fields where
complex relationships involving many variables are modeled. Solving such systems
involves using matrices. Conic sections appear in numerous fields, from the study
of the planetary orbits to the calculation of rocket trajectories to determining the
optimal shapes of bridges and buildings.
tempting the test.
Systems of Equations
• Linear and nonlinear systems of equations
• Substitution, elimination, and graphical methods for solving systems of
equations
Systems of Linear Equations

• Gaussian elimination, elementary row operations
• Matrices, augmented matrix of a system
• Systems with one solution, no solution, and infinitely many solutions
Matrices
• Addition, subtraction, and multiplication of matrices
• Inverse of a matrix, solving systems of equations using matrix inverses
• Row echelon form, reduced row echelon form
• Determinant of a matrix, Cramer’s Rule
Partial Fractions
• Partial fraction decomposition of a rational function
• The four cases: linear factors, quadratic factors, repeated linear, and quadratic
factors
Systems of Inequalities
• Graphing an inequality in two variables
• Using graphs to solve systems of inequalities
Conic Sections
• Parabolas, vertex, focus, directrix
• Ellipses, vertices, foci, major and minor axes
• Hyperbolas, vertices, foci, central box, asymptotes
• Shifted conics
• Rotation of axes, conics with rotated axes
• Conic sections in polar coordinates, focus, and directrix
Parametric Equations
• Parametric equations for a curve
• Eliminating the parameter

1. Consider the following system of equations.
x 2 y 2 4y
e
x 2 2y 2 0
(a) Is the system linear or nonlinear? Explain.

(b) Find all solutions of the system.
(c) The graph of each equation is a conic section. Name the type of conic section in
each case.
(d) Graph both equations on the same set of axes.
(e) On your graph, shade the region that corresponds to the solution of the system of
inequalities.
x 2 y 2
4y
e
x 2 2y 2
0
2. Find the complete solution of each linear system, or show that no solution exists.
x y z2 x y z2
(a) • 2x 3y z 5 (b) • x 2y 3z 3
3x 5y 2z 11 3x 5y 8z 7
3. Xavier, Yolanda, and Zachary go fishing. Yolanda catches as many fish as Xavier and
Zachary put together. Zachary catches 2 more fish than Xavier. The total catch for all
three people is 20 fish. How many did each person catch?
1 0 1 1 4 3
2
4. Let A c d, B c 1 d, C £ 0 1 § , and D £ 1 5§.
1 5 1 0
2 6
2 0 2 0 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
(a) Calculate each of the following, or explain why the calculation can’t be done.
A B, C D, AB, CB, BD, det 1B2, det 1C2, det1D 2
(b) Based on the values you calculated for det1C2 and det 1D 2, which matrix, C or D,
has an inverse? Find the inverse of the invertible one.
5. Consider the following system of equations.
5x 3y 5
e
6x 4y 0
(a) Write a matrix equation of the form AX B that is equivalent to this system.
(b) Find A1, the inverse of the coefficient matrix.
(c) Solve the matrix equation by multiplying each side by A1.
(d) Now solve the system using Cramer’s Rule. Did you get the same solution as in
part (b)?
4x 8
6. Find the partial fraction decomposition of the rational function r 1x2 4 .
x 4x 2
7. Sketch the graph of each conic section, and find the coordinates of its foci. What type
of conic section does each equation represent?
6
(a) 9x 2 4y 2 24y (b) r
1 2 cos u
8. Find an equation for the conic whose graph is shown.
y
4
F1(0, 0)
1 F¤(10, 0)
0 2 5 8 x
9. Use rotation of axes to graph the equation 7x 2 613xy 13y 2 16.

10. (a) Sketch the graph of the parametric curve
x 2 sin 2 t y cos t
(b) Eliminate the parameter to obtain an equation for this curve in rectangular coordi-
nates. What type of curve is this?
Cumulative Review for Chapters 11 and 12

Summary
Chapters 11 and 12 introduced topics that you will study in greater depth when you
take calculus. Chapter 11 is devoted to sequences and series. A sequence is an infi-
nite list of numbers, and a series is the sum or partial sum of a sequence. Chap-
ter 12 introduces the idea of a limit, the fundamental tool of calculus.
tempting the test.
Sequences
• Formula for a sequence, recursive sequences
• Arithmetic sequences, initial term, common difference, partial sum
• Geometric sequences, initial term, common ratio, partial sum
• Sum of an infinite geometric sequence
Financial Mathematics
• Amount of an annuity
• Present value of an annuity
• Calculating the payment on a loan
Induction
• Principle of Mathematical Induction
• Induction hypothesis, induction step
Binomial Theorem
• Pascal’s Triangle, binomial coefficients
• The Binomial Theorem
Limits
• Definition of a limit
• Estimating limits using a table, estimating limits graphically
• Calculating limits using algebra
• Definition of derivative
• Using the derivative to find tangent lines
Areas
• Using rectangles to estimate area under a curve
• Definition of area under a curve using limits

1. For each sequence, find the 7th term, the 20th term, and the limit of the sequence
(if it exists).
(a) 13, 25, 37, 49, 115 , . . .
2n2 1
(b) an 3
n n4
(c) The arithmetic sequence with initial term a 12 and common difference d 3.
(d) The geometric sequence with initial term a 12 and common ratio r 56.
(e) The sequence defined recursively by a1 0.01 and an 2an1.
2. Calculate the sum.
(a) 35 45 1 65 75 85 . . . 195 4
(b) 3 9 27 81 . . . 310
9
5
(c) a n
n0 2
(d) 6 2 23 29 272 812 . . .
3. Mary and Kevin buy a vacation home for $350,000. They pay $35,000 down and take
out a 15-year mortgage for the remainder. If their annual interest rate is 6%, how much
will their monthly mortgage payment be?
4. A sequence is defined inductively by a1 1 and an an1 2n 1. Use mathemati-
cal induction to prove that an n2.
5. (a) Use the Binomial Theorem to expand the expression A2x 12 B 5.
(b) Find the term containing x 4 in the binomial expansion of A2x 12 B 12.
3 if x 0
if x 0
6. Let f1 x2 µ
2
3 x if 0 x 2
x if x 2
(a) Sketch a graph of f.
(b) Evaluate: (i) f 102 (ii) lim f1x2 (iii) lim f1x2 (iv) lim f1x2 (v) lim f1x 2
x씮0 x씮1 x씮2 x씮2
1 cos x
7. Use a table of values to estimate the limit lim .
x씮0 x2
8. Evaluate the limit, if it exists.
x 2 4x 21 x 2 4x 21 x2 4
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
x씮3 x3 x씮3 x3 x씮2 x 2
9. Let g1 x2 x 3. Find:
(a) The derivative of g
(b) g132, g102, and g1a 2
(c) The equation of the line tangent to the graph of g at the point (2, 8)
10. (a) Sketch the graph of the region in the coordinate plane that lies under the graph of
f 1 x 2 1 x 2 and above the x-axis, between x 0 and x 1.
(b) If A is the area of this region, explain why 1 A 1.5.
(c) Approximate the area of the region with four rectangles, equally spaced on the
x-axis, using left-hand endpoints to determine the heights of the rectangles.
(d) Use the limit definition of area to find the exact area of the region.
Answers to Odd-Numbered
Exercises and Chapter Tests
Chapter 1 15. (a) 23 (b) 14 (c) 12 17. (a) 32 (b) 4 (c) 4

5
19. 5 21. 14 23. 712 25. 3 1 3 27. a 4 29. 6x 7y 5
Section 1.1 ■ page 10
x3
1. (a) 50 (b) 0, 10, 50 (c) 0, 10, 50, 227, 0.538, 1.23, 31. 16x 10 33. 4/b 2 35. 64r 7s 37. 648y 7 39.
3
y
13 (d) 17, 1 2 3. Commutative Property for addition y 2z 9
41. 5 43. 7 6 45. 0 x 0 47. 2x 49. 0 ab 0
s3 2 3
5. Associative Property for addition 7. Distributive Property
x qr
9. Commutative Property for multiplication
1
51. 2 0 x 0 53. x 13/15 55.
1
11. 3 x 13. 4A 4B 15. 3x 3y 17. 8m 5/4
57. 16b 9/10 59. 2/3
19. 5x 10y 21. (a) 17 (b) 209 23. (a) 3 (b) 25 9a c d
30 72
12 15 2 25/6
25. (a) 3 (b) 6 27. (a) (b) (c) 29. (a) False
8 32x x 4a 3t
61. y 1/2 63. 16/15 65. 15/2 67. 69. 1/2
(b) True 31. (a) False (b) True 33. (a) x 0 y y 3b 1/3 s
(b) t 4 (c) a p (d) 5 x 13 (e) 0 p 3 0
5 71. (a) 6.93 107 (b) 7.2 1012 (c) 2.8536 105
35. (a) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} (b) {2, 4, 6} (d) 1.213 104 73. (a) 319,000 (b) 272,100,000
37. (a) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} (b) {7} (c) 0.00000002670 (d) 0.000000009999
39. (a) 5x 0 x
56 (b) 5x 0 1 x 46 75. (a) 5.9 1012 mi (b) 4 1013 cm (c) 3.3 1019
41. 3 x 0 43. 2
x 8 molecules 77. 1.3 1020 79. 1.429 1019
−3 110 12x 13x
0 2 8
81. 7.4 1014 83. (a) (b) (c)
10 x 3
45. x 2 4
2 3 2
22 x 1 y xy 3/5
47. 1q, 14
85. (a) (b) (c)
1 x y y
49. 12, 14
87. (a) Negative (b) Positive (c) Negative (d) Negative
−2 1
(e) Positive (f) Negative 89. 2.5 1013 mi
51. 11, q 2 −1 91. 1.3 1021 L 93. 4.03 1027 molecules
53. (a) 33, 54 (b) 13, 54
95. (a) 28 mi/h (b) 167 ft 97. (a) 17.707 ft/s
(b) 1328.0 ft3/s
55. −2 1 57. 0 6
59. −4 4
61. (a) 100 (b) 73 63. (a) 2 (b) 1 65. (a) 12
1. Trinomial; x 2, 3x, 7; 2 3. Monomial; 8; 0
(b) 5 67. 5 69. (a) 15 (b) 24 (c) 67 71. (a) 79
40 5. Four terms; x 4, x 3, x 2, x; 4 7. 7x 5
(b) 13
45 (c) 19
33 73. Distributive Property 9. 5x 2 2x 4 11. x 3 3x 2 6x 11 13. 9x 103
75. (a) Yes, no (b) 6 ft 15. t 4 t 3 t 2 10t 5 17. x 3/2 x
19. 21t 2 29t 10 21. 3x 2 5xy 2y 2
23. 1 4y 4y 2 25. 4x 4 12x 2y 2 9y 4
Section 1.2 ■ page 21 27. 2x 3 7x 2 7x 5 29. x 4 a 4 31. a 1/b 2
1. 51/2 3. 242 5. 53/5 7. 2a 2 9. (a) 9 (b) 9
3 5
33. 1 3a 3 3a 6 a 9 35. 2x 4 x 3 x 2 3x 2
1
(c) 1 11. (a) 4 (b) 81 (c) 16 13. (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 1
2
37. 1 x 2/3 x 4/3 x 2 39. 3x 4y 4 7x 3y 5 6x 2y 3 14xy 4
A1
A2 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises and Chapter Tests
41. x 2 y 2 2yz z 2 43. 2x1x 2 8 2 85. True 87. False 89. False 91. True
45. 1y 62 1y 92 47. xy12x 6y 32 93. (a)
R1R2
(b) 203 ⬇ 6.7 ohms
49. 1x 12 1x 3 2 51. 12x 5 2 14x 3 2 R1 R2
53. 13x 4 2 13x 8 2 55. 13a 4 2 13a 4 2
57. 13x y 2 19x 2 3xy y 2 2 59. 1x 6 2 2 Section 1.5 ■ page 55
61. 1x 42 1x 12 63. 12x 1 2 1x 2 3 2
2
1. (a) No (b) Yes 3. (a) Yes (b) No 5. 12 7. 18
65. 1x 12 1x 2 12 67. x 1/2 1x 12 1x 1 2 9. 3 11. 12 13. 34 15. 30 17. 13 19. 133 21. 2
69. 1x 2 32 1x 2 1 2 1/2 71. 6x12x 2 3 2 PV RR2 2d b
23. R 25. R1 27. x
73. 1x 4 2 1x 2 2 75. 12x 32 1x 12 nT R2 R a 2c
77. 13x 2 2 12x 3 2 79. 15s t 2 2 1a 3V
81. 12x 5 2 12x 5 2 83. 4ab 29. x
a2 a 1
31. r
B ph
85. 1x 3 2 1x 32 1x 1 2 1x 1 2 V0 2V 20 2gh
87. 12x 52 14x 2 10x 25 2 33. b 2c 2 a 2 35. t
89. 1x 2 2y 2 1x 4 2x 2y 4y 2 2
g
37. 4, 3 39. 3, 4 41. 32 , 52 43. 2, 13 45. 1 16
91. x1x 1 2 2 93. 1y 2 2 1y 22 1y 3 2
114
95. 12x 2 12 1x 2 2 97. 31x 1 2 1x 2 2 47. 72, 12 49. 2 51. 0, 14 53. 3, 5
99. 1a 2 2 1a 2 2 1a 12 1a 1 2
2
101. 21x 2 42 4 1x 22 3 17x 2 10x 82
3 15 1 15
55. 57. 32, 1 59. 61. 92, 12
103. 1x 2 32 4/3 A 13 x 2 3B
2 4
5 113 16 16
105. (d) 1a b c 2 1a b c2 1a b c 2 1b a c 2 63. 65. , 67. 75
2 2 6
69. 2 71. 1 73. No real solution
Section 1.4 ■ page 41 75. 75 , 2 77. 50, 100 79. 4 81. 4 83. 3
x2
1. ⺢ 3. x 4 5. x 3 85. 2 12, 15 87. No real solution
21x 1 2
7.
89. 3 13, 2 12 91. 1, 0, 3 93. 27, 729 95. 32 , 32
1 x2 y x12x 3 2
9. 11. 13. 15. 97. 3.99, 4.01 99. 4.24 s 101. (a) After 1 s and 1 12 s
x2 x1 y1 2x 3 (b) Never (c) 25 ft (d) After 1 14 s (e) After 2 12 s
1 x3 1 x4 103. (a) 0.00055, 12.018 m (b) 234.375 kg/m3
17. 19. 21. 2 23.
41x 22 3x t 9 x1 105. (a) After 17 yr, on Jan. 1, 2019 (b) After 18.621 yr, on
12x 1 2 12x 1 2
27. x 2 1x 1 2 29.
x Aug. 12, 2020 107. 50 109. 132.6 ft
1x 5 2 2
25.
yz
31x 22 3x 7 1 Section 1.6 ■ page 68
1x 3 2 1x 52 1x 12 1x 2 2
31. 33. 35.
x3 160 s
3x 2 u 2 3u 1 2x 1 1. 3n 3 3. 5. 0.025x
3
1x 12 x 1x 1 2
37. 39. 41. 2
2
u1 25
2x 7 x2 5x 6 7. A 3„ 2 9. d 34 s 11. 13. 51, 52, 53
x3
1x 32 1x 4 2 1x 3 2 1x 3 2 x1x 1 2
43. 45. 47. 1
15. 19 and 36 17. $9000 at 4 2 % and $3000 at 4%
5 c 19. 7.5% 21. $7400 23. $45,000 25. Plumber, 70 h;
51. xy 53.
1x 12 1x 2 2 1x 32
49.
c2 assistant, 35 h 27. 40 years old 29. 9 pennies, 9 nickels,
3x 7 yx 1 9 dimes 31. 6.4 ft from the fulcrum 33. (a) 9 cm
a1a h 2
55. 2 57. 59. 1 61. (b) 5 in. 35. 45 ft 37. 120 ft by 120 ft 39. 25 ft by 35 ft
x 2x 1 xy
41. 60 ft by 40 ft 43. 120 ft 45. 4 in. 47. 18 ft 49. 5 m
3 1
12 x2 12 x h2
63. 65. 51. 4 53. 18 g 55. 0.6 L 57. 35% 59. 37 min 20 s
21 x 2 61. 3 h 63. Irene 3 h, Henry 4 12 h 65. 4 h 67. 500 mi/h
1x 22 1x 132
2
x2 2x 3 69. 50 mi/h (or 240 mi/h) 71. 6 km/h 73. 2 ft by
1x 3 2 3
67. 69. 71.
1x 1 2 3/2
1x 12 4/3 6 ft by 15 ft 75. 13 in. by 13 in. 77. 2.88 ft 79. 16 mi; no
21 17 122 y 13 y1y 81. 7.52 ft 83. 18 ft 85. 4.55 ft
73. 2 13 75. 77.
5 3y
4 r2 1 Section 1.7 ■ page 84
1. 5 12, 2, 46
79. 81. 83.
311 152 51 1r 122 2x 1 x
2 3. {4} 5. {2, 1, 2, 4}
7. 14, q 2 9. 1q, 2 4
4 2
Answers to Section 1.8 A3
11. Aq, 12 B 13. 31, q 2 91. (a) x

c

c
(b)
ac

x
2a c
1 a b b b
−1
2
93. 68
F
86 95. More than 200 mi
15. A 163, qB 17. 1q, 18 2 97. Between 12,000 mi and 14,000 mi 99. Distances between
20,000 km and 100,000 km 101. Between 0 and 60 mi/h
16 −18
3 h
103. (a) T 20 (b) From 20C down to 30C
19. 1q, 1 4 21. 33, 1 2 100
−1 0 −3 −1
105. 24 107. (a) 0 x 0.020 0
0.003
(b) 0.017
x
0.023
23. 12, 62 25. 3 92, 5B
2 6 9 5
2
1.
27. A 152, 212 4 29. 12, 32
y
(−4, 5) 5 (4, 5)
15 21 −2 3
2 2 (−2, 3) (2, 3)
31. 1q, 72 4 傼 3 0, q 2 33. 33, 6 4

−5 0 5 x
− 72 0 −3 6
35. Aq, 14 傼 3 12, q B 37. 11, 42 −5

(−4, −5) (4, −5)
−1 1 −1 4
2
39. 1q, 32 傼 16, q 2 41. 12, 22 3. (a) 113 (b) A 32, 1B 5. (a) 10 (b) 11, 02
−3 6 −2 2
7. (a) 9. (a)
y y
43. 1q, q 2 45. 12, 02 傼 12, q 2 (4, 18)
(6, 16)
0 −2 0 2
8 (0, 8) 6
47. 1q, 1 2 傼 3 3, q 2 49. Aq, 32 B
−8 0 8 x −6 0 6 x
−1 3 −3
2 (−3, −6)
51. 1q, 5 2 傼 3 16, q 2 53. 12, 02 傼 12, q 2

5 16 −2 0 2
(b) 10 (c) 13, 122 (b) 25 (c) A 12, 6B
11. (a) 13. 24
55. 3 2, 1 2 傼 10, 1 4 57. 32, 02 傼 11, 34 y y
−2 −1 0 1 −2 0 1 3 5
4
59. A3, 12 B 傼 12, q 2 61. 1q, 1 2 傼 11, q 2

(_6, 2) A(1, 3) B(5, 3)
_4 0 4 x
−3 −1 2 −1 1
2 (6, _2) 0 x
_4 _3 3
63. 34, 4 4 65. Aq, 72 B 傼 A 72, q B
(b) 4110 (c) 10, 02

C(1, _3) D(5, _3)
−4 4 −7 7
2 2 _5
67. 3 2, 84 69. 3 1.3, 1.74

2 8 1.3 1.7 15. Trapezoid, area 9 17.
y
71. 14, 82 73. 16.001, 5.999 2
y
5
−4 8 −6.001 −5.999 D C
3 12, 32 4 77. 0 x 0 3
1
75.
0 1 x
−1 3 _3 0 A 3 B x
2 2
79. 0 x 7 0 5 81. 0 x 0
2 83. 0 x 0 3
_5
85. 0 x 1 0
3 87.
x
4 4
89. x 2 or x 7
3 3
19. y 21. y 55. x-intercepts 1, 57. x-intercept 0,

5 y-intercept 1, y-intercept 0,
symmetry about y-axis symmetry about y-axis
1 y y
0 1 x _5 0 5 x
5
1
_5 0 5 x
_5
23. y 25. y
_5 0 5 x
_5
5
2
59. x-intercepts 3, 61. No intercepts,
−2 0 2 x
−2 _5 0 5 x y-intercept 9, symmetry about origin
symmetry about y-axis
_5 y y
27. A16, 7 2 29. Q11, 3 2

33. (b) 10 37. 10, 4 2 4
39. 12, 32

2
y _4 0
_6 0 6 x
R(4, 2) _2 4 x
2 Q(1, 1)
_4
_5 0 5 x
(2, _3)
P(_1, _4)
63. x-intercepts 2, 65. x-intercept 4,
41. (a) y (b) A 52, 3B, A 52, 3B y-intercept 2, y-intercepts 2, 2,
C symmetry about y-axis symmetry about x-axis
D
4 y y
B
3
_4 0 4 x
A 3
_4 0 x
_5 5
−5 0 5 x
43. No, yes, yes 45. Yes, no, yes
−3
47. x-intercepts 0, 4; y-intercept 0
49. x-intercepts 2, 2; y-intercepts 4, 4
51. x-intercept 4, 53. x-intercept 3,
y-intercept 4, y-intercept 6, 67. x-intercepts 2, 69. x-intercepts 4,
no symmetry no symmetry y-intercept 16, y-intercept 4,
y y
symmetry about y-axis symmetry about y-axis
y y
2 2
5
0 2 x −4 0 4 x
−4
5
_5 5
0 1 x 0 x
_2
71. Symmetry about y-axis 73. Symmetry about origin

y-axis, and origin 75. Symmetry about origin
77. 79. 19. 21.

y y 4 0.8
1 1
2
−6 6 −1.2 1.2
_4 0 4 x _4 0 4 x
1
_2
_1 −4 −0.8
No 25. Yes, 2 27. 4 29. 145 31. 4 12 ⬇ 5.7

81. 1x 2 2 2 1 y 12 2 9 83. x 2 y 2 65
23.
4 4
2.5, 2.5 35. 5 21 5 ⬇ 7.99, 5 2 1 5 ⬇ 2.01
85. 1x 7 2 2 1 y 32 2 9 87. 1x 22 2 1 y 22 2 4
33.
89. 12, 5 2 , 4 91. A 14, 14 B, 12 93. A 34, 0B, 34

37. 3.00, 4.00 39. 1.00, 2.00, 3.00 41. 1.62
43. 1.00, 0.00, 1.00 45. 2.55 47. 2.05, 0, 1.05
95. 97. 12p 49. 32.00, 5.004 51. 1q, 1.004 傼 32.00, 3.004
11.00, 02 傼 11.00, q 2 55. 1q, 0 2 57. 0, 0.01
y
53.
2 59. (a) (b) 67 mi
20
_2 0 2 x
_2
0 100
99. (a) 5 (b) 31; 25 (c) Points P and Q must either be on
the same street or the same avenue. 101. (a) 2 Mm, 8 Mm
(b) 1.33, 7.33; 2.40 Mm, 7.60 Mm Section 1.10 ■ page 120
1. 21 3. 61 5. 12 7. 92 9. 2, 12,3, 14
Section 1.9 ■ page 109 11. x y 4 0 13. 3x 2y 6 0
1. (c) 3. (c) 5. (c) 15. x y 1 0 17. 2x 3y 19 0
7. 9. 19. 5x y 11 0 21. 3x y 2 0
400 20 23. 3x y 3 0 25. y 5 27. x 2y 11 0
29. x 1 31. 5x 2y 1 0
33. x y 6 0
35. (a) (b) 3x 2y 8 0
−4 10
y
−2 2
−10 −10 5
11. 13. (−2, 1)

5 2000
0 1 x
−3
−50 150
−20 20
37. They all have the 39. They all have the
−1 −2000 same slope. same x-intercept.
15. 17. 8 5 m = 1.5
100 5 m = 0.75
m = 0.25
m=0
−5 5 −2 8
m = −0.25
b=6
−4 6 m = −0.75
b=3
−3 5 −8 b = −3 b=1 −5 m = −1.5
−50 −1 b = −6 b = −1 b = 0
41. 1, 3 43. 13, 0 71. (a) C 14 d 260 y

(b) $635 1000
y y
(c) The slope represents
5 2 cost per mile.
(d) The y-intercept represents 500
−5 0 5 x
monthly fixed cost.
−2
0 5 x
0 500 1000 x
_2

45. 32,3 47. 0, 4
1. T kx 5. y ks/t 7. z k 1y
3. √ k/z
y y
i
5
9. V kl„h 11. R k 13. y 7x 15. M 15x/y
Pt
17. W 360/r 19. C 16l„h 21. s 500/ 1t
2
1 23. (a) F kx (b) 8 (c) 32 N

0 x 25. (a) C kpm (b) 0.125 (c) $57,500 27. (a) P ks 3
2 −5 0 5 x
−2 (b) 0.012 (c) 324 29. 0.7 dB 31. 4 33. 5.3 mi/h
35. (a) R kL/d 2 (b) 0.002916 (c) R ⬇ 137 ⍀
37. (a) 160,000 (b) 1,930,670,340 39. 36 lb
49. 34,3 51. 34, 14 41. (a) f k/L (b) Halves it
y y
Chapter 1 Review ■ page 131
1
−5 0 5 x 1 1. Commutative Property for addition

3. Distributive Property
−2 0 x
−3
−1
2
5. 2
x 6 −2 6
7. 35, q 2 5
1 1
57. x y 3 0 59. (b) 4x 3y 24 0 9. 6 11. 72 15. 11 17. 4 19. 16x 3 21. 12xy 8
13. 6
61. 16,667 ft 63. (a) 8.34; the slope represents the increase 4r 5/2
23. x 2y 2 25. 3x 3/2y 2 27. 29. 7.825 1010
in dosage for a one-year increase in age. (b) 8.34 mg s7
31. 1.65 1032 33. 3xy 2 14xy 2 y 3 3x 2 2
1x 22 1x 52 37. 14t 32 1t 4 2
65. (a) y (b) The slope
35.
15 4t2 15 4t2
represents production
39.
1x 12 1x 2 x 1 2 1x 1 2 1x 2 x 12
12000
cost per toaster; the
41.
x 1/2 1x 12 2 45. 1x 22 14x 2 32
9000 y-intercept represents
monthly fixed cost. 43.
6000
47. 2x 2 21x 2 x 22 2 49. 6x 2 21x 3
3000 51. 7 x 53. 2x 3 6x 2 4x
31x 32 x1 1
0 x 55. 57. 59.
500 1000 1500
x4 x4 x1
1
67. (a) t 245 n 45 (b) 76 F 61. 63. 312 213 65. 5 67. No solution
2x
69. (a) P 0.434d 15, where P is pressure in lb/in2 and d is 2 17
depth in feet 69. 2, 7 71. 1, 21 73. 0, 52 75.
3
(b) y (c) The slope is the rate 77. 5 79. 3, 11 81. 20 lb raisins, 30 lb nuts
4 1 1329 32 ⬇ 3.78 mi/h
1
of increase in water pres- 83. 85. 1 h 50 min
sure, and the y-intercept 87. 13, q 2 89. 1q, 62 傼 12, q 2
is the air pressure at the −3 −6 2
surface. (d) 196 ft
5 91. 1q, 22 傼 12, 4 4 93. 32, 84
0 5 x
−2 2 4 2 8
Answers to Chapter 1 Test A7
95. 1, 7 97. 31, 34 119. 121.

99. (a) y 10 10
12
Q (_5, 12)
_3 6
8 _2 8
4
P (2, 0)
_10 _25
_4 0 4 x
_4 123. 2x 3y 16 0 125. 3x y 12 0
127. x 5y 0 129. x 2 y 2 169, 5x 12y 169 0
(b) 1193 (c) A 32, 6B 131. (a) The slope represents the amount the spring
(d) y 127 x 247 (e) 1x 2 2 2 y 2 193 lengthens for a one-pound increase in weight. The S-intercept
y y represents the unstretched length of the spring. (b) 4 in.
(_5, 12) 12 133. M 8z 135. (a) I k/d 2 (b) 64,000
(c) 160 candles 137. 11.0 mi/h
8 8
(2, 0)
4 24
7 _8 0 8 x Chapter 1 Test ■ page 135
0 x
_8 1. (a) _5 3
_4 2
_4
2
(b) 1q, 3 4, 3 1, 42 (c) 16 2. (a) 81 (b) 81 (c) 811

101. (d) 25 (e) 49 (f) 18 3. (a) 1.86 1011 (b) 3.965 107
y x x2 1
4. (a) 6 12 (b) 48a 5b 7 (c) (d) (e)
3
9y 7 x2 x2
(f) 1x y 2 5. 5 12 2 110 6. (a) 11x 2
0 5 x (b) 4x 2 7x 15 (c) a b (d) 4x 2 12x 9
(e) x 3 6x 2 12x 8 7. (a) 12x 52 12x 5 2
(b) 12x 3 2 1x 42 (c) 1x 3 2 1x 2 2 1x 22
103. B 105. 1x 52 2 1 y 1 2 2 26 (d) x1x 32 1x 2 3x 92 (e) 3x 1/2 1x 12 1x 22
107. Circle, center 11, 32 , radius 1 109. No graph (f) xy1x 2 2 1x 22 8. (a) 6 (b) 1 (c) 3, 4
111. No symmetry 113. No symmetry
12
y y (d) 1 (e) No real solution (f) 1, 12
2
7
(g) 23, 223 9. 120 mi 10. 50 ft by 120 ft
2
0 x
11. (a) 34, 32 _4 3
7
_2 0 2 x (b) 12, 02 傼 11, q 2 _2 0 1

_7
_2
(c) 11, 72 1 7
(d) 11, 44 _1 4
115. Symmetry about y-axis 117. No symmetry
12. Between 41F and 50F 13. 0
x
6
14. (a) 2.94, 0.11, 3.05 (b) 31, 34
y y
15. (a) S13, 62 y (b) 18

S
2
4
0 2 x P R
_3 0 3 x
_4
1
0 1 Q x
16. (a) y (b) x-intercepts 2, 2 20. (a) 3x y 3 0

y-intercept 4 (b) 2x 3y 12 0
(c) Symmetric about 21. (a) 4C (b) T
0 1 x y-axis
1
0 10 100 x
_4
17. (a) y
Q(5, 6) (c) The slope is the rate of change in temperature, the

x-intercept is the depth at which the temperature is 0C,
P(−3, 1)
1
and the T-intercept is the temperature at ground level.
0 1 x 22. (a) M k„h 2/L (b) 400 (c) 12,000 lb
Focus on Problem Solving ■ page 141

1. 37.5 mi/h 3. 150 mi 5. 427, 3n 1
(b) 189 (c) A1, 72 B (d) 5
8 (e) y 85 x 51
10
7. 75 s 9. The same amount
(f) 1x 1 2 2 A y 72 B 894
2 11. 2p 13. 8.49 15. 7
19. The North Pole is one such point. There are
18. (a) 10, 02 , 5 y
infinitely many others near the South Pole.
21. p 23. 13 123 93 103 1729
27. Infinitely far
2
(0, 0) 29.
−2 2 x
y
−2
1
(b) 12, 12 , 3 y

_1 0 1 x
_1
0 4 x
(2, −1)
Chapter 2
(c) 13, 12 , 2 y Section 2.1 ■ page 155
1. f 1x 2 21x 32
f 1x 2 1x 52 2
3
3.
(−3, 1) 5. Subtract 4, then divide by 3
7. Square, then add 2
−5 0 x
9.
subtract 1,
1 0
take square root
19. y 2
3x 5 y (input) (output)
subtract 1,
2 1
2 take square root
0 2 x
subtract 1,
5 2
take square root
slope 23 ; y-intercept 5
f 1x 2
11. 73. P
x
900
1 8
0 2
1 0 850
2 2
Population
3 8 (× 1000)
800
13. 3, 3, 2, 2a 1, 2a 1, 2a 2b 1

1 1 1a 2a 750
15. , 3, , , , undefined
3 3 1a a
17. 4, 10, 2, 3 12, 2x 7x 1, 2x 2 3x 4
2
19. 6, 2, 1, 2, 2 0 x 0 , 21x 2 1 2 21. 4, 1, 1, 2, 3

700
23. 8, 34, 1, 0, 1 25. x 2 4x 5, x 2 6 1985 1990 1995 2000 t
27. x 2 4, x 2 8x 16 29. 3a 2, 31a h 2 2, 3

Years
a ah 1
a 1 a h 1 1a h 1 2 1a 12
31. 5, 5, 0 33. , ,
35. 3 5a 4a 2, 3 5a 5h 4a 2 8ah 4h 2, Section 2.2 ■ page 167
5 8a 4h
37. 1q, q 2 39. [1, 5] 41. 5x 0 x 36 1. 3.
43. 5x 0 x 16 45. 3 5, q 2 47. 1q, q 2 49. 3 52, qB
51. 3 2, 3 2 傼 13, q 2 53. 1q, 0 4 傼 3 6, q 2 55. 14, q 2
y y
57. A 12, qB 59. (a) C1102 1532.1, C1100 2 2100 4 4
(b) The cost of producing 10 yd and 100 yd

(c) C10 2 1500
61. (a) D10.1 2 28.1, D10.2 2 39.8 (b) 41.3 mi −4 0 4 x _4 0 4 x
(c) 235.6 mi 63. (a) √10.1 2 4440, √10.4 2 1665 −2
(b) Flow is faster near central axis. _4

(c)
r √1r 2
0 4625
0.1 4440 5. 7.
0.2 3885
y y
0.3 2960
2
0.5 0
0
_5 5 x
65. (a) 8.66 m, 6.61 m, 4.36 m 2
(b) It will appear to get shorter.
0 x
67. (a) $90, $105, $100, $105 (b) Total cost of an order, _2 2 _5
_2
including shipping
15140 x 2 if 0 x 40
69. (a) F1x 2 • 0 if 40
x
65
151x 65 2 if x 65
9. 11.
(b) $150, $0, $150 (c) Fines for violating the speed limits
71. y y
T
5
0 x −5 0 5 x
_4 4
_4 −3
0 t
13. 15. 33. (a) 4.8

y y
5
4
0
−4.75
_4 4 x
−0.8
_5 0 5 x
_4
(b) Domain 34, 44, range 3 0, 44
_2
35. (a) 3
17. 19.
y y
5
5
−1 9
−1
_5 0 5 x
0 x
(b) Domain 31, q 2 , range 30, q 2
_5 5
37. 39.
_5
y y
21. 4
y 2
_5 0 5 x
_5 0 5 x
_2
2
0 x
1 41. 43.
23. (a) 1, 1, 3, 4 (b) Domain 33, 44, range 31, 4 4

y y
25. (a) f 10 2 (b) g13 2 (c) 2, 2 3

3
27. (a) 3
_3 3
0 x
_3 0 3 x
_2
−3 3
_3
−3
45. 47.
(b) Domain 1q, q 2 , range 1q, q 2 y y
29. (a) 6
5 5
−6 6
_5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
−6
(b) Domain 1q, q 2 , range {4} 49. 51.

31. (a) 5 y 7
−4 4
_7 7
1
0 1 x
−12 _7
(b) Domain 1q, q 2 , range 1q, 44

2 if x 2 85. A won the race. All runners finished. Runner B fell, but got
53. f 1x 2 • x if 2
x
2 up again to finish second. 87. (a) 5 s (b) 30 s (c) 17 s
2 if x 2 89. y
4
55. (a) Yes (b) No (c) Yes (d) No
57. Function, domain 33, 24, range 32, 24 2 0x
1
59. Not a function 61. Yes 63. No 65. No 2.2 1 x
1.1 3
67. Yes 69. Yes 71. Yes C1x2 e 2.4 1.1 x
1.2
73. (a) (b) o
c=6 c=4
c=2
c=0 c=_2
c=_4
4.0 1.9 x 2.0 2
10 c=0 10 c=_6
0 1 2 x
_5 5 _5 5
1. (a) 31, 14, 32, 44 (b) 31, 2 4 3. (a) 32, 14, 3 1, 24
_10 _10 (b) 33, 24, 31, 1 4, 32, 34
(c) If c 0, then the graph of f 1x 2 x 2 c is the same as the
5. (a) 7. (a)
5 10
graph of y x 2 shifted upward c units. If c 0, then the graph
of f 1x 2 x 2 c is the same as the graph of y x 2 shifted
downward c units. _10 10 _2 7
75. (a) (b)
c=0 c=2 10
c=4
10 c=6 _5 _10
(b) Increasing on 30, q 2 ; (b) Increasing on 3 2.5, q 2 ;
_10 10
decreasing on 1q, 04 decreasing on 1q, 2.54
_10 10 9. (a) 11. (a)
20 3
c=_6 _10
c=_4
_10 c=_2 c=0
_3 5
_5 5
(c) If c 0, then the graph of f 1x2 1x c 2 3 is the same as
the graph of y x 3 shifted right c units. If c 0, then the
graph of f 1x 2 1x c 2 3 is the same as the graph of y x 3 _25 _3
(b) Increasing on 1q, 1 4 ,

shifted left c units.
(b) Increasing on
32, q 2 ; decreasing on 31, 2 4 1q, 1.55 4 , 30.22, q 2 ;
77. (a) (b)
decreasing on 31.55, 0.22 4
3 c=1
2
1 1
c= 3
c= 2
1
13. 2
3 15. 45 17. 3 19. 5 21. 60 23. 12 3h
1
c= 4 c= 5
1 2
1 3 25. 27. 29. (a) 21
c= 6 3
a a1a h2
1 4
31. (a) Increasing on 3 0, 150 4, 3 300, 365 4; decreasing on
1
[150, 300] (b) 0.25 ft/day 33. (a) 245 persons/yr
2
(b) 328.5 persons/yr (c) 1997–2001 (d) 2001–2006
(c) Graphs of even roots are similar to 1x; graphs of odd roots 35. (a) 7.2 units/yr (b) 8 units/yr (c) 55 units/yr
are similar to 1 3 c
x. As c increases, the graph of y 1 x苵 becomes (d) 2000–2001, 2001–2002
steeper near 0 and flatter when x 1.
79. f 1x 2 76 x 43, 2
x
4 Section 2.4 ■ page 190
81. f 1x2 29 x , 3
x
3
2 1. (a) Shift downward 5 units (b) Shift right 5 units
83. This person’s weight increases as he grows, then continues 3. (a) Shift left 12 unit (b) Shift up 12 unit 5. (a) Reflect in
to increase; the person then goes on a crash diet (possibly) at the x-axis and stretch vertically by a factor of 2 (b) Reflect in
age 30, then gains weight again, the weight gain eventually the x-axis and shrink vertically by a factor of 21 7. (a) Shift
leveling off. right 4 units and upward 34 unit (b) Shift left 4 units and
downward 43 unit 9. (a) Shrink horizontally by a factor of 14
(b) Stretch horizontally by a factor of 4 11. g1x2 1x 22 2 (iii) (iv) y
13. g1x 2 0 x 1 0 2 15. g1x 2 1x 2

17. (a) 3 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 4 6
3
19. (a) (b) _4
y y 0 4 x
5 5 _2 0 5 x
_6 _2
_5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
23. (a) Shift left 2 units (b) Shift up 2 units
25. (a) Stretch vertically by a factor of 2
_5 _5 (b) Shift right 2 units, then shrink vertically by a factor of 12
27. g1x2 1x 22 2 3 29. g1x2 5 1x 3
(c) (d) 31. g1x2 0.1 0 x 12 0 2
y y
33. 35.
5
y y
5 5
0 _5 0 5 x
_5 5 x
_5 0 5 x 0 x
_5 5 _5
_5
(e) (f)
37. 39.
y y
y y
5 5
5 5
_5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
_5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
_5 _5
21. (a) y
41. 43.
y y
3 1
_5 0 2 x 10
_3
0 3 x
_3
(_3, 5)
_3
_4 0 2 x
(b) 45. 47.

(i) y (ii) y
y y
5
4 5 5
5 _4 0
_5 0 x 4 x 0
_5 5 x _5 0 5 x
_4
_5
49. 8 For part (b) shift the graph 65. Odd y
(d)
in (a) left 5 units; for part
3
(c) shift the graph in (a) left
(b)
5 units and stretch verti-
(c)
(a) cally by a factor of 2; for _5 0 5 x
_8 8
part (d) shift the graph in _3
_2 (a) left 5 units, stretch verti-
cally by a factor of 2, and
then shift upward 4 units. 67. Neither
51. For part (b) shrink the 69. To obtain the graph of g, reflect in the x-axis the part of the
4 (a) (b)
graph in (a) vertically by graph of f that is below the x-axis.
a factor of 31 ; for part (c) 71. (a) (b)
_4 6 shrink the graph in (a) ver- y y
tically by a factor of 31 and
5 5
reflect in the x-axis; for part
(c) _4 (d) (d) shift the graph in (a)
right 4 units, shrink verti-
cally by a factor of 13 , and _5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
then reflect in the x-axis.
_3
53. (a) (b)
y y
73. (a) Shift up 4 units, shrink vertically by a factor of 0.01
(b) Shift right 10 units; g1t 2 4 0.011t 102 2
2 2
0 6 x 0 6 x

55. (a) (b) 1. (a) 13, 42 (b) 4 3. (a) 11, 3 2 (b) 3
5. (a) f 1x 2 1x 32 2 9 7. (a) f 1x 2 2Ax 32 B 2 92
y y
(b) Vertex 13, 92 (b) Vertex A 32, 92 B

3
2
x-intercepts 0, 6 x-intercepts 0, 3,
y-intercept 0 y-intercept 0
−2 0 2 x −2 0 2 x (c) (c)
−2
y y
57. 59. −3 0 3 x
y 4 2
−3
(c)
3 (b) (a) −2 0 2 x
_5 5
1 2 4
_3 0 3 x
_4 9. (a) f 1x2 1x 22 2 1 (b) Vertex 12, 12
x-intercepts 1, 3, y-intercept 3
_3 (c)
y
61. Even 63. Neither
y
5 2
−2 0 2 x
_5 0 5 x
11. (a) f 1x 2 1x 3 2 2 13 (b) Vertex 13, 132 ; 23. (a) f 1x 2 Ax 32 B 2 214
x-intercepts 3 113; y-intercept 4 (b) y
(c) y !_ 32 , 21
4
@
3
6
0 x
−2 2 x _3 3
_2
13. (a) f 1x 2 21x 1 2 2 1 (b) Vertex 11, 12 ;

no x-intercept; y-intercept 3 (c) Maximum f A32 B 214
(c) y
25. (a) g1x2 31x 22 2 1
(b) y
10
_3 0 3 x
15. (a) f 1x 2 21x 52 2 7 (b) Vertex 15, 72 ;

(2, 1)
0 6 x
no x-intercept; y-intercept 57
(c) y (c) Minimum g122 1
27. (a) h1x 2 Ax 12 B 2 54
7 (b) y
1 5
!_ 2 , 4 @ 2
0 x
_2 0 5 x _4 2
17. (a) f 1x2 41x 2 2 2 19 (b) Vertex 12, 192 ;

_2
x-intercepts 2 12 119; y-intercept 3

(c)
(c) Maximum hA 12 B 54
y
29. Minimum f A 12 B 34
31. Maximum f 13.52 185.75
5 33. Minimum f 10.6 2 15.64
_2 0 1 x 35. Minimum h12 2 8
37. Maximum f 11 2 72 39. f 1x 2 2x 2 4x
41. 1q, q 2 , 1q, 14 43. 1q, q 2 , A 232, qB
19. (a) f 1x2 1x 1 2 2 1 21. (a) f 1x2 1x 1 2 2 2 45. (a) 4.01 (b) 4.011025
(b) (b) 47. Local maximum 2; local minimums 1, 0
49. Local maximums 0, 1; local minimums 2, 1
y y
1
(1, 1) 51. Local maximum ⬇ 0.38 when x ⬇ 0.58;
0
3 local minimum ⬇ 0.38 when x ⬇ 0.58
_1 1 x 53. Local maximum ⬇ 0 when x 0;
_1
0 x
local minimum ⬇ 13.61 when x ⬇ 1.71;
_3 2
local minimum ⬇ 73.32 when x ⬇ 3.21
_2
(_1, _2) 55. Local maximum ⬇ 5.66 when x ⬇ 4.00
57. Local maximum ⬇ 0.38 when x ⬇ 1.73;
(c) Maximum f 11 2 1 (c) Minimum f 112 2
local minimum ⬇ 0.38 when x ⬇ 1.73 59. 25 ft 11. 13.

61. $4,000, 100 units 63. 30 times 65. 50 trees per acre y 3
67. 20 mi/h 69. r ⬇ 0.67 cm f+g

f+g
g g f
1. A1„ 2 3„2, „ 0 3. V1„2 12 „3, „ 0 _3
_1 1
3
5. A1x 2 10x x 2, 0 x 10
f
x _1
7. A1x 2 1 13/4 2x 2, x 0 9. r1A 2 2A/p, A 0

11. S1x 2 2x 2 240/x, x 0 13. D1t 2 25t, t 0 15.
15. A1b2 b 14 b, 0 b 4 3
17. A1h 2 2h 2100 h 2, 0 h 10 f
19. (b) p1x 2 x119 x2 (c) 9.5, 9.5 21. 12, 12
f+g
23. (b) A1x2 x12400 2x2 (c) 600 ft by 1200 ft _3 3

25. (a) f 1„ 2 8„ 7200/„ (b) Width along road is 30 ft, g
length is 40 ft (c) 15 ft to 60 ft
27. (a) R1p 2 3000p 2 57,000p (b) $19 (c) $9.50
_2
p4 2
29. (a) A1x 2 15x a b x (b) Width ⬇ 8.40 ft,
17. (a) 1 (b) 23 19. (a) 11 (b) 119
8 21. (a) 3x 2 1 (b) 9x 2 30x 23
height of rectangular part ⬇ 4.20 ft 23. 4 25. 5 27. 4
31. (a) A1x 2 x 2 48/x (b) Height ⬇ 1.44 ft, 29. 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 8x 1, 1q, q 2 ;
width ⬇ 2.88 ft 33. (a) A1x2 2x 200/x 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2 8x 11, 1q, q 2 ;
(b) 10 m by 10 m 1f ⴰ f 2 1x 2 4x 9, 1q, q 2 ;
35. (a) E1x 2 14 225 x 2 10112 x 2 1g ⴰ g2 1x2 16x 5, 1q, q 2
(b) To point C, 5.1 mi from point B 31. 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 1x 1 2 2, 1q, q 2 ;
1g ⴰ f 2 1x 2 x 2 1, 1q, q 2 ; 1f ⴰ f 2 1x2 x 4, 1q, q 2 ;
Section 2.7 ■ page 219 1g ⴰ g2 1x 2 x 2, 1q, q 2
1. 1f g 2 1x 2 x 2 x 3, 1q, q 2 ; 33. 1f ⴰ g 2 1x 2 , x 2; 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2 4, x 0;
1 2
2x 4
1f g 2 1x 2 x 2 x 3, 1q, q 2 ;
x
1f ⴰ f 2 1x 2 x, x 0, 1g ⴰ g2 1x 2 4x 12, 1q, q 2
1fg2 1x 2 x 3 3x 2, 1q, q 2 ; 35. 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 0 2x 3 0 , 1q, q 2 ;
x3 1g ⴰ f 2 1x2 2 0 x 0 3, 1q, q 2 ; 1f ⴰ f 2 1x2 0 x 0 , 1q, q 2 ;
a g b 1x 2 , 1q, 0 2 傼 10, q 2
f
x2 1g ⴰ g2 1x 2 4x 9, 1q, q 2
2x 1
3. 1f g 2 1x 2 24 x 2 21 x, 31, 24 ; 37. 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 , x 0;
2x
1f g 2 1x 2 24 x 2 21 x, 31, 24 ; 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2
2x
1, x 1;
x1
1fg2 1x 2 2x 3 x 2 4x 4, 31, 24 ;
1f ⴰ f 2 1x 2
x
, x 1, x 12;
4 x2 2x 1
a g b 1x 2 , 11, 24 1g ⴰ g2 1x2 4x 3, 1q, q 2
f
B1x
39. 1f ⴰ g 2 1x2 2x苵, 30, q 2 ; 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2 2x苵, 3 0, q 2 ;
12 12
6x 8
5. 1f g2 1x 2 2
1f ⴰ f 2 1x 2 1 x, 1q, q 2 ; 1g ⴰ g2 1x 2 2x苵, 30, q 2
, x 4, x 0; 9 16
x 4x
2x 8
1f g 2 1x 2 2 , x 4, x 0; 41. 1f ⴰ g ⴰ h 2 1x2 2x 1 1
x 4x 43. 1f ⴰ g ⴰ h2 1x 2 1 1x 52 4 1
1fg2 1x 2 2 45. g1x 2 x 9, f 1x 2 x 5
8
, x 4, x 0;
x 4x
47. g1x 2 x 2, f 1x2 x/1x 42
x4
a g b 1x 2
f
2x
, x 4, x 0 49. g1x 2 1 x 3, f 1x2 0 x 0
7. [0, 1] 9. 13, q 2 51. h1x 2 x 2, g1x2 x 1, f 1x 2 1/x
53. h1x 2 1x, g1x2 4 x, f 1x 2 x 9
3
55. R1x 2 0.15x 0.000002x 2

57. (a) g1t 2 60t (b) f 1r 2 pr 2 59. Not one-to-one

(c) 1f ⴰ g2 1t 2 3600pt 2 59. A1t 2 16pt 2 10
61. (a) f 1x 2 0.9x (b) g1x2 x 100

(c) f ⴰ g1x 2 0.9x 90, g ⴰ f 1x2 0.9x 100, f ⴰ g: first
rebate, then discount, g ⴰ f: first discount, then rebate, g ⴰ f is _5 15
the better deal

_10
61. (a) f 1 1x 2 x 2
1. No 3. Yes 5. No 7. Yes 9. Yes 11. No
(b) 4
13. No 15. No 17. (a) 2 (b) 3 19. 1
31. f 1 1x 2 12 1x 12 33. f 1 1x2 14 1x 7 2
f
35. f 1 1x 2 2x 37. f 1 1x2 11/x2 2

f −1
39. f 1 1x 2 15x 1 2 /12x 3 2

_4 4
41. f 1 1x 2 15 1x 2 22 , x 0
43. f 1 1x 2 14 x, x
4 45. f 1 1x2 1x 4 2 3
_4
47. f 1x 2 x 2x, x 1 49. f

1 2 1
1x2 1x4 63. (a) g 1 1x 2 x 2 3, x 0
51. (a) (b) (b) 4
y y g
_4 4
2 5
g−1
f–¡
_5 0 5 x
_4
f
65. x 0, f 1 1x 2 24 x
_5 0 3 x
67. x 2, h 1 1x 2 1x 2
_5 _2
69.
y
(c) f 1x 2
1
3 1x
1
62
53. (a) (b)
1
y y
0 1 x
2 f 2 f–¡
_2 0 2 x _2 0 2 x 71. (a) f1x 2 500 80x (b) f 1 1x 2 801 1x 5002 , the

_1 _1
number of hours worked as a function of the fee (c) 9; if he
charges $1220, he worked 9 h
(c) f 1 1x 2 x 2 1, x 0 73. (a) √1 1t2 0.25
t
(b) 0.498; at a
55. Not one-to-one 57. One-to-one B 18,500
distance 0.498 from the central axis, the velocity is 30
75. (a) F 1 1x 2 59 1x 322 ; the Celsius temperature when the
Fahrenheit temperature is x (b) F 1 186 2 30; when the
3 20
temperature is 86F, it is 30C

if 0
x
20,000
77. (a) f 1x 2 e
_2 2 _4 16 0.1x
2000 0.21x 20,0002 if x 20,000
if 0
x
2000
(b) f 1 1x 2 e
10x
_3 _20
10,000 5x if x 2000
If you pay x euros in taxes, your income is f 1 1x 2 .
(c) f 1 110,000 2 60,000 79. f 1 1x 2 12 1x 72 . A pizza
costing x dollars has f 1 1x 2 toppings.
Answers to Chapter 2 Review A17
Chapter 2 Review ■ page 234 35. 37.

1. 6, 2, 18, a 2 4a 6, a 2 4a 6, x 2 2x 3,
4x 2 8x 6, 2x 2 8x 10 3. (a) 1, 2 (b) 34, 54
250 2
(c) 34, 44 (d) Increasing on 34, 2 4 and 31, 4 4; decreas-

ing on 32, 14 and 3 4, 54 (e) No 5. Domain 33, q 2 ,
range 3 0, q 2 7. 1q, q 2 9. 34, q 2
_10 10
11. 5x 0 x 2,1, 06 13. 1q, 1 4 傼 3 1, 4 4

_30 5
15. 17. _20 _2
y y
1
3 2 39. 3 2.1, 0.2 4 傼 31.9, q 2 41. 5 43.
313 h2
Increasing on 1q, 04 ,
_5 0 5 t
_5 0 5 x 45. 10
32.67, q 2 ; decreasing on
3 0, 2.674
_3
_5
_2 6
19. 21.
y y _10
5 47. (a) Shift upward 8 units (b) Shift left 8 units

1
(c) Stretch vertically by a factor of 2, then shift upward
_1 0 1 5 x 1 unit (d) Shift right 2 units and downward 2 units
_5 0 5 x (e) Reflect in y-axis (f) Reflect in y-axis, then in x-axis
(g) Reflect in x-axis (h) Reflect in line y x
(3, _3) 49. (a) Neither (b) Odd (c) Even (d) Neither
51. f 1x 2 1x 2 2 2 3 53. g112 7 55. 68 ft
_5
23. 25. 57. Local maximum ⬇ 3.79 when x ⬇ 0.46; local

y y
minimum ⬇ 2.81 when x ⬇ 0.46
59.
3
2
A/C
sales
_5 0 5 x
_3 0 3 x
_3
_2 Jan. Apr. Jul. Oct. Month
13 2 5 13
27. 29. 61. (a) A1x 2 5 13x x (b) 5 cm by cm
2 2
63. (a) 1f g2 1x2 x 6x 6
y y 2
5 (b) 1f g2 1x 2 x 2 2
(c) 1fg2 1x 2 3x 3 13x 2 18x 8
1 (d) 1f/g2 1x 2 1x 2 3x 2 2/14 3x 2
_3 0 3 x _5 0 5 x (e) 1f ⴰ g2 1x2 9x 2 15x 6
(f) 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2 3x 2 9x 2
31. 33. (iii) 65. 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 3x 2 6x 1, 1q, q 2 ;
y 1g ⴰ f 2 1x 2 9x 2 12x 3, 1q, q 2 ;
1f ⴰ f 2 1x 2 9x 4, 1q, q 2 ;
1g ⴰ g2 1x 2 x 4 4x 3 6x 2 4x, 1q, q 2
67. 1f ⴰ g ⴰ h2 1x 2 1 1x
3
69. Yes 71. No 73. No

x2
75. f 1 1x 2 77. f 1 1x 2 1
0 x 3
_5 1
x1
3
79. (a), (b) y (b) y
f
3 3
f –¡
_5 0 5 x _5 0 5 x
f
_3 _3
f –¡
(c) f 1 1x 2 1x 4 11. (a) Domain 30, 6 4, range 3 1, 74

(b) y
Chapter 2 Test ■ page 237
1. (a) and (b) are graphs of functions, (a) is one-to-one
2. (a) 2/3, 16/5, 1a/1a 1 2 (b) 31, 02 傼 10, q 2
3. 5
4. (a) (b)
1
y y
0 x
3 1
3
0
x
_5 5 _5 0 5 x
(c) 54
_3 _3
12. (a) 20 (b) No
_4 4
5. (a) Shift right 3 units, then shift upward 2 units

(b) Reflect in y-axis
6. (a) f 1x 2 21x 2 2 2 5
_30
(b) y (c) f 12 2 5 (c) Local minimum ⬇ 27.18 when x ⬇ 1.61;

local maximum ⬇ 2.55 when x ⬇ 0.18;
local minimum ⬇ 11.93 when x ⬇ 1.43
(d) 3 27.18, q 2 (e) Increasing on
31.61, 0.184 傼 31.43, q 2 ; decreasing on
9
(2, 5) 1q, 1.614 傼 30.18, 1.43 4
0 x
_5 5 Focus on Modeling ■ page 243
1. (a) y
7. (a) 3, 3 (b) y
180 Regression line
Height (cm)
2 170
_5 0 5 x 160
_2
150
8. (a) A1x 2 3x 2 900x (b) 150 ft

0 35 40 45 50 55 x
9. (a) 1f ⴰ g2 1x 2 1x 3 2 2 1 (b) 1g ⴰ f2 1x 2 x 2 2
Femur length (cm)
(c) 2 (d) 2 (e) 1g ⴰ g ⴰ g2 1x 2 x 9 (b) y 1.8807x 82.65

10. (a) f 1 1x 2 3 x 2, x 0
(c) 191.7 cm
3. (a) y 11. (a) y 0.1729x 64.717, y 0.269x 78.667

100 (b) 2039 y
80
80
Age (yr)
Record time (s)

60
Regression line 70
40
60
20
50
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 x
Diameter (in.)
0 20 40 60 80 100 x
(b) y 6.451x 0.1523 (c) 116 years Years since 1900
5. (a) y
Chapter 3
200
Chirping rate (chirps/min)
Regression line
1. (a) (b)
150
y y
100 2 16
0 2 x
50 _2
0 x _4 _2 0 4 x
50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°F)
(c) (d)
(b) y 4.857x 220.97 (c) 265 chirps/min y y
7. (a) y
25
Mosquito positive rate (%)
2 8
20
Regression line
0 1 x _1 0 2 x
15 _1
_2
10
3. (a) (b)
5
y y
4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 x
Flow rate (%) _2 0 2 x
(b) y 0.168x 19.89 (c) 8.13%

_8 27
9. (a) y _3 _9
0 x
80
Life expectancy (years)
75
70 (c) (d)
y y
65
60
4
55 4
_2 0 1 x
0 1 x
0 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 x _1
_8
(b) y 0.2708x 462.9 (c) 78.2 years

5. III 7. V 9. VI 31. P1x 2 12x 1 2 1x 32 1x 32

11. 13. y
y y
1 10 10 9
−2 0 1 x −2 0 2 3 x 0 x
_2 2 3
1
_3 2
_20
33. P1x 2 1x 2 2 2 1x 2 2x 42
15. 17. y
y y
20
1 16
12
_1 0 1 3 x
5
_2 _1 0 2 x
0 x
2 3 _3 _2 2
3
_15
35. P1x 2 1x 2 12 1x 22 1x 2 2
y
19. 21.
y y
2
_1 0 1 x
_2 _2 2
3
4
10 _4
_1 0 1 3 x
0 x
37. y 씮 q as x 씮 q, y 씮 q as x 씮 q
_4 4
_30 39. y 씮 q as x 씮 q
41. y 씮 q as x 씮 q, y 씮 q as x 씮 q
(a) x-intercepts 0, 4; y-intercept 0 (b) 12, 4 2
23. P1x 2 x1x 2 2 1x 3 2 25. P1x 2 x1x 32 1x 42
43.
45. (a) x-intercepts 2, 1; y-intercept 1
11, 22, 11, 02
y y
(b)
4 47. 30 local maximum 14, 162
10
_4 0 4 x 4 _4 12
_2 3 _1 0 1 x
_4 _3
_10
_50
49. 51.
27. P1x 2 x 2 1x 1 2 1x 2 2 29. P1x 2 1x 12 2 1x 12 30 30
y y
1
1 _5 5 _5 5
_1 0 1 x
_1 0 1 2 x _30 _30
local maximum 12, 252 , local minimum 13, 27 2

_1
_1
local minimum 12, 72
53. 73. (d) P1x 2 PO 1x 2 PE 1x 2 , where PO 1x 2 x 5 6x 3 2x

10 local maximum 11, 52 , and PE 1x 2 x 2 5
local minimum 11, 12 75. (a) Two local extrema 10
_3 3
1 6
_5
−12
55. One local maximum, no local minimum
57. One local maximum, one local minimum 77. (a) 26 blenders (b) No; $3276.22
59. One local maximum, two local minima 79. (a) V1x 2 4x 3 120x 2 800x (b) 0 x 10
61. No local extrema (c) Maximum volume ⬇ 1539.6 cm3
63. One local maximum, two local minima 1600
65.
5 c=5 Increasing the value of c
stretches the graph vertically.
c=2
c=1
_1 1 c= 1
2
0 10
0
_5
1. 1x 32 13x 42 8 3. 12x 3 2 1x 2 12 3
67. 5. 1x 2 32 1x 2 x 3 2 17x 112
c=2 Increasing the value of c 11
7. x 1
c=1
5 c=0 moves the graph up.
c=_1 x3
152 4x 4
9. 2x 12 11. 2x 2 x 1 2
2x 1 x 4
_1.5 1.5
In answers 13–36, the first polynomial given is the

_3
quotient and the second is the remainder.
69. 13. x 2, 16 15. 2x 2 1, 2 17. x 2, 8x 1
c=1 Increasing the value of c 19. 3x 1, 7x 5 21. x 4 1, 0 23. x 2, 2
c=0 c=8
causes a deeper dip in the 25. 3x 23, 138 27. x 2 2, 3 29. x 2 3x 1, 1
10 c=27
graph in the fourth quadrant and 31. x 4 x 3 4x 2 4x 4, 2 33. 2x 2 4x, 1
_2 4 moves the positive x-intercept to 35. x 2 3x 9, 0 37. 3 39. 12 41. 7 43. 483
the right. 45. 2159 47. 73 49. 8.279 55. 1 16
57. x 3 3x 2 x 3 59. x 4 8x 3 14x 2 8x 15
61. 32 x 3 3x 2 152 x 9 63. 1x 12 1x 12 1x 22
65. 1x 22 2 1x 12 2
_40
71. (a) y Section 3.3 ■ page 279

1. 1, 3 3. 1, 2, 4, 8, 12
10
5. 1, 7, 12, 72, 14, 74 7. (a) 1, 15 (b) 1, 1, 15
9. (a) 1, 3, 12, 32 (b) 12, 1, 3 11. 2, 1
_3 0 3 x 13. 1, 2 15. 2 17. 1, 2, 3 19. 1 21. 1, 2
23. 1, 1, 2, 4 25. 2, 32 27. 2 29. 1, 12 , 21
_10
31. 32 , 21 , 1 33. 52 , 1, 32 35. 1, 12 , 2 37. 3, 2, 1, 3
39. 1, 13 , 2, 5 41. 2, 1 12
3 213 1 15 1 13
(b) Three (c) 10, 2 2 , 13, 82 , 12, 12 2 43. 1, 4,
2
45. 3,
2
47. 12 ,
2
49. 1, 12, 3 110 51. A3 15B A3 15Bi 53. 2 55. i 12 57. 3i
51. (a) 2, 2, 3 (b) y
1 13 3 13
59. 2 i 61. i 63. 1
2 12 i 65. i
2 2 2 2
6 16i
67. 69. 1 3i
5 6
_1 0 1 x Section 3.5 ■ page 298

1. (a) 0, 2i (b) x 2 1x 2i2 1x 2i2
53. (a) 12, 2 (b) 3. (a) 0, 1 i (b) x1x 1 i2 1x 1 i 2

(b) 1x i2 2 1x i2 2
y
5. (a) i
20 7. (a) 2, 2i (b) 1x 22 1x 22 1x 2i 2 1x 2i2
0 2 x 9. (a) 2, 1 i 13
_20 (b) 1x 22 Ax 1 i 13B Ax 1 i 13B
11. (a) 1, 12 12 i 13, 12 12 i 13
(b) 1x 1 2 1x 1 2 Ax 12 12 i 13B Ax 12 12 i 13B
55. (a) 1, 2 (b)
Ax 12 12 i 13B Ax 12 12 i 13B
y
0 x
In answers 13–30, the factored form is given first, then the
_1 2
zeros are listed with the multiplicity of each in parentheses.
13. 1x 5i 2 1x 5i 2; 5i 112
_5
15. 3x 11 i 2 4 3x 11 i2 4; 1 i 11 2, 1 i 112

17. x1x 2i2 1x 2i2 ; 0 112 , 2i 112 , 2i 112
19. 1x 12 1x 12 1x i2 1x i2 ; 1 11 2, 1 112 , i 11 2 , i 112
57. (a) 1, 2 (b) y
5 21. 16Ax 32 B Ax 32 B Ax 32 iB Ax 32 iB;

3
2 11 2, 32 11 2, 32 i 11 2, 32 i 11 2
23. 1x 12 1x 3i2 1x 3i2 ; 1 11 2, 3i 112 , 3i 112
_1 0 1 x
_5
25. 1x i2 2 1x i2 2; i 12 2, i 122
27. 1x 1 2 1x 1 2 1x 2i2 1x 2i2 ; 1 11 2, 1 11 2,
59. 1 positive, 2 or 0 negative; 3 or 1 real 2i 112, 2i 11 2
61. 1 positive, 1 negative; 2 real 63. 2 or 0 positive, 0 nega- 29. xAx i 13B 2 Ax i 13B 2; 0 11 2, i 13 12 2, i 13 12 2
tive; 3 or 1 real (since 0 is a zero but is neither positive nor neg- 31. P1x 2 x 2 2x 2 33. Q1x 2 x 3 3x 2 4x 12
ative) 69. 3, 2 71. 3, 1 73. 2, 12 , 1 75. 12 , 15
35. P1x 2 x 3 2x 2 x 2
77. 2, 1, 3, 4 83. 2, 2, 3 85. 32 , 1, 1, 4
87. 1.28, 1.53 89. 1.50 93. 11.3 ft 95. (a) It began 37. R1x 2 x 4 4x 3 10x 2 12x 5
to snow again. (b) No (c) Just before midnight on Saturday 39. T1x 2 6x 4 12x 3 18x 2 12x 12
night 97. 2.76 m 99. 88 in. (or 3.21 in.)
1 i 13 1 i 13
41. 2, 2i 43. 1, 45. 2,
2 2
47. 32, 1 i 12 49. 2, 1, 3i 51. 1, 2i, i 13
1. Real part 5, imaginary part 7 3. Real part 23, imaginary
part 53 5. Real part 3, imaginary part 0 7. Real part 0, 53. 3 (multiplicity 2), 2i 55. 12 1multiplicity 22, i
imaginary part 23 9. Real part 13, imaginary part 2 57. 1 (multiplicity 3), 3i 59. (a) 1x 5 2 1x 2 42
11. 5 i 13. 3 5i 15. 6 i 17. 2 2i (b) 1x 5 2 1x 2i2 1x 2i2
19. 19 4i 21. 14 12 i 23. 4 8i 25. 30 10i 61. (a) 1x 1 2 1x 1 2 1x 2 92
27. 33 56i 29. 27 8i 31. i 33. 85 15 i
(b) 1x 1 2 1x 12 1x 3i 2 1x 3i2
35. 5 12i 37. 4 2i 39. 2 43 i 41. i
63. (a) 1x 2 2 1x 2 2 1x 2 2x 4 2 1x 2 2x 42
43. i 45. 1 47. 5i 49. 6
(b) 1x 2 2 1x 2 2 3 x A1 i 13B 4 3x A1 i 13B 4 35. y x-intercept 43

3 x A1 i 13B 4 3x A1 i 13B 4 5 y-intercept 47
65. (a) 4 real (b) 2 real, 2 imaginary (c) 4 imaginary 0
5
vertical x 7
_10 x
_5
horizontal y 3
1. (a) 3, 19, 199, 1999; 5, 21, 201, 2001; 1.2500,
1.0417, 1.0204, 1.0020; 0.8333, 0.9615, 0.9804, 0.9980
(b) r1x 2 씮 q as x 씮 2; r1x 2 씮 q as x 씮 2
(c) Horizontal asymptote y 1 37. y y-intercept 2
3. (a) 22, 430, 40,300, 4,003,000; vertical x 3
10, 370, 39,700, 3,997,000; horizontal y 0
0.3125, 0.0608, 0.0302, 0.0030;
0.2778, 0.0592, 0.0298, 0.0030
(b) r1x 2 씮 q as x 씮 2; r1x2 씮 q as x 씮 2 10
(c) Horizontal asymptote y 0
5. x-intercept 1, y-intercept 14 7. x-intercepts 1, 2; 0 3 x
y-intercept 31 9. x-intercepts 3, 3; no y-intercept

11. x-intercept 3, y-intercept 3, vertical x 2; 39. y x-intercept 2
horizontal y 2 13. x-intercepts 1, 1; y-intercept 14 ; y-intercept 2
vertical x 2, x 2; horizontal y 1 vertical x 1, x 4
15. Vertical x 2; horizontal y 0 17. Vertical x 3, 5 horizontal y 0
x 2; horizontal y 1 19. Horizontal y 0 0 1 x
21. Vertical x 6, x 1; horizontal y 0
23. Vertical x 1
25. 27.
y y
41. y y-intercept 1
5 vertical x 1, x 6
1 horizontal y 0
_1 0 x
2
0 1 x 2
0 x
29. 31.
43. y x-intercept 2
y y
y-intercept 34
vertical x 4, x 2
5 2 2
0
horizontal y 0
0 x 3 x
2 −3 0 2 x
−2
33. y x-intercept 1 45. y x-intercepts 2, 1

y-intercept 2 y-intercept 23
vertical x 2 6
vertical x 1, x 3
5 horizontal y 4 horizontal y 1
0
_4 4 x _6 0 6 x
_5
_6
47. y x-intercept 1 59. y slant y x 2

y-intercept 1 vertical x 0
vertical x 1 10
6 horizontal y 1
_6 0 6 x
_6 0 6 x _10
49. y x-intercepts 6, 1

y-intercept 2 61. y slant y x 8
6
vertical x 3, x 2 30
vertical x 3
horizontal y 2
_6 0 6 x
_10
0 10 x
_6
_4 _1
51. y x-intercepts 2, 3 _30
vertical x 3, x 0
6
horizontal y 1
63. y slant y x 1,
vertical x 2, x 2
_6 0 6 x
30
_6
_6
0 6 x
53. y y-intercept 2
vertical x 1, x 3
horizontal y 3
10
65. 30 vertical x 3
_6 0 6 x
_10 10
55. y x-intercept 1 _30

vertical x 0, x 3
horizontal y 0
67. 60 vertical x 2
1 2
0 x
_10 10
_30
57. y slant y x 2
vertical x 2
69. 10 vertical x 1.5
10 x-intercepts 0, 2.5
y-intercept 0, local
maximum 13.9, 10.4 2
_10 10
0 x
local minimum 10.9, 0.6 2
_6 6
_10
end behavior: y x 4
_20
71. 10 vertical x 1 5. y
x-intercept 0
y-intercept 0
local minimum 11.4, 3.12
100
31
_3 3 end behavior: y x 2 _1 0 1 x
_100
_5
73. 100 vertical x 3

x-intercepts 1.6, 2.7
7. 10 x-intercepts 2.1, 0.3, 1.9
y-intercept 2
y-intercept 1
local maximum 11.2, 4.12
_5 5 local maxima
10.4, 1.8 2 , 12.4, 3.8 2 ,
_3 3 local minimum 11.2, 2.12
local minima
10.6, 2.3 2 , 13.4, 54.32
_100
y 씮 q as x 씮 q
y 씮 q as x 씮 q
end behavior y x 3
_10
75. (a) (b) It levels off at 3000.

4000
9. 30 x-intercepts 0.1, 2.1
y-intercept 1
local minimum 11.4, 14.52
_2 3 y 씮 q as x 씮 q
y 씮 q as x 씮 q
0 30
_20
11. (a) S 13.8x1100 x 2 2

77. (a) 2.50 mg/L (b) It decreases to 0. (c) 16.61 h
(b) 0
x
10
79. 5000 If the speed of the train (c) 6000 (d) 5.8 in.
approaches the speed of
sound, then the pitch increases
indefinitely (a sonic boom).
0 400 10
0
Chapter 3 Review ■ page 316 In answers 13–20, the first polynomial given is the
1. y quotient and the second is the remainder.
13. x 1, 3 15. x 2 3x 23, 94
300
17. x 3 5x 2 17x 83, 422
64 19. 2x 3, 12
21. 3 25. 8
_4 0 4 x
27. (a) 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 18
(b) 2 or 0 positive, 3 or 1 negative
_300 29. (a) 4, 0, 4
(b) y
3. y
30
0 4 x
_4 _30
200
_3 1 x
(_1, _32) _30
_200
31. (a) 2, 0 (multiplicity 2), 1 (b) y 71. 20 x-intercept 3

y-intercept 0.5
vertical x 3
_10 10 horizontal y 0.5
no local extrema
4
0 x _20
_2 1
_4
73. 30 x-intercept 2
33. (a) 2, 1, 2, 3 (b) y y-intercept 4
vertical x 1, x 2
_6 6 slant y x 1
local maximum
20 10.425, 3.599 2
_30 local minimum
0 x 14.216, 7.1752
_2 2
75. 12, 282 , 11, 262 , 12, 682 , 15, 7702

_10
35. (a) 12, 1 (b) y

1. y
10
40 19
_1 1 x
_10
_2 0 1 x
37. 3 i 39. 8 i 41. 6

43. i 45. 2
5
8
5i
_40
47. 4x 3 18x 2 14x 12 49. No; since the complex

conjugates of imaginary zeros will also be zeros, the 2. (a) x 3 2x 2 2, 9 (b) x 3 2x 2 12, 152
polynomial would have 8 zeros, contradicting the requirement 3. (a) 1, 3, 12, 32 (b) 21x 32 Ax 12 B 1x 1 2
that it have degree 4. 51. 3, 1, 5 53. 1 2i, 2 (c) 1, 12 , 3
(multiplicity 2) 55. 2, 1 (multiplicity 3) (d) y
57. 2, 1 i 13
1 i 17
59. 1, 3, 61. x 0.5, 3 63. x ⬇ 0.24, 4.24 10
2 1
65. 67. 0 x
y y
10 3 0.25
_5 0 5 x _6 0 6 x
4. (a) 7 i (b) 1 5i (c) 18 i (d) 256 17 25 i
_12
4 (e) 1 (f) 6 2i 5. 3, 1 i
6. 1x 12 2 1x 2i2 1x 2i 2 7. x 4 2x 3 10x 2 18x 9
_20
_6
8. (a) 4, 2, or 0 positive; 0 negative
(c) 0.17, 3.93 80
69. y
2
_5 0 5 x _3 5
_3 3
_80
_9
(d) Local minimum 12.8, 70.32 9. (a) r, u (b) s (c) s
(d) (e) x 2 2x 5 9. 11.

y 60 y y
(2, 22.17)
6
_10 10 y=2_x
6
25
y=2x
_6 0 6 x
_3 2 _60
3
1
_6 0 x 0 x
_2 2 −2 2
13.
y=7˛
Focus on Modeling ■ page 323 y y=4˛
1. (a) y 0.275428x 2 19.7485x 273.5523

(b) 82
2
1
_2 0 2 x
25 46
15. f 1x 2 3x 17. f 1x 2 A 14 B 19. III 21. I 23. II
48 x
(c) 35.85 lb/in2 3. (a) y 0.00203708x 3 25. ⺢, 1q, 02 , y 0 27. ⺢, 13, q 2 , y 3

0.104521x 2 1.966206x 1.45576 y
y
(b) 22
0 x 3
_2 2
_1
_5 0 5 x
(1, _1)
(1, _3)
0 30
0 _5
(c) 43 vegetables (d) 2.0 s 5. (a) Degree 2

(b) y 16.0x 2 51.8429x 4.20714
29. ⺢, 14, q 2 , y 4 31. ⺢, 10, q 2 , y 0
48
y y
1000
(_1, 6)
0 3.1
0 (c) 0.3 s and 2.9 s (d) 46.2 ft

1
(_3, 1)
_5 0 5 x
0 x
Chapter 4 _2 2
Section 4.1 ■ page 336 33. ⺢, 1q, 02 , y 0 35. ⺢, 11, q 2 , y 1

1. 2.000, 7.103, 77.880, 1.587 3. 0.885, 0.606, 0.117, 1.837 y y
5. 7.
_2 0 1 x
y y
_1
(_1, 1.72)
1
(1, _2.72)
(2, 4) (_2, 9)
_1 0 2 x
2
1 3
1
_2 0 2 x
_2 0 2 x
37. ⺢, 10, q 2 , y 0 39. y 312x 2 55. 57. (a)

y 4 a=0.5
a=1
5 a=1.5
e a=2
1 (2, 1)
0 40
0 x _3 3
1
_1
41. (a) 45. (b) The larger the value of a,

y y the wider the graph.
˝=3(2˛)
59.
20 vertical asymptote x 0
5
horizontal asymptote y 0,
Ï=2˛
left side only
2 _5 5
_2 0 2 x
_2 0 2 x
_20
61. Local minimum ⬇ 10.27, 1.752 63. (a) Increasing on

1q, 1.004 , decreasing on 31.00, q 2 (b) 1q, 0.374
(b) The graph of g is steeper
than that of f.
65. (a) 13 kg (b) 6.6 kg
51. (a)
67. (a) 0 (b) 50.6 ft/s, 69.2 ft/s
(i) 20 (ii) 10¶ (c) (d) 80 ft/s
Ï=2˛ 100
˝=x∞ Ï=2˛
˝=x∞
5 25
0 0
100
0
(iii) 10•
69. (a) 100 (b) 482, 999, 1168 (c) 1200 71. 1.6 ft
Ï=2˛
73. $5203.71, $5415.71, $5636.36, $5865.99, $6104.98,
$6353.71 75. (a) $16,288.95 (b) $26,532.98
˝=x∞
(c) $43,219.42 77. (a) $4,615.87 (b) $4,658.91
50
(c) $4,697.04 (d) $4,703.11 (e) $4,704.68 (f) $4,704.93
0
(g) $4,704.94 79. (i) 81. (a) $7,678.96 (b) $67,121.04
The graph of f ultimately increases much more quickly than g.
(b) 1.2, 22.4 Section 4.2 ■ page 349
53.
c=4 c=2 The larger the value of c, the 1. Logarithmic form Exponential form
5 c=1 more rapidly the graph
c=0.5 increases. log8 8 1 81 8
c=0.25 log8 64 2 82 64
_3 3 log8 4 23 82/3 4
_1
log8 512 3 83 512
log8 81 1 81 18
log8 641 2 82 641

3. (a) 52 25 (b) 50 1 5. (a) 81/3 2 (b) 23 18 67. 3 domain 10, q 2

7. (a) ex 5 (b) e5 y 9. (a) log5 125 3 vertical asymptote x 0
(b) log10 0.0001 4 11. (a) log8 81 1 _1 3 no maximum or minimum
(b) log2 81 3 13. (a) ln 2 x (b) ln y 3
15. (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 2 17. (a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 10
19. (a) 3 (b) 12 (c) 1 21. (a) 37 (b) 8 (c) 15
23. (a) 23 (b) 4 (c) 1 25. (a) 32 (b) 4 _6
27. (a) 5 (b) 27 29. (a) 100 (b) 25 31. (a) 2 (b) 4 69. 1 domain 10, q 2
33. (a) 0.3010 (b) 1.5465 (c) 0.1761 35. (a) 1.6094 vertical asymptote x 0
(b) 3.2308 (c) 1.0051 37. y log5 x 39. y log9 x _1 20
horizontal asymptote y 0
41. II 43. III 45. VI local maximum ⬇ 12.72, 0.37 2
47. 49. 14, q 2, ⺢, x 4
y y
5 _3
y=4˛
1
71. The graph of f grows more slowly than g.
73. (a) c=4 (b) The graph of
f 1x2 log1cx2 is
2.6
y=ø› x 0 x c=3
1
_1 c=2
c=1 the graph of
f 1x2 log1x2
_2 0 5 x
_2 shifted upward
_10 100 log c units.
51. 1q, 02 , ⺢, x 0 53. 10, q 2,⺢, x 0

_1
75. (a) 11, q 2 (b) f1 1x 2 102

x
77. (a) f 1 1x 2 log2 a b (b) 10, 12

y y x
1 1x
79. 2602 yr 81. 11.5 yr, 9.9 yr, 8.7 yr 83. 5.32, 4.32
0 1 x (1, 2)
1
0 x Section 4.3 ■ page 356

1
1. 32 3. 2 5. 3 7. 3 9. 200 11. 4 13. 1 log2 x
15. log2 x log2 1x 12 17. 10 log 6 19. log2 A 2 log2 B
55. 10, q 2 ,⺢, x 0 57. 10, q 2, 3 0, q 2 , x 0 21. log3 x 12 log3 y 23. 13 log5 1x 2 12 25. 12 1ln a ln b 2
27. 3 log x 4 log y 6 log z
29. log2 x log2 1x 2 12 12 log2 1x 2 12
y y
31. ln x 12 1ln y ln z 2 33. 14 log1x 2 y 2 2

(1, 1) 35. 12 3log1x 2 42 log1x 2 12 2 log1x 3 72 4
37. 3 ln x 12 ln1x 12 ln13x 4 2 39. log3 160
1
1
x4 1x 12 2
0 x
41. log2 1AB/C 2 2 43. log a 3 b 45. ln15x 2 1x 2 52 3 2

2
0 1 x
2x2 1
47. log a1
3
2x 1 21x 4 2/1x4 x2 12 b
59. 13, q 2 61. 1q, 12 傼 11, q 2 63. 10, 22
49. 2.321928 51. 2.523719 53. 0.493008 55. 3.482892
65. 1 domain 11, 1 2 57.
vertical asymptotes x 1, 2
_2 2 x 1
local maximum 10, 0 2
_1 4
_2
_3
63. (a) P c/W k (b) 1866, 64
65. (a) M 2.5 log B 2.5 log B0
Section 4.4 ■ page 366 5. 11, q 2 , ⺢, x 1 7. 10, q 2, ⺢, x 0

1. 1.3979 3. 0.9730 5. 0.5850 7. 1.2040 y y
9. 0.0767 11. 0.2524 13. 1.9349 15. 43.0677
17. 2.1492 19. 6.2126 21. 2.9469 23. 2.4423
1
25. 14.0055 27. 1 29. 0, 43 31. ln 2 ⬇ 0.6931, 0 (1, 2)
33. 12 ln 3 ⬇ 0.5493 35. e10 ⬇ 22026 37. 0.01 0 5 x
_1 1
39. 953 41. 3 e2 ⬇ 4.3891 43. 5 45. 5
47. 13
12 49. 6 51. 32 53. 1/ 15 ⬇ 0.4472 55. 2.21 0 1 x
57. 0.00, 1.14 59. 0.57 61. 0.36

63. 2 x 4 or 7 x 9 65. log 2 x log 5
67. (a) $6435.09 (b) 8.24 yr 69. 6.33 yr 71. 8.15 yr 9. ⺢, 11, q 2 , y 1 11. 10, q 2, ⺢, x 0
73. 8.30% 75. 13 days 77. (a) 7337 (b) 1.73 yr
79. (a) P P0ekh (b) 56.47 kPa y y
81. (a) t 135 ln11 13

60 I2 (b) 0.218 s
1 1
Section 4.5 ■ page 379 0 0 5 x
1 x
1. (a) 500 (b) 45% (c) 1929 (d) 6.66 h
3. (a) n1t 2 18,000e 0.08t (b) 34,137
(c) n(t)
Aq, 12 B 15. 1q, 22 傼 12, q 2 17. 210 1024

60,000
13.
40,000
19. 10y x 21. log2 64 6 23. log 74 x 25. 7
20,000 27. 45 29. 6 31. 3 33. 12 35. 2 37. 92
39. 2
41. log A 2 log B 3 log C
2 3ln1x 12 ln1x 12 4
3
t 1 2 2
2002 2004 2006 2008 43.
45. 2 log5 x 2 log5 11 5x 2 12 log5 1x 3 x 2
3
5. (a) n1t 2 112,000e 0.04t (b) About 142,000

1x y2 3/2 x2 4
(c) 2008 7. (a) 20,000 (b) n1t2 20,000e 0.1096t 47. log 96 49. log2 a b 51. log a b
(c) About 48,000 (d) 2010 9. (a) n1t2 8600e 0.1508t 1x 2 y 2 2 2
2x 2 4
(b) About 11,600 (c) 4.6 h 11. (a) 2029 53. 15 55. 3 15 log5 262 ⬇ 0.99
1
57. 43 ln 10 ⬇ 3.07
(b) 2049 13. 22.85 h 15. (a) n1t2 10e 0.0231t 59. 3 61. 4, 2 63. 0.430618 65. 2.303600
(b) 1.6 g (c) 70 yr 17. 18 yr 19. 149 h
21. 3560 yr 23. (a) 210 F (b) 153 F 67. 10 vertical asymptote
(c) 28 min 25. (a) 137 F (b) 116 min 27. (a) 2.3 x 2
(b) 3.5 (c) 8.3 29. (a) 103 M (b) 3.2 107 M horizontal asymptote
31. 4.8
pH
6.4 33. log 20 ⬇ 1.3 y 2.72
35. Twice as intense 37. 8.2 39. 6.3 103 W/m2 no maximum or minimum
_20 20
41. (b) 106 dB
_1
Chapter 4 Review ■ page 383 69. 1.5 vertical asymptotes

1. ⺢, 10, q 2 , y 0 3. ⺢, 13, q 2, y 3 x 1, x 0, x 1
local maximum
y y _1.5 2.5 ⬇ 10.58,0.41 2
_1.5
4 71. 2.42 73. 0.16 x 3.15 75. Increasing on 1q, 04

2 and 31.10, q 2 , decreasing on 30, 1.104 77. 1.953445
79. log4 258 81. (a) $16,081.15 (b) $16,178.18
−3 0 3 x −3 0 x
3
(c) $16,197.64 (d) $16,198.31 83. (a) n1t2 30e 0.15t
(b) 55 (c) 19 yr 85. (a) 9.97 mg (b) 1.39 105 yr
Answers to Focus on Modeling A31
87. (a) n1t 2 150e 0.0004359t (b) 97.0 mg (c) 2520 yr 3. (a) Yes (b) Yes, the scatter plot appears linear.
89. (a) n1t 2 1500e 0.1515t (b) 7940 91. 7.9, basic 93. 8.0 7.5

1. 2. 11, q 2 , ⺢, x 1
y y
y=2˛
5 −1 32
2 4
y=ø¤ x (c) ln E 4.494411 0.0970921464t, where t is years since
−2 0 1 x 1970 and E is expenditure in billions of dollars
(d) E 89.51543173e at, where a 0.0970921464
0 x
_2 5 (e) 3948.2 billion dollars
_2 5. (a) I0 22.7586444, k 0.1062398
(b) 14 (c) 47.3 ft
3. (a) 23 (b) 3 (c) 23 (d) 2

4. 13 3 log1x 22 4 log x log1x 2 4 2 4
x 23 x4
5. ln a b 6. (a) 4.32 (b) 0.77 (c) 5.39
1x2 1 2 2
(d) 2
7. (a) n1t 2 1000e 2.07944t (b) 22,627 (c) 1.3 h

0 45
(d) 7. (a) y ab t, where a 301.813054, b 0.819745, and t is

y
the number of years since 1970
(b) y at 4 bt 3 ct 2 dt e, where a 0.002430,
b 0.135159, c 2.014322, d 4.055294,
e 199.092227, and t is the number of years since 1970
(c) From the graphs we see that the fourth-degree
10,000 polynomial is a better model.
0 1 2 x 300
8. (a) A1t 2 12,000 a 1 b

0.056 12t
12
(b) $14,195.06 (c) 9.249 yr
9. (a) 5 (b) x 0, y 0
25 (d) 202.8, 27.8; 184.0, 43.5
(c) Local minimum ⬇ 0
13.00, 0.74 2 9. (a)

(d) 1q, 02 傼 30.74, q 2
1.2
_5 10
(e) 0.85, 0.96, 9.92
_5
17
Focus on Modeling ■ page 393 0
1. (a) 290 (b) .5 .5
0 18 0 3
1780 2020
0 −3 −3
(b) y ab t, where a 1.180609 1015, b 1.0204139, and (c) Exponential function

y is the population in millions in the year t (c) 515.9 million (d) y ab x where a 0.057697 and b 1.200236
c
(d) 207.8 million (e) No 11. (a) y , where a 49.10976596,
1 ae bx
b 0.4981144989, and c 500.855793 (b) 10.58 days
Chapter 5 67. sin t 35, cos t 45, csc t 53, sec t 54, cot t 43
69. cos t 115/4, tan t 115/15, csc t 4,
sec t 4 115/15, cot t 115
7. 45 9. 212/3 11. 3 15/7 13. P A 45, 35 B 71. Odd 73. Odd 75. Even 77. Neither
15. PA15/3, 23 B 17. PA 12/3, 17/3B 79. y10 2 4, y10.252 2.828, y10.50 2 0,
19. t p/4, A 12/2, 12/2B ; t p/2, 10, 1 2 ; y10.752 2.828, y11.00 2 4, y11.252 2.828
t 3p/4, A 12/2, 12/2B ; t p, 11, 0 2 ; 81. (a) 0.49870 amp (b) 0.17117 amp
t 5p/4, A12/2, 12/2B ; t 3p/2, 10, 1 2 ;
t 7p/4, A 12/2, 12/2B ; t 2p, 11, 0 2
21. 10, 1 2 23. A 13/2, 12 B 25. A 12, 13/2B 1. 3.
27. A 12, 13/2B 29. A 12/2, 12/2B
y y
31. (a) A 35, 45 B (b) A 35, 45 B (c) A 35, 45 B (d) A 35, 45 B 1
33. (a) p/4 (b) p/3 (c) p/3 (d) p/6

35. (a) 2p/7 (b) 2p/9 (c) p 3 ⬇ 0.14 1 0 π x
(d) 2p 5 ⬇ 1.28 37. (a) p/3 (b) A 12, 13/2B −1

39. (a) p/4 (b) A12/2, 12/2B −π 0 π x
41. (a) p/3 (b) A 12, 13/2B

43. (a) p/4 (b) A12/2, 12/2B 5. 7.
45. (a) p/6 (b) A 13/2, 12 B
y y
47. (a) p/3 (b) A 12, 13/2B 49. (a) p/3

3
−π 0 π x
(b) A 12, 13/2B 51. 10.5, 0.82 53. 10.5, 0.9 2

−2 −π 0 π x

−3
1. t p/4, sin t 12/2, cos t 12/2; t p/2, sin t 1,
cos t 0; t 3p/4, sin t 12/2, cos t 12/2;
9. 11.
t p, sin t 0, cos t 1; t 5p/4,
y y
sin t 12/2, cos t 12/2; t 3p/2, sin t 1,
cos t 0; t 7p/4, sin t 12/2, cos t 12/2; 1
t 2p, sin t 0, cos t 1 3. (a) 13/2 (b) 1/2

(c) 13 5. (a) 1/2 (b) 1/2 (c) 1/2 −π 0 π x
3
7. (a) 12/2 (b) 12/2 (c) 12/2

9. (a) 13/2 (b) 2 13/3 (c) 13/3 −1
−π 0 π x
11. (a) 1 (b) 0 (c) 0 13. (a) 2 (b) 2 13/3 (c) 2
15. (a) 13/3 (b) 13/3 (c) 13/3 13. 15.
17. (a) 12/2 (b) 12 (c) 1 y y
19. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1 21. (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 0
23. sin 0 0, cos 0 1, tan 0 0, sec 0 1, 2 1
2
others undefined 25. sin p 0, cos p 1, tan p 0,
sec p 1, others undefined 27. 45, 35, 43 1 0 π π x
− 21 2
29. 111/4, 15/4, 155/5 31. 113/7, 6/7, 113/6
x −1
33. 1213 , 13 , 5
5 12
29 , 29 , 20
35. 21 20 21
37. (a) 0.8 (b) 0.84147 −π 0 π
39. (a) 0.9 (b) 0.93204 41. (a) 1 (b) 1.02964

43. (a) 0.6 (b) 0.57482 45. Negative 17. 3, 2p/3 19. 10, 4p
47. Negative 49. II 51. II 53. sin t 21 cos2 t y y
55. tan t 1sin t 2 / 21 sin2t 57. sec t 21 tan2t

3
10
59. tan t 2sec2t 1 61. tan2t 1sin2t2 /11 sin2t2

63. cos t 45, tan t 34, csc t 53, sec t 54, cot t 43 0 π
6
π
2
x 0
π x
65. sin t 2 12/3, cos t 13, tan t 2 12, 2
−3
csc t 34 12, cot t 12/4
_10
21. 13, 6p 39. 1, 2p/3, p/3

y y
1
1
1
3
0 3π 6π x
π 0 π x
_3 3
_1
_1
23. 2, 1 25. 12, 2

y y 41. (a) 4, 2p, 0 (b) y 4 sin x
2 43. (a) 3 2p
2, 3 , 0 (b) y 32 cos 3x
2 , p, 3 (b) y 12 cos 21x p/32
1 p
45. (a)
4, 2, 2 3 1x 2 2
(b) y 4 sin 4p
3 1 1
47. (a)
0 1 x 1
49. 51.
4 2
1.5 1.5
0 1 2 x
_2
_0.1 0.1 _250 250

27. 1, 2p, p/2 29. 2, 2p, p/6
y y
1 2 _1.5 _1.5
53. 55.
3 1.2
0 π 5π x 0 π x
13π
2 2 6 6
_0.2 0.2
_1 _2
_0.5 0.5
31. 4, p, p/2 33. 5, 2p/3, p/12 _3 _0.2
y y
4 5 57.
7
0
π π x 0 π 3π x _6.28 6.28
_4 4 12 4
_4 _5 _7
59. 225 y x 2 sin x is a sine curve

35. 12 , p, p/6 37. 3, 2, 12 that lies between the graphs
y y
of y x 2 and y x 2
3
1 _15 15
0 x _225
1 3
_2 2
0 π 7π x
6 6
_3
61. 2.8 y 1x sin 5px is a sine 11. p 13. 2p

curve that lies between the y y
graphs of y 1x and
_0.5 7.5 y 1x 5
π 2
_2
0 π x 0 x
_2.8 _π π
2 2
63. 1.5 y cos 3px cos 21px is a _5
cosine curve that lies

between the graphs of
_0.5 0.5 y cos 3px and 15. 2p 17. p
y cos 3px y y
_1.5
65. Maximum value 1.76 when x ⬇ 0.94, minimum value 3 2
1.76 when x ⬇ 0.94 (The same maximum and minimum 0 x π 0 π x

_π π _2
values occur at infinitely many other values of x.) 2
67. Maximum value 3.00 when x ⬇1.57, minimum value

1.00 when x ⬇ 1.57 (The same maximum and minimum
values occur at infinitely many other values of x.)
69. 1.16 71. 0.34, 2.80 19. 2p 21. p
73. (a) Odd (b) 0, 2p, 4p, 6p, . . .
(d) f 1x2 approaches 0
y y
(c)
(e) f 1x2 approaches 0
1
1 π
_20 20 _4 1
_π 0 π x 0 π 5π x
4 4
_1 _5
75. (a) 20 s (b) 6 ft

77. (a) 801 min (b) 80
(c) (d) 140 23. 2p 25. p/2
y 90 ; it is higher than
y y
normal
140
115
90 5π 0.5 7π 1
_6 6
0 π x π 0 π x
6 _2 2
0 1 x _1
80

1. II 3. VI 5. IV
27. 4 29. p
7. p 9. p
y y
y y
1
5 5 1
_4 0 4 x π 0 π x
_π 0 π x _π 0 π x _2 2
_1
_5 _5
1
31. p 33. 3 51. p/2
y y y
4
1 5
0 π x 0 x π 0π 2π x
_3
1 1 _3 6 3
4 3
_5
4
35. 3 37. p/2 55. (a) 1.53 mi, 3.00 mi, 18.94 mi
y y (b) y
5
5 4
0 1 x
1 0 1 x π 0 π x 2
_3 3
_2 2
_4
(c) d1t2 approaches q

39. p/2 41. p/2 1. (a) 2, 2p/3, 3/12p2 (b) y
y y 2
4 4
0 π t
0 x 0 x 6
π π π π
_2 2
_2 2
_4 _4
_2
43. 2 45. 2p/3 3. (a) 1, 20p/3, 3/120p2 (b) y

y y 1
2 5
0 10π 20π t
1 x 0 x 3 3
5 11 π π
_6 _3
6 6 6
_1
47. 3p/2 49. 2 5. (a) 14 , 4p/3, 3/14p2 (b) y
y y
0.25
14π
9
3
1 0 2π t
9
5π 0 π 7π x 0 0.5 x
_ 4 4 4 _0.25
_3
7. (a) 5, 3p, 1/13p 2 (b) y 25. (a) 10 cycles per minute

5 (b) y (c) 0.4 m
8.2
8
t
9 0 9 7.8
_8 3π- 8
0 1 t
10
_5
27. (a) 8900 (b) about 3.14 yr 29. d1t2 5 sin15pt2
31. y 21 sin a t b y (feet)
p
9. y 10 sin a t b 11. y 6 sin110t 2
2p
3 6
13. y 60 cos14pt2 15. y 2.4 cos11500pt2 21
17. (a) y 2e1.5t cos 6pt (b) y

2 12
0 3 6 9 t
(hours)
0 1 2 t _21
33. y 5 cos12pt 2 35. y 11 10 sin a b

_2 pt
10
p
37. y 3.8 0.2 sin a tb
p
19. (a) y 100e0.05t cos t
2 5
(b) y
39. E1t2 310 cos1200pt 2 , 219.2 V
100 41. (a) 45 V (b) 40 (c) 40 (d) E1t2 45 cos180pt 2
43. f1t 2 e 0.9t sin pt 45. e ln 4 ⬇ 0.46
1
3
0 8 16 t
1. (b) 12, 13/2, 13/3 3. (a) p/3 (b) A 12, 13/2B
_100 (c) sin t 13/2, cos t 12, tan t 13, csc t 2 13/3,
sec t 2, cot t 13/3 5. (a) p/4
21. (a) y 7e10t sin 12t (b) y (b) 1 12/2, 12/2 2 (c) sin t 12/2, cos t 12/2,
tan t 1, csc t 12, sec t 12, cot t 1
3
7. (a) 12/2 (b) 12/2 9. (a) 0.89121 (b) 0.45360
11. (a) 0 (b) Undefined 13. (a) Undefined (b) 0
15. (a) 13/3 (b) 13 17. 1sin t 2/11 sin2t2
0 π π t 19. 1sin t 2/ 21 sin2t
6 3
21. tan t 125 , csc t 135, sec t 13
12 , cot t 5
12
23. sin t 2 15/5, cos t 15/5,

_3 tan t 2, sec t 15 25. 116 1172/4 27. 3
29. (a) 10, 4p, 0 31. (a) 1, 4p, 0
23. (a) y 0.3e0.2t sin(40pt) (b) y (b) y
(b) y 10 1
0.3
0.6 _2π 0 2π 4π x _4π _π 0 π 4π x

0 t
_10
_1
_0.3
33. (a) 3, p, 1 35. (a) 1, 4, 13 57. 3.5 The graphs are related by
(b) y (b) y graphical addition.
3 1
_3.14 3.1
1-π
0
0 1 x x
_ 13
3 _ 31 11
3 _3.5
1+π
59. 1.76, 1.76 61. 0.30, 2.84
_3
_1 63. (a) Odd (b) 0, p, 2p, . . .
(c) (d) f 1x 2 approaches 0
(e) f 1x 2 approaches 0
1
37. y 5 sin 4x 39. y 12 sin 2pAx 13 B
41. p 43. p
y y _20 20
5
_1
67. y 4 cos 1 p6 t2
2
65. y 50 cos116pt2
_π 0 π x 0 π x
2

1. y 56 2. (a) 45 (b) 35 (c) 43 (d) 53
3. (a) 12 (b) 12/2 (c) 13 (d) 1
4. tan t 1sin t 2 / 21 sin2t 5. 152
45. p 47. 2p
y y
6. (a) 5, p/2, 0 7. (a) 2, 4p, p/3
(b) y (b) y
4 5 2
1
π 0 π 3π x π 5π x
_4 4 4 4 4
13π
_4 3
0 π π x 0 π x
4 2 3
_5 _2
49. (a) 51. (a)
1.5 1.5
8. p 9. p/2
y y
_50 50
_6.28 6.28
1 π 1
4
_0.5 _1.5
0 3π x 0 π x
(b) Period p (b) Not periodic _1 4 _1 4
(c) Even (c) Neither

53. (a) 55.
5 15
10. y 2 sin 21x p/32

11. (a) (b) Even
_5 5 _15 15
1.2 (c) Minimum value 0.11
when x ⬇ 2.54, maximum
value 1 when x 0
_5 _15
(b) Not periodic y x sin x is a sine function

_9.42 9.42
(c) Even whose graph lies between
those of y x and y x _0.4
12. y 5 sin14pt 2 7. (a) and (c) y

13. y 16e0.1t cos 24pt 18 80
0 1
20
y=30 sin(0.52t)+50
_18 0 1 12 t
Focus on Modeling ■ page 463 (b) y 30 sin10.52t 2 50 where y is the owl population in
year t (d) y 25.8 sin10.52t 0.022 50.6
1. (a) and (c) y
9. (a) and (c) y y=74.5 cos(0.57(t-4.5))+83.5
2
100
0 1 14 t
_2
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 29 t
y=2.1 cos(0.52t) Years since 1975
(b) y 2.1 cos10.52t 2 (b) y 74.5 cos10.571t 4.522 83.5, where y is the average
(d) y 2.05 sin10.50t 1.55 2 0.01 daily sunspot count, and t is the years since 1975
(e) The formula of (d) reduces to (d) y 67.65 sin10.62t 1.65 2 74.5
y 2.05 cos10.50t 0.022 0.01.
Same as (b), correct to one decimal.
3. (a) and (c) y Chapter 6
25
1. 2p/5 ⬇ 1.257 rad 3. p/4 ⬇ 0.785 rad
5. 5p/12 ⬇ 1.309 rad 7. 6p ⬇ 18.850 rad
9. 8p/15 ⬇ 1.676 rad 11. p/24 ⬇ 0.131 rad
5 13. 210 15. 225 17. 540/p ⬇ 171.9
0 0.1
19. 216/p ⬇ 68.8 21. 18 23. 24
1.0 1.5 t
y=12.05 cos(5.2(t-0.3))+13.05
25. 410, 770, 310, 670
27. 11p/4, 19p/4, 5p/4, 13p/4
(b) y 12.05 cos15.21t 0.322 13.05 29. 7p/4, 15p/4, 9p/4, 17p/4 31. Yes 33. Yes
(d) y 11.72 sin15.05t 0.24 2 12.96 35. Yes 37. 13 39. 30 41. 280 43. 5p/6
(e) The formula of (d) reduces to 45. p 47. p/4 49. 55p/9 ⬇ 19.2 51. 4 53. 4 mi
y 11.72 cos15.051t 0.26 22 12.96. 55. 2 rad ⬇ 114.6 57. 36/p ⬇ 11.459 m
Close, but not identical, to (b). 59. (a) 35.45 (b) 25 61. 50 m2 63. 4 m
5. (a) and (c) 65. 6 cm2 67. 13.9 mi 69. 330p mi ⬇ 1037 mi
y
71. 1.6 million mi 73. 1.15 mi 75. 360p in2 ⬇ 1130.97 in2
80 77. 32p/15 ft/s ⬇ 6.7 ft/s 79. (a) 2000p rad/min
70 (b) 50p/3 ft/s ⬇ 52.4 ft/s 81. 39.3 mi/h 83. 2.1 m/s
60 85. (a) 10p cm ⬇ 31.4 cm (b) 5 cm (c) 3.32 cm
50 (d) 86.8 cm3
40
y=22.9 cos(0.52(t-6))+62.9
0 1 11 t
1. sin u 45, cos u 35,
(b) y 22.9 cos10.521t 6 22 62.9,
tan u 43, csc u 54, sec u 53, cot u 34
3. sin u 4041 , cos u 41 , tan u 9 , csc u 40 , sec u 9 ,
9 40 41 41
where y is temperature (F) and t is months (January 0)
(d) y 23.4 sin10.48t 1.36 2 62.2
cot u 40
9
5. sin u 2 113/13, cos u 3113/13, tan u 23, (c) 1.4 9. 12 11. 12/2 13. 13 15. 1 17. 13/2
csc u 113/2, sec u 113/3, cot u 32 19. 13/3 21. 13/2 23. 1 25. 12 27. 2 29. 1
7. (a) 3 134/34, 3134/34 (b) 35, 35 (c) 134/5, 134/5 31. Undefined 33. III 35. IV
9. 252 11. 13 13/2 13. 16.51658 37. tan u 21 cos2 u/cos u 39. cos u 21 sin2 u
15. x 28 cos u, y 28 sin u
17. cos u 45, tan u 34, csc u 53, sec u 54, cot u 43 41. sec u 21 tan2 u
43. cos u 45, tan u 34, csc u 53, sec u 54,
cot u 43
5 45. sin u 35, cos u 45, csc u 53, sec u 54, cot u 43
3
47. sin u 12, cos u 13/2, tan u 13/3,
sec u 2 13/3, cot u 13
¨
49. sin u 3 15/7, tan u 3 15/2, csc u 715/15,
19. sin u 12/2, cos u 12/2, tan u 1, sec u 72, cot u 215/15
csc u 12, sec u 12 51. (a) 13/2, 13 (b) 12, 13/4 (c) 34, 0.88967
53. 19.1 55. 66.1 57. 14p/3 2 13 ⬇ 2.46
61. (b)
1 u 20 60 80 85

h 1922 9145 29,944 60,351
¨
1
63. (a) A(u) 400 sin u cos u
(b) 300
21. sin u 3 15/7, cos u 27, tan u 315/2,
csc u 715/15, cot u 2 15/15 7
¨ 2
23. 11 132 /2 25. 1 27. 1

2
29. 31. 1.57
0
45* 38* (c) width depth ⬇ 14.14 in.

16 œ∑
2Å22.63 65. (a) 913/4 ft ⬇ 3.897 ft, 96 ft ⬇ 0.5625 ft
16 56.85 (b) 23.982 ft, 3.462 ft
44.79
67. (a) 10 (b) 0.946 rad or 54
45*
52*
16
35
33. 35.
3π 3
π 10 0
8 180.34
106
30.95 33.5 69. 42
π
5
3π 145.90
8
12.82
1. 318.8 3. 24.8 5. 44 7. ⬔C 114, a ⬇ 51, b ⬇ 24
9. ⬔A 44, ⬔B 68, a ⬇ 8.99
37. sin u ⬇ 0.45, cos u ⬇ 0.89, tan u 0.50, csc u ⬇ 2.24, 11. ⬔C 62, a ⬇ 200, b ⬇ 242
sec u ⬇ 1.12, cot u 2.00 39. 230.9 41. 63.7
C
43. x 10 tan u sin u 45. 1026 ft 47. (a) 2100 mi
(b) No 49. 19 ft 51. 38.7 53. 345 ft 55. 415 ft, 152 ft
57. 2570 ft 59. 5808 ft 61. 91.7 million mi
63. 3960 mi 65. 0.723 AU
68*
Section 6.3 ■ page 495 50*
A B
230
1. (a) 30 (b) 30 (c) 30 3. (a) 45 (b) 90 (c) 75
5. (a) p/4 (b) p/6 (c) p/3 7. (a) 2p/7 (b) 0.4p
13. ⬔B 85, a ⬇ 5, c ⬇ 9 C 45. tan u 21 cos2u/cos u

65*
47. tan2u sin2u/11 sin2u 2
10
49. sin u 17/4, cos u 34, csc u 4 17/7, cot u 3 17/7
51. cos u 45, tan u 34, csc u 53,
A
30*
B
sec u 54, cot u 43
53. 15/5 55. 1 57. 5.32 59. 148.07 61. 77.82
15. ⬔A 100, a ⬇ 89, c ⬇ 71 C 63. 77.3 mi 65. 3.9 mi 67. 32.12
51* Chapter 6 Test ■ page 520

44
1. 11p/6, 3p/4 2. 240, 74.5
29* 3. (a) 240p rad/min ⬇ 753.98 rad/min
A B
(b) 12,063.7 ft/min 137 mi/h 4. (a) 12/2
(b) 13/3 (c) 2 (d) 1 5. A26 6 113B/39
17. ⬔B ⬇ 30, ⬔C ⬇ 40, c ⬇ 19 19. No solution
6. a 24 sin u, b 24 cos u 7. A4 312B/4
21. ⬔A1 ⬇ 125, ⬔C1 ⬇ 30, a1 ⬇ 49;
⬔A2 ⬇ 5, ⬔C2 ⬇ 150, a2 ⬇ 5.6 8. 13
12 9. tan u 2sec2u 1 10. 19.6 ft
23. No solution 25. ⬔A1 ⬇ 57.2, ⬔B1 ⬇ 93.8, b1 ⬇ 30.9; 11. 9.1 12. 250.5 13. 8.4 14. 19.5 15. (a) 15.3 m2
⬔A2 ⬇ 122.8, ⬔B2 ⬇ 28.2, b2 ⬇ 14.6 (b) 24.3 m 16. (a) 129.9 (b) 44.9 17. 554 ft
27. (a) 91.146 (b) 14.427 31. (a) 1018 mi
(b) 1017 mi 33. 219 ft 35. 55.9 m 37. 175 ft Focus on Modeling ■ page 523
39. 192 m 41. 0.427 AU, 1.119 AU 1. 1.41 mi 3. 14.3 m 5. (c) 2349.8 ft
7. 91.9 ft 128.0 ft

173
151.7 ft
ft
0
.2 f
1. 28.9 3. 47 5. 29.89 7. 15 150 ft
5.
149.5 ft
19
9. ⬔A ⬇ 39.4, ⬔B ⬇ 20.6, c ⬇ 24.6 t
11. ⬔A ⬇ 48, ⬔B ⬇ 79, c ⬇ 3.2

13. ⬔A ⬇ 50, ⬔B ⬇ 73, ⬔C ⬇ 57 84.0 ft 120.2 ft
15. ⬔A1 ⬇ 83.6, ⬔C1 ⬇ 56.4, a1 ⬇ 193;

⬔A2 ⬇ 16.4, ⬔C2 ⬇ 123.6, a2 ⬇ 54.9
17. No such triangle 19. 2 21. 25.4 23. 89.2
Chapter 7
25. 24.3 27. 54 29. 26.83 31. 5.33 33. 40.77 Section 7.1 ■ page 533
35. 3.85 cm2 37. 2.30 mi 39. 23.1 mi 41. 2179 mi 1. sin t 3. tan u 5. 1 7. csc u 9. tan u 11. 1
43. (a) 62.6 mi (b) S 18.2 E 45. 96 47. 211 ft 13. cos y 15. sin2x 17. sec x 19. 2 sec u
49. 3835 ft 51. $165,554 cos u
21. cos2x 23. cos u 25. LHS sin u RHS
sin u
1
Chapter 6 Review ■ page 516 27. LHS cos u cot u RHS
cos u
1. (a) p/3 (b) 11p/6 (c) 3p/4 (d) p/2
3. (a) 450 (b) 30 (c) 405 (d) (558/p) ⬇ 177.6 sin y 1 cos2y
29. LHS sin y sec y cos y RHS
5. 8 m 7. 82 ft 9. 0.619 rad ⬇ 35.4 11. 18,151 ft2 cos y cos y
13. 300p rad/min ⬇ 942.5 rad/min, 7539.8 in./min cos B
628.3 ft/min 15. sin u 5/ 174, cos u 7/ 174, tan u 57, 31. LHS sin B cos B
sin B
csc u 174/5, sec u 174/7, cot u 75
sin2B cos2B 1
17. x ⬇ 3.83, y ⬇ 3.21 19. x ⬇ 2.92, y ⬇ 3.11 RHS
sin B sin B
21.
3 70*
1.026 cos a cos2a sin2a
20* 33. LHS cos a sin a
sin a sin a
2.819
1
RHS
23. a cot u, b csc u 25. 48 m 27. 1076 mi sin a
29. 12/2 31. 1 33. 13/3 35. 12/2
sin u cos u sin2u cos2u
37. 213/3 39. 13 35. LHS
41. sin u 12 cos u sin u cos u sin u
13 , cos u 13 , tan u 5 ,
5 12
csc u 12, sec u 5 , cot u 12 43. 60

13 13 5 1
RHS
cos u sin u
37. LHS 1 cos2b sin2b RHS sin x sin x

# sin x cos x cos x11 cos x 2
1 cos x
1sin x cos x 2 2 sin x cos x

67. LHS
sin x11 cos x 2
cos x 1
1
sin x cos x
39. LHS
1sin x cos x 2 1sin x cos x 2 sin x cos x cos x
1sin x cos x 2 1sin x cos x 2
sin x
RHS
RHS
1sin x cos x 2 1sin x cos x 2
11 cos2u2 RHS
sin2u sin2u cos2u sin2u
69. LHS
1
cos t # cos t 1 cos2t 2
cos u 2
cos u cos2u
41. LHS cos t
RHS
1
cos t cos t 1 71. LHS 1sec2x tan2x 2 1sec2x tan2x 2 RHS
1 sin2u 1
43. LHS sec2y RHS sin u sin1 u sin u
cos2y 73. RHS cos u sin u cos u
cos u cos u
sin u sin u
45. LHS cot x cos x cot x csc x cos x csc x
cos2u
cos2x cos x cos x 1 cos2x 1 LHS
cos u1sin u 12
sin x sin x sin x sin x sin x
sin2x sin2t tan2t sin2t # 1
RHS 75. LHS 2
1
sin x sin t cos2t sin2t
1 sec t RHS
2
LHS sin2x a 1 b sin2x cos2x RHS

cos2x
47. sec x tan x sec x tan x
sin2x 77. LHS
1sec x tan x 2 1sec x tan x 2
49. LHS 211 sin2x 2 1 2 2 sin2x 1 RHS
2 sec x
1 cos a 1 cos a
51. LHS #
sec2x tan2x
RHS
sin a 1 cos a
79. LHS tan2x 2 tan x cot x cot2x tan2x 2 cot2x
1tan2x 1 2 1cot2x 1 2 RHS
1 cos2a sin2a
RHS
sin a11 cos a 2 sin a11 cos a 2 1
1 cos u
sin2u sin2u cos2u 81. LHS
cos u
# RHS
53. LHS
1
cos u 1 cos u
1sin x cos x 2 1sin2x sin x cos x cos2x 2
2
cos u cos2u
sin u11 cos2u 2
2
sin2u sin2u 83. LHS
2
RHS sin x cos x
cos u cos2u sin2x sin x cos x cos2x RHS
sin x 1 # sin x 1 sin2x 1
1 sin x 1 sin x 11 sin x 2 2
55. LHS
sin x 1 sin x 1

1sin x 1 2 2
RHS
85. LHS #
1 sin x 1 sin x 1 sin2x
sin2t 2 sin t cos t cos2t 11 sin x 2 2
1 sin x 2
57. LHS
sin t cos t 2
a b RHS
cos x cos x
sin2t cos2t 2 sin t cos t 1
2 sin2x cos2x 4
87. LHS a b a b
sin x cos x 4
sin t cos t sin t cos t sin t cos t
cos x sin x sin x cos x
RHS
a b RHS
4
2 1
1 cos
sin u
# cos u cos2u sin2u RHS
2u
2 2 2
59. LHS sin x cos x
sin2u cos2u
1 cos2u cos u sin u 89. tan u 91. tan u 93. 3 cos u
95. Yes
# sec x tan x
sec x 1.5
61. LHS
sec x tan x sec x tan x
sec x1sec x tan x 2
RHS _6.28 6.28
sec2x tan2x
sec √ tan √
63. LHS 1sec √ tan √ 2 #
sec √ tan √ _1.5
sec2√ tan2√ 97. No

RHS 3
sec √ tan √
sin x cos x sin x cos x
65. LHS 1 sin x cos x
cos x sin x
1
cos x sin x
1sin x cos x 2
cos x sin x _6.28 6.28
RHS
sin x cos x _1
Section 7.2 ■ page 539 (b) y
16 12 12 16
1. 3.
4 4 1
16 12
5. 2 13 7.
4 0 π x
16 12 4
9. 13 2 11.
4
13. 12/2 15. 2 17. 13
1
sinA p2 uB sin p2 cos u cos p2 sin u

19. LHS 49. tan g 176
cosA 2 uB
p
cos p2 cos u sin p2 sin u 51. (a) 3
cos u
RHS
sin u
1 1 _6.28 6.28
21. LHS
cosA p2 uB cos p2 cos u sin p2 sin u
1
RHS _3
sin u
23. LHS sin x cos p2 cos x sin p2 RHS
sin2 a x b sin2 a x b 1
p p
25. LHS sin x cos p cos x sin p RHS 4 4
tan x tan p 53. p/2
27. LHS RHS 55. (b) k 10 13, f p/6
1 tan x tan p
29. LHS cos x cos p6 sin x sin p6 sin x cos p3 cos x sin p3
13 13
cos x 12 sin x 12 sin x cos x RHS
2 2
1. 120 119 120
169 , 169 , 119 3. 24
25 , 25 , 7
7 24
5. 24 7 24
25 , 25 , 7
31. LHS sin x cos y cos x sin y
9. 12 A 34 cos 2x 14 cos 4xB
1sin x cos y cos x sin y2 RHS
7. 35,45, 34
16 11 cos 2x cos 4x cos 2x cos 4x 2

1
1 1 tan x tan y 11.
33. LHS
tan1x y 2 tan x tan y 13. 32 A 4 cos
1 3
4x 14 cos 8xB 15. 12 22 13 17. 12 1
1 cot1 x cot1 y
# cot x cot y RHS 19. 12 22 13 21. 12 1 23. 12 22 13
cot x cot y
1 1
cot x cot y 25. 12 22
12 27. (a) sin 36° (b) sin 6u
sin x sin y sin x cos y cos x sin y 29. (a) cos 68° (b) cos 10u 31. (a) tan 4° (b) tan 2u
35. LHS RHS 35. 110/10, 3 110/10, 13
cos x cos y cos x cos y
sin x cos y cos x sin y 1sin x cos y cos x sin y2 37. 2A3 2 12B/6, 2A3 2 12B/6, 3 2 12
37. LHS
cos x cos y sin x sin y cos x cos y sin x sin y 39. 16/6, 130/6, 15/5 41. 12 1sin 5x sin x 2
2 cos x sin y 43. 12 1sin 5x sin 3x 2 45. 32 1cos 11x cos 3x 2
RHS
2 cos x cos y 47. 2 sin 4x cos x 49. 2 sin 5x sin x 51. 2 cos 92 x sin 52 x
53. A 12 13B/2 55. 14 A 12 1B 57. 12/2
39. LHS sin11x y 2 z2
59. LHS cos12 # 5x 2 RHS
sin1x y 2 cos z cos1x y2 sin z
61. LHS sin2x 2 sin x cos x cos2x
cos z 3 sin x cos y cos x sin y4
1 2 sin x cos x RHS
sin z 3cos x cos y sin x sin y4 RHS 2 sin 2x cos 2x 212 sin x cos x2 1cos 2x 2
63. LHS RHS
sin x sin x
41. 2 sin a x b 21tan x cot x 2
5p
2
65. LHS
1tan x cot x 2 1tan x cot x 2
6
tan x cot x
43. 512 sin a 2x b
7p
4 sin x
2 # sin x cos x 2 sin x cos x
cos x sin x sin x cos x
cos x
sin x cos2x
2
45. (a) f 1x 2 12 sin a x b

p 2 sin x cos x RHS
4
tan 2x tan x
67. LHS tan12x x 2 The graph of f lies between the graphs of y 2 cos t and
1 tan 2x tan x y 2 cos t. Thus, the loudness of the sound varies between
y 2 cos t.
1 tan2x tan x
2 tan x

1 1 2tantanx2x tan x
2 tan x tan x11 tan2x2 Section 7.4 ■ page 557
RHS 1. (a) p/6 (b) p/3 (c) Not defined
1 tan x 2 tan x tan x
2
69. LHS 1cos2x sin2x 2 1cos2x sin2x2 3. (a) p/4 (b) p/4 (c) p/4
5. (a) p/2 (b) 0 (c) p 7. (a) p/6
cos2x sin2x RHS
(b) p/6 (c) Not defined
2 sin 3x cos 2x sin 3x
71. LHS RHS 9. (a) 0.13889 (b) 2.75876
2 cos 3x cos 2x cos 3x
11. (a) 0.88998 (b) Not defined 13. 14 15. 5
2 sin 5x cos 5x
73. LHS RHS 17. p/3 19. p/6 21. p/3 23. 13/3 25. 21
2 sin 5x cos 4x 27. p/3 29. 45 31. 13
12
33. 135 35. 15/5 37. 24 39. 1
2 sinA x 2 y B cosA x 2 y B sinA x 2 y B
25
75. LHS x y RHS 2

2 cosA 2 B cosA 2 B cosA x 2 y B
1 x
x y 41. 21 x 2 43. x/ 21 x 2 45. 47. 0
1 x2
1sin x sin 5x 2 1sin 2x sin 4x 2 sin 3x 49. (a) 3
81. LHS
1cos x cos 5x 2 1cos 2x cos 4x 2 cos 3x
2 sin 3x cos 2x 2 sin 3x cos x sin 3x
_3.14 3.14
2 cos 3x cos 2x 2 cos 3x cos x cos 3x
sin 3x12 cos 2x 2 cos x 1 2
RHS
cos 3x12 cos 2x 2 cos x 1 2 _3
83. (a) sin 3x cos 3x Conjecture: y p/2 for 1

x
1
51. (a) 0.28 (b) A3 117B/4
5
2
sin x cos x
53. (a) h 2 tan u (b) u tan1 1h/2 2
_6.28 6.28 55. (a) u sin1 1h/680 2 (b) u 0.826 rad
57. (a) 54.1 (b) 48.3, 32.2, 24.5. The function sin1 is
undefined for values outside the interval 31, 14.
_5
85. (a) Section 7.5 ■ page 568

2.5
1. 12k 1 2p 3.
p 5p 5p
2kp, 2kp 5. kp
6 6 6
_9.42 9.42 p 2p 12k 12 p
7. kp, kp 9.
3 3 4
p 2p p 7p 11p
_2.5 11. kp, kp 13. kp, 2kp, 2kp
3 3 2 6 6
(c) The graph of y f1x 2 p p p 5p
2.5
15. kp 17. kp 19. 2kp, 2kp
lies between the two 3 2 3 3
other graphs. 3p
_9.42 9.42 21. 2kp 23. No solution
2
7p 2kp 11p 2kp
25. ,
18 3 18 3
_2.5
87. (a) P1t 2 8t 4 8t 2 1 (b) Q1t 2 16t 5 20t 3 5t a 2kp b , a 2kp b

1 p 1 p
27.
93. (a) and (c) 2.5
4 3 4 3
a kp b 33. 4 a kp b
1 p 2p kp
29. 31. 4kp 35.
2 6 3 3
_π π
p 2p 5p 4p
37. 2kp, 2kp, 2kp, 2kp
6 3 6 3
p kp 3p kp p 5p 7p 11p 13p 17p
_2.5 39. , 41. , , , , ,
8 2 8 2 9 9 9 9 9 9
p 3p 5p 7p p 2p 4p 5p 2p 4p 1 cos x 1 cos x
43. , , , 45. , , , 47. 0, , 13. LHS RHS
6 4 6 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 sin x sin x sin x
49. (a) 1.15928 2kp, 5.12391 2kp 15. LHS 12 3cos11x y 2 1x y 22
cos11x y2 1x y 22 4
(b) 1.15928, 5.12391
(a) 1.36944 2kp, 4.91375 2kp
12 1cos 2y cos 2x 2
51.
(b) 1.36944, 4.91375
53. (a) 0.46365 kp, 2.67795 kp 12 31 2 sin2y 11 2 sin2x 2 4
(b) 0.46365, 2.67795, 3.60524, 5.81954 12 12 sin2x 2 sin2y 2 RHS
55. (a) 0.33984 2kp, 2.80176 2kp sin x # 1 cos x 1 cos x
17. LHS 1 1
(b) 0.33984, 2.80176 cos x sin x cos x
112k 1 2 p, 2 2 59. a kp, 13 b
p 1
57. 1 1 RHS
3 cos x
y y
19. LHS cos2 2x 2 sin 2x cos 2x sin2 2x
1 sinA2 # 2x B RHS
5
2 sin x cos x 2 cos2x 1
1
21. LHS
0 π x sin x cos x
2 1
π x _5 2 cos x 2 cos x RHS
cos x
tan x tan 4p
23. LHS RHS
1 tan x tan p4
p 3p 5p 7p 9p 11p 13p 15p 25. (a) 1.5 (b) Yes
61. , , , , , , ,
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
p 2p 7p 8p 13p 14p p 7p 3p 11p
63. , , , , , 65. , , , 67. 0 _3.14 3.14
9 9 9 9 9 9 2 6 2 6
kp p 2kp p 5p 2kp
69. 71. , kp,
2 9 3 2 9 3 _1.5
73. 0, 0.95 75. 1.92
77. 0.71 79. 0.94721 or 89.05279 81. 44.95 27. (a) 4 (b) No
83. (a) 34th day (February 3rd), 308th day (November 4th)
(b) 275 days 85. (b) 1.047 ⬇ 60
_6.28 6.28
1. LHS sin u a b cos u

cos u sin u sin2u
_4
sin u cos u cos u
cos2u sin2u 29. (a) 1.5 2 sin2 3x cos 6x 1
RHS
cos u
3. LHS 11 sin x 2 csc x csc x
2
_3.14 3.14
csc x sin2x csc x csc x
1
sin2x RHS
sin x _1.5
cos2x tan2x 1 p 5p p 5p 2p 4p
5. LHS 2
cot2x RHS 31. 0, p ,33. 35. , 37. ,
sin x sin2x cos2x 6 6 3 3 3 3
cos x cos x p 2p 3p 4p 5p 7p p p 5p 7p 3p 11p p
7. LHS 39. , , , , , 41. , , , , , 43.
sin x RHS
cos x 11 sin x 2
1 1
cos 3 3 4 3 3 4 6 2 6 6 2 6 6
cos x x
cos2x sin2x 45. 1.18 47. (a) 63.4 (b) No (c) 90 49. 1
22 13
9. LHS sin2x 2
cos2x cos2x sin2x RHS 2
sin x cos2x 12 13
51. 12 1 53. 12/2 55. 12/2 57.
2 sin x cos x 2 sin x cos x 2 sin x 4
11. LHS RHS 110 1
3 A 12
1 2 cos x 1
2 2
2 cos x 2 cos x 59. 2 61. 2
15B 63. 2A3 2 12B/6
9
65. p/3 67. 1

69. 2/ 121 71. 73. x/ 21 x 2
7 (b) 5:
2 9
75. u cos1 a b 77. (a) u tan1 a b (b) 286.4 ft

x 10
3 x
sin u sin2u cos2u
1. (a) LHS sin u cos u RHS
cos u cos u
tan x11 cos x 2
6:
tan x # 1 cos x
(b) LHS
1 cos x 1 cos x 1 cos2x
11 cos x 2 1 1 cos x
#
sin x
cos x RHS
sin2x sin x cos x
2 tan x 2 sin x #
(c) LHS cos2x 2 sin x cos x RHS
sec2x cos x
12 16
2. tan u 3. (a) 12 (b) (c) 12 22 13 (c) 880p
4 (d) y1x, t 2 sin t cos1880pt2 ;
4. A10 2 15B/15 5. (a) 12 1sin 8x sin 2x 2 y1x, t2 sin12t2 cos1880pt2 ;
(b) 2 cos 72 x sin 32 x 6. 2 y1x, t2 sin13t2 cos1880pt2 ;
7. y y
y1x, t2 sin14t2 cos1880pt2
π
1 2
Chapter 8
π 0 π x 0 x
_2 2
_1 1 Section 8.1 ■ page 586
1. π
!4, 4 @
3. 7π
!6, _ 6 @
_1 π
_2
Domain 3 1, 14
π
Domain ⺢ 4
O O
x 3
8. (a) u tan1 (b) u cos1 7π
_ 6
4 x
2p 4p p p 5p 3p 5. 4π 7. π
9. (a) , (b) , , , !_2, 3 @ !3, 2 @
3 3 6 2 6 2
40
10. 0.57964, 2.56195, 3.72123, 5.70355 11. 41
4π
3 π
2
O
O
Focus on Modeling ■ page 578
a 3, b , a 3, b
3p 5p
1. (a) y 5 sin a t b
p 2 2
(b) y
2 5
a 1, b , a 1, b
9. 7π
!_1, 6 @ 5p p
7π
6
6 6
O
0 x
1 7
11. (_5, 0) 15, 2p2 , 15, p2

_5 O
(c) √ p/4 Yes, it is a traveling wave. 13. Q 15. Q 19. P17. P

3. y1x, t 2 2.7 sin10.68x 4.10t2
5 5 13
21. A3 12, 3p/4B 23. a , b 25. A2 13, 2B
5. y1x, t 2 0.6 sin1px 2 cos140pt2 2 2
7. (a) 1, 2, 3, 4 27. 11, 1 2 29. 15, 02 31. A3 16, 3 12B
33. A 12, 3p/4B 35. 14, p/4 2 37. A5, tan1 34 B
39. 16, p2 41. u p/4 43. r tan u sec u
45. r 4 sec u 47. x 2 y 2 49

49. x 6 31. 33.
y π
!3, 2 @
51. x 2 y 2 53. y x 1
x
55. x y 1x y 2 x2 2 57. x 2
2 2 2
59. y 13x
O 1
Section 8.2 ■ page 594 O

(2, π) 1 (2, 0)
1. VI 3. II 5. I
7. Symmetric about u p/2 3π
!1, 2 @
9. Symmetric about the polar axis
11. Symmetric about u p/2 35. 37. 0
u
4p
13. All three types of symmetry 1
15. 17.
π
!2, 2 @
(3, 0) _1.25 1.25
O 1
(2, π) O 1 (2, 0) O _1
1
3π
!2, 2 @ 39. 0
u
4p
3
19. 21.
π
!6, 2 @
_3.5 1.5
(_2, 0)
O _3
1
41. The graph of r 1 sin nu has n loops.

O 1
43. IV 45. III
47. 1 49. 1
23. 25.
π
!2, 2 @ (_3, 0) (_3, π)
O O 1 1
1
(4, π)
O 1
a b 2a 2 b 2
3π
51. a , b ,
!2, 2 @ π
!_6, 2 @
2 2 2
53. (a) Elliptical 7000
27. 29.
_9000 12000
(π, π)
O O 1
10 _7000
(b) p; 540 mi

33. 5 12 a cos i sin b 35. 8 a cos b
p p 11p 11p
i sin
1. 4 Im 3. 2 Im 4 4 6 6
4i i 37. 201cos p i sin p2 39. 5 3cosAtan1 34 B i sinAtan1 34 B 4
41. 3 12 a cos b 43. 8 a cos i sin b

3p 3p p p
_2 0 Re
i sin
i 4 4 6 6
_1 0 1 Re 45. 153cosAtan1 12 B i sinAtan1 12 B 4
47. 2 a cos i sin b

p p
5. 129 7. 2
4 4
Im Im
4p 4p z1 2p 2p
49. z1z2 cos i sin cos i sin
3 3 z2 3 3
z1z2 15 a cos b
3p 3p
i œ∑3+i 51. i sin
i
5+2i 2 2
a cos b
z1 3 7p 7p
0 1 Re 0 Re
i sin
1 z2 5 6 6
53. z1z2 81cos 150° i sin 150°2
9. 1 11.
z1/z2 21cos 90° i sin 90°2
Im Im
55. z1z2 1001cos 350° i sin 350°2
z1/z2 254 1cos 50° i sin 50°2
i
0.6+0.8i 2+2i
57. z1 2 a cos i sin b

i 1+i p p
0.5+0.5i
_1 0 1 Re 6 6
z2 2 a cos i sin b
0 1 Re
_1-i p p
3 3
z1z2 4 a cos i sin b

13. Im 15. Im p p
8+2i 2 2
z⁄=2+i
i i z⁄+z¤=4 z1 p p
cos i sin
0 2 8 Re 0 1 4 Re
z2 6 6
a cos i sin b
z⁄ z¤=5
z¤=2-i 1 1 p p
8-2i
z1 2 6 6
59. z1 4 a cos b
11p 11p
17. Im 19. Im
i sin
6 6
z2 12 a cos b
3p 3p
i sin
i
i 4 4
z1z2 4 12 a cos b
0 7p 7p
_1 1 Re 0 1 Re
i sin
12 12
2 12 a cos b
z1 13p 13p
i sin
z2 12 12
a cos b
21. Im 23. Im 1 1 11p 11p
i sin
z1 4 6 6
61. z1 5 12 a cos i sin b

p p
i i
4 4
z2 41cos 0 i sin 0 2
0 1 Re 0 1 Re
z1z2 20 12 a cos i sin b

p p
4 4
5 12
25. 12 a cos i sin b 27. 2 a cos b a cos i sin b
p p 7p 7p z1 p p
i sin
4 4 4 4 z2 4 4 4
29. 4 a cos b 31. 3 a cos b 12
11p 11p 3p 3p
a cos i sin b
i sin i sin 1 p p
6 6 2 2
z1 10 4 4
63. z1 201cos p i sin p 2 12 12 Im

85. i i
z2 2 a cos i sin b
p p 2 2 „⁄ „‚
6 6
z1z2 40 a cos b
7p 7p
i sin 0 1 Re
6 6
10 a cos b
z1 5p 5p
i sin „¤ „‹
z2 6 6
201 1cos p i sin p 2

1
z1 12 12
87. i
65. 1024 67. 5121 13 i2 2 2
69. 1
89. 2 a cos i sin b , 2 a cos b,
71. 4096 p p 13p 13p
i sin
73. 811 i 2 75. 2048 A13
1
iB 18 18 18 18
2 a cos b
25p 25p
i sin
77. 2 12 a cos i sin b ,
p p Im
18 18
12 12
91. 21/6 a cos b , 21/6 a cos b,
5p 5p 13p 13p
i sin i sin
2 12 a cos b
13p 13p
i sin i „⁄ 12 12 12 12
12 12
21/6 a cos b
0 21p 21p
„¤
1 Re
i sin
12 12

1. y 3. y
79. 3 a cos b,
3p 3p Im
2u
i sin „‚
7 u+v
8 8
3 a cos b,
7p 7p „⁄
i sin i
8 8
0 Re 2
3 a cos b,
1
11p 11p
i sin „‹
8 8
3 a cos b
0 x
15p 15p „¤ _2
i sin 0 1 x
8 8
5. y
12 12 Im
81. 1, i, i i „¤
2 2 „‹ „⁄
„› „‚ 0 7 x
0 1 Re
_2
v-2u
„fi „‡
„fl
7. 具3, 3典 9. 具3, 1典 11. 具5, 7典

13 1 13 1 Im 13. 具4, 3典 15. 具0, 2典
83. i, i, i i
17. 具4, 14典, 具9, 3典, 具5, 8典, 具6, 17典
2 2 2 2
„⁄ „‚ 19. 具0, 2典, 具6, 0典, 具2, 1典, 具8, 3典
21. 4i, 9i 6 j, 5i 2j, 6i 8 j
0 1 Re
23. 15, 113, 215, 12 113, 126, 110, 15 113
25. 1101, 212, 21101, 12, 173, 1145, 1101 212
12 12
„¤ 27. 20 13i 20 j 29. i j
2 2
31. 4 cos 10 i 4 sin 10 j ⬇ 3.94i 0.69 j
(b) a 213, b
33. 5, 53.13 35. 13, 157.38 37. 2, 60 11. (a) y 5p
39. 15 13, 15 41. 2i 3j 43. (a) 40 j 6
(b) 425i (c) 425i 40j (d) 427 mi/h, N 84.6 E
(c) a 213, b
p
45. 794 mi/h, N 26.6 W 47. (a) 10i (b) 10i 17.32j Ó_3, œ∑3Ô
1 6
(c) 20i 17.32 j (d) 26.5 mi/h, N 49.1 E
49. (a) 22.8i 7.4j (b) 7.4 mi/h, 22.8 mi/h _3 0 3 x
51. (a) 具5, 3典 (b) 具5, 3典
53. (a) 4 j (b) 4 j 55. (a) 具7.57, 10.61典
(b) 具7.57, 10.61典
T1 ⬇ 56.5i 67.4j, T2 ⬇ 56.5i 32.6 j 4
57. 13. (a) r
cos u sin u
y
(b)
4
1. (a) 2 (b) 45 3. (a) 13 (b) 56
5. (a) 1 (b) 97 7. (a) 5 13 (b) 30
9. Yes 11. No 13. Yes 15. 9 17. 5 19. 125
21. 24 23. (a) 具1, 1典 (b) u1 具1, 1典, u2 具3, 3典
25. (a) 8 12, 32 9 (b) u1 8 12, 32 9, u2 8 32, 12 9
27. (a) 8 185, 245 9 (b) u1 8 185, 245 9, u2 8 285, 215 9
0 4 x
29. 28 31. 25 39. 16 ft-lb 41. 8660 ft-lb

43. 1164 lb 45. 23.6 15. (a) r 41cos u sin u 2
(b) y

1. (a) π
!12, 6 @ 3. (a) 7π
!_3, 4 @
2
π
6 O
7π
O 4
0 2 x
3 12 3 12
(b) A6 13, 6B (b) a , b
2 2
5. (a) 7. (a) y
17. (a)
5π π
!4 œ∑3, _ 3 @ !3, 2 @
8 (8, 8)
5π O (6, 0)
_ 3 O
1
3π
!3, 2 @
0 8 x
(b) 1x 2 y 2 3x 2 2 91x 2 y 2 2
(b) A2 13, 6B (b) a 8 12, b
p
19. (a)
4
(c) a 8 12, b
5p
4
(b) a 12, b
5p O
9. (a) y 2
4
0 x
(c) a 12, b
_8
p
4
Ó_6œ∑2, _6œ∑2Ô (b) 1x 2 y 2 2 3 16x 2y 2
_8
21. (a) 33. (a) Im
(1, π) (1, 0)
O _1+i i
_1 0 1 Re
(c) 12 a cos b
(b) x 2 y 2 1 3p 3p 3p
(b) 12, i sin
23. (a) 4 4 4
35. 8A1 i13B 37. 321 A1 i13B
π
!1, 2 @
13
39. 2 1211 i 2 41. 1, 12 i
2
43. 113, 具6, 4典, 具10, 2典, 具4, 6典, 具22, 7典
45. 3i 4j 47. 110, 22 49. (a) 14.8i 0.4 j 2 104
O (1, 0) (b) 4.8 104 lb, N 85.2 E 51. 5, 25, 60
53. 2 12, 8, 0 55. Yes 57. No, 45 59. (a) 17 137/37
(b) 8 102
37 , 37 9
17
(c) u1 8 102
37 , 37 9, u2 8 37 , 37 9
17 9 54
61. 6
(b) x 2 y 2 x y
25. 0
u
6p 27. 0
u
6p
1. (a) A4 12, 412B (b) A4 13, 5p/6B, A413, 11p/6B
1 5
2. (a) circle
_0.75 1.25 _4 6
_1 _5
O 8
29. (a) Im
4+4i (b) 1x 42 2 y 2 16
3. (a) Im
i
1+œ∑3 i
0 1 Re i
(c) 4 12 a cos i sin b

p p p
(b) 4 12, 0 1 Re
4 4 4
31. (a) Im
(b) 2 a cos i sin b

p p
(c) 512 4. 8, 13 i
3 3
13
5. 3i, 3 a ib
1 Im
5+3i
2 2
„⁄ „‚
i
0 1 Re
0 3 Re
(b) 134, tan1 A 35 B (c) 1343cosAtan1 53 B i sinAtan1 35 B 4

_3i „¤
6. (a) 6i 10 j (b) 2134

7. (a) 具19, 3典 (b) 5 12 (c) 0 (d) Yes 5. Infinitely many solutions
8. (a) y y
0 2 x
0 1 x
5p
7. 12, 2 2 9. 13, 12 11. 12, 12 13. 13, 52 15. 11, 3 2
(b) 8, 9. (a) 14i 6 13 j (b) 17.4 mi/h, N 53.4 E
6
10. (a) 45 (b) 126/2 (c) 52 i 12 j 11. 90 17. 110, 92 19. No solution 21. No solution
23. Ax, 13 x 53 B 25. Ax, 3 32 xB 27. 13, 72
29. Ax, 5 56 xB 31. 15, 102 33. No solution
Focus on Modeling ■ page 632
35. 13.87, 2.74 2 37. 161.00, 20.00 2 39. a b
1 1
,
1. (a) R 18/p ⬇ 5.73 (b) 691.2 mi a1 a1
3. (a) x ⬇ 12.23, y ⬇ 6.27 (b) x ⬇ 3.76, y ⬇ 8.43
41. a b 43. 22, 12 45. 5 dimes, 9 quarters
1 1
(c) x ⬇ 15.12, y ⬇ 3.85 (d) x ⬇ 4.31, y ⬇ 2.42 ,
ab ab
5. (a) 1.14 (b) 1.73 (c) 36.81 7. (a) 1.48 47. Plane’s speed 120 mi/h, wind speed 30 mi/h
(b) 1.21 (c) 1.007 49. Run 5 mi/h, cycle 20 mi/h 51. 200 g of A, 40 g of B
53. 25%, 10% 55. $16,000 at 10%, $32,000 at 6% 57. 25
Chapter 9
Section 9.1 ■ page 642 1. Linear 3. Nonlinear 5. 11, 3, 22
1. 13, 1 2 3. 14, 162 , 13, 92 5. 12, 2 2 , 12, 2 2 7. 14, 0, 3 2 9. A5, 2, 12 B
7. 125, 5 2 , 125, 52 9. 11, 2 2 11. 13, 4 2 , 13, 42 x 2y z 4 2x y 3z 2
13. 12, 12 , 12, 1 2 , 12, 1 2, 12, 12 11. • y 4z 4 13. • x 2y z 4
15. A1, 12B, A1, 12B, A 12, 272 B, A 12, 272 B 17. 12, 32 2x y z 0 3y 7z 14
12, 4 2 , A 52, 74 B 21. 10, 02 , 11, 1 2 , 12, 42 23. 14, 02 15. 11, 2, 12 17. 15, 0, 12 19. 10, 1, 22 21. 11 3t, 2t, t2
23. No solution 25. No solution 27. 13 t, 3 2t, t 2
19.
12, 22 27. 16, 2 2 , 12, 6 2 29. No solution
29. A2 2t, 23 43 t, tB 31. 11, 1, 1, 22
25.
31. A 15, 2B, A 15, 2B, A 15, 2B, A 15, 2B 33. $30,000 in short-term bonds, $30,000 in intermediate-term
33. A3, 12 B, A3, 12 B 35. A 15, 13 B 37. 10.33, 5.332 bonds, $40,000 in long-term bonds 35. Impossible
39. 12.00, 20.002 , 18.00, 02 41. 14.51, 2.172, 14.91, 0.972 37. 250 acres corn, 500 acres wheat, 450 acres soybeans
43. 11.23, 3.872 , 10.35, 4.212
45. 12.30, 0.702 , 10.48, 1.19 2 47. 12 cm by 15 cm Section 9.4 ■ page 673
49. 15, 20 51. 1400.50, 200.25 2 , 447.77 m 53. 112, 82 1. 3 2 3. 2 1 5. 1 3
x 3
7. (a) Yes (b) Yes (c) e
Section 9.2 ■ page 649 y5
1. 12, 2 2
x 2y 8z 0
(b) No (c) •
3. No solution
y y
9. (a) Yes y 3z 2
00
5
x 0
11. (a) No (b) No (c) • 00
_5 5 y 5z 1
1
0 x
x 3y „ 0
0 x
1
z 2„ 0
13. (a) Yes (b) Yes (c) d
_5 01
00
15. 11, 1, 2 2 17. 11, 0, 1 2 19. 11, 0, 1 2 21. 11, 5, 0 2 2 1 2 1 2 2

23. 110, 3, 2 2 25. No solution 27. 12 3t, 3 5t, t 2 1 3 1 2 3 2
29. No solution 31. 12t 5, t 2, t 2 2 3 1 1 3 1
(b) F V
33. x 12 s t 6, y s, z t 35. 12, 1, 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 1
37. 19, 2, 0 2 39. 10, 3, 0, 32 41. 11, 0, 0, 12 1 3 1 1 3 2
43. A 74 74 t, 74 34 t, 94 34 t, tB 2 3 1 2 3 2
45. x 13 s 23 t, y 13 s 13 t, z s, „ t 2 3 2 3 2 2
47. 2 VitaMax, 1 Vitron, 2 VitaPlus 49. 5-mile run, 3 0 3 2 1 2
2-mile swim, 30-mile cycle 51. Impossible
2 1 3 3 0 3
(c) F V
2 0 1 0 1 3
3 0 3 3 1 2
3 6
3. c d 5. £ 12 3 §
1 3 2 1 3 2 0 2
1. No 7. Impossible
1 5 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 0
1 12 3 0 3 3 0 3
9. c d 11. c d
5 2 1
13. No solution 3 0 3 3 0 3
7 10 7 1 2 (d) F V
0 5 3 0 0 0 0 3
5 2 5 1 3 5
15. £ 25 20 § 17. c d 19. c d 3 0 3 3 0 3
1 1 0 1 3 6 3 0 3 3 0 3
10 10
13 72 15 14 8 30 (e) The letter E
21. c d 23. c d
3 1 3 6 10 24
1 Section 9.6 ■ page 697
25. Impossible 27. c d 29. 3 28 21 28 4
3 2 5
2 3
5. c 7d 7. c d 9. c d
1 1 3 1 2 13 5
1 32 2 3 5 5 2
8 335
31. £ 8 § 33. c d 35. Impossible 4 4 5
11. No inverse 13. c 2d 15. £ 1 1 §
0 343 1 2
1 1
12
37. Impossible 39. x 2, y 1 3
5 4 6
2 5 x
41. x 1, y 2 43. c d c d c d
7 92 1 4
3 2 y 4 17. No inverse 19. £ 3 1 3 §
x1 7
1 3
3 2 1 1 0 2
45. £ 1 0 1 0§ ≥ 2 ¥ £5§
x
0 0 2 1
x3
1 0
21. ≥ ¥
0 3 1 1 4 1 1
x4 23. x 8, y 12
0 1 1 0
3 21 27 6
47. Only ACB is defined. ACB c d 1 0 0 1
2 14 18 4
25. x 126, y 50 27. x 38, y 9, z 47
49. (a) 34,690 1,690 13,210 4 (b) Total revenue in Santa 29. x 20, y 10, z 16 31. x 3, y 2, z 1
Monica, Long Beach, and Anaheim, respectively. 33. x 3, y 2, z 2 35. x 8, y 1, z 0, „ 3
51. (a) 3 105,000 58,0004 (b) The first entry is the total
37. c d c d
7 2 3 1 1 1
amount (in ounces) of tomato sauce produced, and the second 39.
entry is the total amount (in ounces) of tomato paste produced. 10 3 5 2a 1 1
53. 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1
41. ≥ ¥ ; inverse does not exist for x 0
x
0 3 0 1 2 1 1 2
1 2 0 0 3 0
(a) F V x x2
1 3 2 3 2 0
1 e x 0
2£e e 2x 0 § ; inverse exists for all x
0 3 0 0 2 1 1 x
43.
1 2 0 1 3 1
0 0 1
sin x 3 1 1 x1 1
45. c d ; inverse exists for all x
cos x

1x 22 2 1x
33. 35.
sin x cos x x2 32 2 x2 3 x
0 1 1 2x 5 5 1 x2 1
2 2
1x 12 2
37. 2 39. 2
47. (a) £ 2 3
2 0 § (b) 1 oz A, 1 oz B, 2 oz C x x2 x 1 x 1 x
1 32 3 x1 ab ab
1 41. x
2
2 43. A ,B
(c) 2 oz A, 0 oz B, 1 oz C (d) No x2 x 1 2 2
x y 2z 675
49. (a) • 2x y z 600 Section 9.9 ■ page 726
x 2y z 625 1. 3.
1 1 2 x 675 14 3
4 14 y y
(b) £ 2 1 1 § £ y § £ 600 § (c) A £ 4 4

1 1 1 3
4§
x=3
1 2 1 z 625 3
4 1
4 1
4
1 y=x
He earns $125 on a standard set, $150 or a deluxe set, and $200 1
on a leather-bound set. 0 1 x
0 1 x

1. 6 3. 4 5. Does not exist 7. 18 9. 20, 20
11. 12, 12 13. 0, 0 15. 4, has an inverse
17. 6, has an inverse 19. 5000, has an inverse 5. 7.
21. 4, has an inverse 23. 18 25. 120 27. (a) 2 y y
(b) 2 (c) Yes 29. 12, 5 2 31. 10.6, 0.4 2 1

33. 14, 1 2 35. 14, 2, 12 37. 11, 3, 2 2 39. 10, 1, 12 0 x
41. A 189
29 , 29 , 29 B 43. A 12, 14, 14, 1B 45. abcde
1
108 88
47. 0, 1, 2 49. 1, 1 1
2x − y = 8
100a 10b c 25 0 1 x
51. 21 53. 632 57. (a) • 225a 15b c 33 34

y = 2x + 2
1600a 40b c 40
(b) y 0.05x 2 3x
9. 11.
Section 9.8 ■ page 720 y y
A B A B C

1x 2 2
1. 3.
x1 x2 x2 2
x4
4x + 5y = 20
A Bx C Ax B Cx D
5. 2 7. 2 2
x3 x 4 x 1 x 2 1 y = x2 + 1
A B C D 0 x 1
1
12x 5 2 2 12x 5 2 3
9.
x 2x 5 0 x
1
Ex F Gx H
2 2
x 2x 5 1x 2x 5 2 2
1 1 1 1 13.
11. 13. y
x1 x1 x1 x4
2 2 1 1
15. 17.
x3 x3 x2 x2 2
3 2 12 3
2
19. 21. 0 x
x4 x2 2x 1 4x 3 2
2 3 1 2 1 1
23. 25. 2
x2 x2 2x 1 x1 x x
x2 + y2 = 25
1 3 2 1 2
29. 3
12x 3 2 2
27.
2x 3 x x x2 15. y
12 x 1 17. x 2 y 2 4
4 4 2 1

1x 1 2 2 1x 1 2 3
31.
x2 x1
19. 21. 39. 41.

y y y 10
y=x 1
(4, 3) (0, 3) (11, 8)
y= 4x +2 (−1, 8)
3 ( − 3 2 2, 3 2 2 ) 2 x 2 + y2 = 9
3
(2, 2)
0 x 0 x −5 13
3 2
0 3 x
x+y=0 −4
x+y=4 y = 2x − 5
bounded
not bounded not bounded
23. 25. 43.
y y 10
y=x+3
3x + 2y = 9 (0.6, 3.4)
y = 9 − x2
( 53 , 2) (2, 5) −4 10
3x + 5y = 15 (6.4, −2.4)
1 (−3, 0)
1 −6
0 1 x 0 x
1
45. x number of fiction books y
bounded bounded y number of nonfiction

27. 29. books
x y
100
• 20
y, x y
y y
( 2, 2) 2x2 + y = 12 (50, 50)
50
x2 + y2 =4 (20, 20)
x 0, y 0 (80, 20)
x−y=0
1
x2 − y = 0
5 0 50 x
0 1 x (−2, 4) (2, 4)
0 1 x
47. x number of standard y
(− 2, − 2)
packages
bounded bounded y number of deluxe
31. 33. packages
(70, 100)
y 3x − y = 0 y 1
4 x 8 y
80
5
(0, 128)
x+y=7 • 34 x 38 y
90 50
x−y=2
x + 2y = 14 x=5 x 0, y 0 0 50 x
(6, 4) (120, 0)
2
x (5, 2)
2
(−1, −3)
1 Chapter 9 Review ■ page 728
0 1 x
1. 12, 12 3. A 12, 74 B, 12, 22
5. 12, 1 2 7. x any number
not bounded bounded y 27 x 4
35. 37. y y
y y
x + 2y = 12 5
x2 + y2 = 8
y=x+1 x=2
(2, 2)
(−1, 132) (103, 133) 1
_5 0 5 x
1 0 1 x
3
x+1=0
0 1 x _5
0 3 x
(2 2, 0)
bounded bounded
9. No solution 97. 99.

y y y
x2 + y2 = 9
3x + y = 6
1
0 1 x
1
1
0 1 x
0 1 x
11. 13, 32 , 12, 8 2 13. A 167 , 143 B 15. 121.41, 15.93 2 101. 103.
17. 111.94, 1.39 2 , 112.07, 1.442 19. (a) 2 3 y y
x 2y 5
(b) Yes (c) No (d) e
y 3 1
x 8z 0
21. (a) 3 4 (b) Yes (c) Yes (d) • y 5z 1
0 1 x
1
0 0 0 1 x
y 3z 4
23. (a) 3 4 (b) No (c) No (d) • x y 7
x 2y z 2 105. 107.
25. 11, 1, 2 2 27. No solution 29. 18, 7, 102 y
31. No solution 33. 11, 0, 1, 22
y
x2 + y2 =9 y=x+4
35. x 4t 1, y t 1, z t
37. x 6 5t, y 12 17 3t2 , z t (− 3 2 2, 3 2 2 ) 2 4
x + 2y = 12
39. 1 43 t 43, 53 t 23, t 2 41. 1s 1, 2s t 1, s, t 2

43. No solution 45. 11, t 1, t, 02
0 2 x 0 x
4
x+y=0
47. $3000 at 6%, $6000 at 7% 49. $11,250 in bank A, ( 4 16
,
3 3 )
$22,500 in bank B, $26,250 in bank C 51. Impossible
4 18 ( 3 2 2, − 3 2 2 )
7
53. £ 4 0§ 55. 3 10 5 4 57. c 2 d
10
0 bounded bounded
1 92 bc ac ab
2 2 109. x ,y ,z 111. 2, 3
12 11
2
2 2 2
59. c d £ 154 32 §
30 22 2
61.
9 1 4 Chapter 9 Test ■ page 733
12 1
1 1 3 2 7
2 2 1. (a) Linear (b) 12, 3 2
3c d 67. c d 69. c d
6
2. (a) Nonlinear (b) 11, 2 2 , A 53, 0B
2
65.
5 2 0 8 4 5 9
9 4 3. 10.55, 0.782, 10.43, 0.29 2 , 12.12, 0.562
71. 1, c d 73. 0, no inverse 4. Wind 60 km/h, airplane 300 km/h 5. (a) Row-echelon
2 1
form (b) Reduced row-echelon form (c) Neither
1 0 0 14
3 2 3 6. (a) A 52, 52, 0B (b) No solution 7. A 35 25 t, 15 15 t, tB
0 12 0 14
75. 1, £ 2 1 2 § 77. 24, ≥ ¥ 8. Coffee $1.50, juice $1.75, donut $0.75
0 0 13 14 9. (a) Incompatible dimensions (b) Incompatible dimensions
8 6 9 1
0 0 0 4 6 10 36 58
2 32
79. 165, 1542 81. A 12, 12, 12 B
1 1 1
(c) £ 3 2 § (d) £ 0 3 § (e) c d
1 1
83. A 15, 95 B 85. A 87
26 , 26 , 2 B
21 3 3 9 18 28
(f) B is not square (g) B is not square (h) 3
2 1 4 4 2
4 3 x
1x 12 2 10. (a) c d c d c d (b) 170, 902
87. 11 89. 91. 10
x5 x3 x x1
3 2 y 30
1 x2
93. 2 95. x y 2
4 1 2 0
x 1
11. 0 A 0 0, 0 B 0 2, B £ 0 0§
x 1 1
2
3 6 1
12. 15, 5, 42 11. FA0, 201 B; y 201 ; 15 13. FA 321 , 0B; x 321 ; 18
1 1 1 1 x2 y
(b) 2 y
1x 12 2
13. (a)
x1 x2 x x 3
14. (a) (b)
1
y y
y = 2x + 5
x − y = −2 4
_10 0 x
x2 + y = 5 _1
_1 0 1 x
x + 2y = 4
(2, 4)
15. FA0, 32 B; y 32; 6

2x + y = 8 (_2, 1) 1
17. FA 125 , 0B; x 125 ; 53
1
0 1 x
y y
0 1 x
0 x 2
_3 3
_1
Focus on Modeling ■ page 739 0 x

_1
1. 198, 195
3. y maximum 161 _2
minimum 135
2x + y = 10 19. 21.
1 1
2x + 4y = 28
3
0 3 x _3 1
_3 3
_0.5 _1
5. 3 tables, 34 chairs
7. 30 grapefruit crates, 30 orange crates 23.
9. 15 Pasadena to Santa Monica, 3 Pasadena to El Toro, 0 Long 4
Beach to Santa Monica, 16 Long Beach to El Toro
11. 90 standard, 40 deluxe
13. $7500 in municipal bonds, $2500 in bank certificates, _2 1
$2000 in high-risk bonds
15. 4 games, 32 educational, 0 utility
_4
Chapter 10 25. x 2 8y 27. y 2 32x

29. y 2 8x 31. x 2 40y
Section 10.1 ■ page 751 33. y 2 4x 35. x 2 20y
1. III 3. II 5. VI 37. x 2 8y 39. y 2 16x
41. y 2 3x 43. x y 2
Order of answers: focus; directrix; focal diameter
9. FA0, 94 B; y 94; 9
45. x 2 4 12y
7. F11, 02 ; x 1; 4
47. (a) x 2 4py, p 12, 1, 4, and 8
y y
(b) The closer the directrix to the 0
_3 3
vertex, the steeper the parabola.
2 p=8
0 1 x p=4
1
_2
_2 0 2 x
1 _1
p=1 p= 2
49. (a) y 2 12x (b) 8 115 ⬇ 31 cm 51. x 2 600y

Section 10.2 ■ page 759 25. 27.

5 7
1. II 3. I
Order of answers: vertices; foci; eccentricity; major axis and
minor axis
5. V15, 0 2; F14, 0 2 ; 7. V10, 3 2; FA0, 15B;
_6 6 _7 7
4
5 ; 10, 6 15/3; 6, 4
y y _5 _7
3
x2 y2 y2
2 29. 1 31. x 2 1
25 9 4
2
_5 0 5 x x2 y x2 y2
_2 0 2 x 33. 1 35. 1
9 13 100 91
2
_3 _2
x2 y 64x 2 64y 2
37. 1 39. 1
25 5 225 81
41. 10, 2 2 43. 11, 02
9. V14, 0 2 ; FA2 13, 0B;
y
11. VA0, 13B; FA0, 13/2B; y
13/2; 8, 4 1/ 12; 2 13, 16 2
y y
2 1
_3 0 3 x
2
_1 0 1 x
_2
0 4 x 0
_4 _2 2 x
_2
_2 45. (a) 6 (b) Common major
k=4 axes and vertices;
13. V11, 0 2 ; FA13/2, 0B; 15. VA0, 12B; FA0, 13/2B; k=10 eccentricity increases
13/2; 2, 1 13/2; 2 12, 12 k=25 as k increases.
y y k=50
_12 12
2
1
_1
x2 y2
0 x 47. 1
_1 1
_1 0 1 2.2500 1016 2.2491 1016
x2 y2
_1
49. 1 51. 5 139/2 ⬇ 15.6 in.
_2
1,455,642 1,451,610

17. V10, 12 ; FA0, 1/ 12B; 1/ 12; 2, 12
1. III 3. II
y
Order of answers: vertices; foci; asymptotes

5. V12, 0 2; FA2 15, 0B;
1
7. V10, 12 ; FA0, 126B;
y 2x y 15 x
_1 0 1 x y y
2
_1 3
0 x _5 5 x
_3 3
x2 y2 x2 y2
19. 1 21. 1 _3
25 16 4 8 _2
2 2
x y
23. 1
256 48
9. V11, 0 2; FA12, 0B; 11. V10, 32 ; FA0, 134B; Section 10.4 ■ page 781
y x y 35 x 1. Center C12, 12 ; 3. Center C10, 52 ;
y y foci FA2 15, 1B ; foci F1 10, 12 , F2 10, 92 ;
5 vertices V1 11, 12 , V2 15, 12 ; vertices V1 10, 02 , V2 10, 10 2 ;
3
major axis 6, minor axis 4 major axis 10, minor axis 6
y y
3 _3 0 3 x
x _5 5 x
_3 3
0 _5
_3 _5 x
5
_1
13. VA2 12, 0B; FA110, 0B; 15. VA0, 12 B; FA0, 15/2B;
y 12 x y 12 x 5. Vertex V13, 1 2 ; 7. Vertex VA 12, 0B ;
y y focus F13, 12 ; focus FA 12, 161 B ;
5
directrix y 3 directrix y 161
2 y y
_1 0 1 x
x 3
_5 5 _3 3 x
3
_2
_2 _3 0 x
_5 _2
x2 y2 y2 x2
17. 1 19. 1
11. Center C11, 0 2 ;
4 12 16 16
9. Center C11, 32 ; foci
x2

4y 2
1 F1 16, 32 , F2 14, 32 ; vertices foci FA1, 15B ;
V1 14, 32 , V2 12, 32 ; asymptotes vertices V11, 1 2 ;
21.
9 9
23. 25. y 43 1x 12 3 asymptotes y 12 1x 12
8 8 y y
2
_8 8 _8 8
2 x
1
_8 _8
0 1 x
x2 y2 x2
27. 1 29. y 2 1
1x 5 2 2
9 16 3
y2
y2 5y 2 5x 2 13. x 2 14 1y 42 15. 1
31. x2 1 33. 1 25 16
17. 1 y 12 2 x 2 1
25 64 256
2 2
x2 y x2 y
35. 1 37. 1 19. Ellipse; C12, 02 ; 21. Hyperbola;
16 16 9 16 FA2, 15B; V12, 32 ; C11, 2 2; F1 A 32, 2B, F2 A 72, 2B;
39. (b) x y c /2
2 2 2
major axis 6, VA1 15, 2B ; asymptotes
43. (b) 10 minor axis 4 y 12 1x 12 2
k=12 y y
k=8
As k increases, the
asymptotes get
k=4
4
steeper. 1
k=1
0 1 x
_5 5
0
0 4 x
45. x 2 y 2 2.3 1019
23. Ellipse; C13, 5 2 ; 25. Hyperbola; C13, 0 2 ; 13. (a) Hyberbola 15. (a) Parabola
FA3 121, 5B; F13, 5 2;V13, 42 ; (b) X 2 Y 2 16 (b) Y 12 X 2
V1 12, 52 , V1 18, 52 ; asymptotes y 43 1x 32 (c) f 45 (c) f 45
major axis 10, minor axis 4 y y
y y
Y
Y
X
0 3 x 6
6
_6
0 6 x
_5 1 x
_6 6
0 1 x _6
17. (a) Hyberbola 19. (a) Hyberbola

(b) Y 2 X 2 1 X2
27. Degenerate conic 29. Point 11, 3 2 (c) f 30
(b) Y2 1
4
(pair of lines),
(c) f ⬇ 53
y 12 1x 4 2
y y y
y Y
X
4 5
Y
(1, 3 ) X 4
_4
_5 0 5 x 4 x
0 4 x 1
_4
0 x _5
1
31. 33. 21. (a) Hyberbola 23. (a) Hyberbola

3 8 (b) 3X 2 Y 2 2 13 (b) 1X 12 2 3Y 2 1
_2 4
(c) f 30 (c) f 60
_2 6 y y
Y
X
6 6
Y
X
_9 _12
_6 6 x _6 6 x
35. (a) F 17 (b) F 17 (c) F 17

_6 _6
37. (a) 1
p=2
6 p=1
3
p= 2
p=2
25. (a) Ellipse 27. (a) Parabola
_6 6
1Y 1 2 2 (b)
p=-2 (b) X 2 1
p=-2
3 4
_6 1
p=-1 (c) f ⬇ 53
p=-2
y 6
X
(c) The parabolas become narrower. 1

1x 150 2 2
Y
y2
39. 1 x
18,062,500 18,040,000 1 _2 6

1. A 12, 0B 3. A0, 2 13B 5. 11.6383, 1.14722
_4
7. X 2 13XY 2 0
9. 7Y 2 48XY 7X 2 40X 30Y 0 11. X 2 Y 2 2
29. (a) Hyperbola 25. The ellipse is nearly circular e=0.4

e=1.0
(b) 10 when e is close to 0 and becomes
more elongated as e 씮 1. At e 1,
e=0.6
the curve becomes a parabola. e=0.8
_10 15
27. (b) r 11.49 108 2/11 0.017 cos u 2 29. 0.25

_15

31. (a) 1X 5 2 2 Y 2 1
(b) XY-coordinates: C15, 0 2 ; V1 16, 0 2 , V2 14, 02 ; FA5 12, 0B ;
1. (a) 3. (a)
y y
xy-coordinates: C14, 32 ; V1 A 245, 185 B, V2 A 165, 125 B;
F1 A4 45 12, 3 35 12B, F2 A4 45 12, 3 35 12B
(c) Y 1X 5 2 ; 7x y 25 0, x 7y 25 0
6
1
33. X x cos f y sin f; Y x sin f y cos f 0 x

_6 6
0 4 16 x
1. r 6/13 2 cos u 2 3. r 2/11 sin u 2 (b) x 2y 12 0 (b) x 1 y 2 2 2
5. r 20/11 4 cos u 2 7. r 10/11 sin u 2 5. (a) 7. (a)
9. II 11. VI 13. IV y y
15. (a) 3, hyperbola 17. (a) 1, parabola
1
(b) (b) 3
_3 0 3 x
π
!2, 2
@
_3 0 3 x
(1,0) (_2,π) (1,π)
O O
_3
3π 1
!2, 2 @
(b) x 11 y (b) y 1
x
9. (a) 11. (a)
y y
19. (a) 12 , ellipse 21. (a) 52 , hyperbola
(b) π
!2, @ (b) 3
2
1
(3, 0)
O
O _3 0 3 x
3π _1 0 1 x
!1, 2 @
7 π _1
!_ 3 , 2 @ _3
3π
(b) x 3 y 2 (b) x 2 y 2 4, x 0
!6, 2 @
13. (a) 15. (a)

23. (a) e 34, directrix x 13 y y
1 1
1
(b) r 1
4 3 cos a u b
p
3
0 1 x
_0.5 1
0 1 x
_0.5 (b) y x 2, 0
x
1 (b) y 2x 2 1, 1
x
1
17. (a) 19. (a) 4 cos t 4 sin t

45. (a) x ,y
y y 2 cos t 2 cos t
(b) 3
_2 5
1 1
0 x 0 1 x
1
_3
(b) x 2 y 2 1, x 1, y 0 (b) xy 1, x 0 47. III 49. II

21. (a) 51. 53. (b) x 2/3 y 2/3 a 2/3
y
6 y
1 a
_20 20 0 a x
0 1 x _1
(b) x y 1, 0
x
1 23. x 4 t, y 1 12 t
25. x 6 t, y 7 t 27. x a cos t, y a sin t
31. 33. 55. x a1sin u cos u cot u 2 , y a11 sin2u 2
y y 57. (a) x a sec u, y b sin u
(b) 3
3
3
_10 10
_2 0 2 x
_3 0 3 x
_3
_3
_3
x 22ay y 2
37. 39. 59. y a a cos a b
2.5 6 a
61. (b) 15
_1.25 1.25 _3.5 3.5
_23 23
_2.5 _6
41. 1.2 _15

_1 1
1. V10, 0 2 ; F11, 02; x 1 3. V10, 02 ; F10, 2 2; y 2
y y
_1.2
43. (a) x 2t/12 cos t, y 2t/12 sin t 2 2
(b) 2.5 _2 2
0 x
0 1 x
_2
_2.5 2.5
_2
_2.5
5. V12, 22 ; FA 74, 2B; 7. V12, 3 2; F12, 22 ; 21. C14, 02; V1 18, 02 , 23. C13, 1 2;
x 94 y 4 V2 10, 02 ; FA4 4 12, 0B; VA3, 1 12B;
y y asymptotes y 1x 42 FA3, 1 2 15B;
asymptotes y 13 x,
2
y 13 x 2
2 y y
_1 0 x 2
4
_2 0 2 x
_2 _2
1
_3 0 3 x
_4 0 1 x
9. C10, 0 2 ; V10, 52 ; F10, 4 2 ; 11. C10, 0 2 ; V14, 0 2 ;

_2
axes 10, 6 FA2 13, 0B; axes 8, 4

y y
y2 x2
25. y 2 8x 27. 1
2 16 9
1x 42 1y 22
1 2 2
_2 0 2 x _4 0 4 x 29. 1
_2
16 4
31. Parabola; 33. Hyperbola;
F10, 2 2 ; V10, 1 2 FA0, 12 12B; V10, 122
y y
13. C13, 0 2 ; V13, 4 2 ; 15. C10, 2 2; V13, 2 2 ;

18
3
FA3, 17B; axes 8, 6 FA 15, 2B; axes 6, 4
y y
_3 0 3 x
_18 18 x
4 0
_3
_18
1 x
1
0 x
_3 3 35. Ellipse; FA1, 4 115B; 37. Parabola;
4 , 8B; V164, 8 2
_4
VA1, 4 2 15B FA 255
y y
17. C10, 0 2 ; V10, 42 ; 19. C10, 0 2 ; V14, 0 2;

F10, 52 ; asymptotes FA2 16, 0B; asymptotes
y 43 x 1
y x
12 5
3
y y
_60 0 x
3 _5
_3 0 3 x
0 x
2 x _3 3
39. Ellipse; FA3, 3 1/ 12B; y
_3
V1 13, 42 , V2 13, 22
0 3 x
_3
41. Has no graph 43. x 2 4y 69. (a) 71.

y2 x2 1x 1 2 2 1y 222 y 1.25
45. 1 47. 1
4 16 3 4
41x 72 2 1y 222
49. 1 1 _1.25 1.25
225 100
51. (a) 91,419,000 mi (b) 94,581,000 mi
53. (a) 55. (a) Hyperbola _1.25
(b) 3X 2 Y 2 1 0 1 x
(c) f 45
(b) 1x 1 2 2 1 y 12 2 1, 1
x
2, 0
y
1
10 y
Y
X
k=8
k=4 2 73. x 12 11 cos u 2, y 12 1sin u tan u 2
_10 10
2
_2 x Chapter 10 Test ■ page 814
k=2
_2 1. F10, 32, y 3 2. V14, 02 ; FA2 13, 0B; 8, 4
_10 k=1
y y
2
2
57. (a) Ellipse 59. Ellipse
(b) 1X 1 2 2 4Y 2 1 _4 0 4 x
(c) f 30 _2
_4 0 4 x
y 5 _2
1 X
Y
3. V10, 32; F10, 5 2; y 34 x

_5 5
y
8
_5
1 x
61. Parabola 63. (a) e 1, parabola _8 0 8 x
(b)
20
_8
1y 32 2 y2
1 6. 1x 22 2
1
! 2 , π@ x2
_15 15 4. y 2 x 5. 1
O 1 16 9 3
1x 3 2 2 A y 12 B 2 1x 22 2 1y 422
_10
7. 1 8. 1
9 4 8 9
y y
65. (a) e 2, hyperbola 67. (a) 3
y
3π
!_4, 2 @
0 x 4
6
4 π 2
! 3 , 2 @
_2 _3
O 0 x _2 0 x
1
_2
(b) x 2y y 2
9. 1 y 4 2 2 21x 4 2 y (d) y
(feet)
2
_4 0 4 x
100
_4
0 1000 x
(feet)
√ 20 sin2u
5. 7. No, u ⬇ 23
2g
2 2
y x
10. 1 11. x 2 4x 8y 20 0
9 16
X2 Y2 Chapter 11
12. 34 in. 13. (a) Ellipse (b) 1
3 18
(c) f ⬇ 27 y Section 11.1 ■ page 830
Y
1. 2, 3, 4, 5; 101 3. 21, 13, 14, 15; 101
1
5. 1, 14, 19, 161 ; 10,000
1
100
7. 0, 2, 0, 2; 2 9. 1, 4, 27, 256; 100
2 X 11. 3, 2, 0, 4, 12 13. 1, 3, 7, 15, 31 15. 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
17. (a) 7, 11, 15, 19, 23, 27, 31, 35, 39, 43
_2 2 x (b) 45
_2
(d) A3 22/5, 6 22/5B, A3 22/5, 6 22/5B 0 11
12 12 3 4 6
1 19. (a) 12, 6, 4, 3, 5, 2, 7 , 2, 3, 5
14. (a) r (b) Ellipse
1 0.5 cos u (b) 14
1
0 11
1 1 1 1
21. (a) 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 12
(b) 3
1x 3 2 2 y2
15. (a) (b) 1, x 3
9 4
y
2
0 11
0 2 x 23. 2n 25. 3n 2 27. 12n 1 2/n2 29. 1 11 2 n

_2
31. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36 33. 31, 49, 13 40 121 364
27 , 81 , 243 , 729
1
27 , 81 ; S n 1 n
35. 23, 89, 26 80
3
37. 1 12, 1 13, 1, 1 15; Sn 1 1n 1
Focus on Modeling ■ page 818 39. 10 41. 116 43. 8 45. 31 47. 385 49. 46,438
51. 22 53. 11 12 13 14 15
1. y a 2 b x 2 1tan u 2 x
g
55. 14 15 16 17 18 19 110
2√0 cos2u 100 10
3. (a) 5.45 s (b) 118.7 ft (c) 5426.5 ft 57. x 3 x 4 . . . x 100 59. a k 61. a k 2
k1 k1
999 100
3. (a) 25, 54, 58, 165 , 325 (b) 12
65. a x k 67. 212 12/2
1 n n
2
63. a
k1 k1k 1 k0 (c) a n
69. (a) 2004.00, 2008.01, 2012.02, 2016.05, 2020.08, 2024.12
(b) $2149.16 71. (a) 35,700, 36,414, 37,142, 37,885, 38,643
(b) 42,665 73. (b) 6898 75. (a) Sn Sn1 2000 1
(b) $38,000
0 1 n
_1
1. (a) 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 (b) 2
(c) a n 5. an 3 ⴢ 5n1, a4 375 7. a n 52 A 12 B n1, a 4 165
15 9. Geometric, 2 11. Geometric, 21 13. Not geometric
15. Geometric, 1.1 17. 6, 18, 54, 162, 486; geometric,
10
common ratio 3; an 6 ⴢ 3n1 19. 41, 161 , 641 , 256 1 1
, 1024 ; geometric,
common ratio 14; a n 14 A 14 B n1 21. 0, ln 5, 2 ln 5, 3 ln 5, 4 ln 5;
5
not geometric 23. 3, a5 162, an 2 ⴢ 3n1
25. 0.3, a 5 0.00243, a n 10.3 2 10.3 2 n1
, a n 144 A 121 B n1
0 1 n
27. 121 , a 5 144 1
29. 32/3, a 5 311/3, a n 312n12/3

3. (a) 52, 32, 12, 12, 32 (b) 1
(c) a n 31. s 2/7, a 5 s 8/7, a n s 21n12/7
33. 21 35. 254 37. 11th 39. 315 41. 441 43. 3280
45. 6141
1024 47. 32 49. 34 51. 648 1
53. 1000
117 55. 97
1 112
1 57. 33 59. 999 61. 10, 20, 40
63. (a) Vn 160,00010.80 2 n1 (b) 4th year
65. 19 ft, 80 A 34 B n 67. 64 25 , 625 , 5 A 5 B
0 1024 4 n
1 n
69. (a) 17 89 ft
(b) 18 A 3 B
_1 1 n3
71. 2801 73. 3 m 75. (a) 2
(b) 8 4 12 77. 1
5. a n 3 51n 12, a 10 48
7. a n 52 12 1n 12 , a 10 2 9. Arithmetic, 3
11. Not arithmetic 13. Arithmetic, 32
15. Arithmetic, 1.7 17. 11, 18, 25, 32, 39; 7; 1. $13,180.79 3. $360,262.21 5. $5,591.79 7. $245.66
a n 11 71n 12 19. 13, 15, 17, 19, 111 ; not arithmetic 9. $2,601.59 11. $307.24 13. $733.76, $264,153.60
21. 4, 2, 8, 14, 20; 6; a n 4 61n 12 15. (a) $859.15 (b) $309,294.00
23. 3, a 5 14, a n 2 31n 12 , a 100 299 (c) $1,841,519.29 17. $341.24 19. 18.16% 21. 11.68%
25. 5, a 5 24, a n 4 51n 12 , a 100 499
27. 4, a 5 4, a n 12 41n 12 , a 100 384 Section 11.5 ■ page 859
29. 1.5, a 5 31, a n 25 1.51n 12 , a 100 173.5 1. Let P1n2 denote the statement
31. s, a 5 2 4s, a n 2 1n 1 2s, a 100 2 99s 2 4 . . . 2n n1n 12 .
33. 12 35. 100, 98, 96 37. 30th 39. 100 41. 460
43. 1090 45. 20,301 47. 832.3 49. 46.75 53. Yes Step 1 P112 is true since 2 111 1 2 .
55. 50 57. $1250 59. $403,500 61. 20 63. 78 Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then
2 4 . . . 2k 21k 12
k1k 1 2 21k 1 2
Section 11.3 ■ page 844 Induction
hypothesis
1k 1 2 1k 22
1. (a) 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 (b) 2
(c) a n
80 So P1k 12 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of
60 Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n.
40 3. Let P1n2 denote the statement

n13n 72
20 5 8 . . . 13n 22 .
2
0 1 n
113 # 1 7 2 So P1k 12 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of

Step 1 P112 is true since 5 Mathematical Induction, P1n2 holds for all n.
2
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then 9. Let P1n 2 denote the statement
23 43 . . . 12n 2 3 2n2 1n 1 2 2.
5 8 . . . 13k 22 3 31k 12 24
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 23 2 # 12 11 1 2 2.
k13k 7 2 Induction
13k 5 2 hypothesis Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then
2
23 43 . . . 12k 2 3 3 21k 12 4 3
3k 2 13k 10

2 2k 2 1k 12 2 3 21k 12 4 3 Induction hypothesis
1k 12 3 31k 12 7 4 1k 12 12k 8k 82
2 2
21k 12 2 1k 22 2

2
So P1k 12 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of
So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k2 . Thus, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P1n2 holds for all n.
Mathematical Induction, P1n2 holds for all n.
5. Let P1n 2 denote the statement
11. Let P1n2 denote the statement
n1n 1 2 1n 2 2 1 # 2 2 # 22 . . . n # 2n 23 1 1n 1 22n 4 .
1 # 2 2 # 3 . . . n1n 1 2
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 1 # 2 2 31 04 .
.
3
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then
1 # 11 1 2 # 11 2 2
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 1 # 2 . 1 # 2 2 # 22 . . . k # 2k 1k 12 # 2k1
3
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then 23 1 1k 1 22k 4 1k 1 2 # 2k1
Induction
hypothesis
1 # 2 2 # 3 . . . k1k 1 2 1k 1 2 1k 2 2 2 1k 1 22k1 1k 12 # 2k1
k1k 1 2 1k 22 Induction 2 2k2k1 211 k2k1 2

1k 1 2 1k 22 hypothesis
3 So P1k 12 follows from P1k2 . Thus, by the Principle of
1k 1 2 1k 2 2 1k 3 2
13. Let P1n2 denote the statement n 2 n is divisible by 2.
3
Step 1 P112 is true since 12 1 is divisible by 2.
So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Now
1k 12 2 1k 12 k 2 2k 1 k 1
n2 1n 1 2 2 1k 2 k 2 21k 12
13 23 . . . n3 .
4 But k 2 k is divisible by 2 (by the induction hypothesis) and
21k 12 is clearly divisible by 2, so 1k 1 2 2 1k 12 is
12 # 11 1 2 2
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 13 . divisible by 2. So P1k 12 follows from P1k2 . Thus, by the
4 Principle of Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n.
15. Let P1n2 denote the statement n 2 n 41 is odd.
13 23 . . . k 3 1k 1 2 3
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 12 1 41 is odd.
k 2 1k 1 2 2 Induction
1k 1 2 3
hypothesis
Step 2 Suppose P1k2 is true. Now
1k 12 2 1k 12 41 1k 2 k 412 2k
4
1k 12 3 k 41k 12 4
2 2
But k 2 k 41 is odd (by the induction hypothesis) and 2k is
4 clearly even, so their sum is odd. So P1k 12 follows from
1k 12 2 1k 2 2 2 P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P1n2
holds for all n.
4
17. Let P1n2 denote the statement 8n 3n is divisible by 5.
Step 1 P112 is true since 81 31 is divisible by 5.
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Now 27. Let P1n2 denote the statement F3n is even.
8k1
3k1
8#8 3#3
k k
Step 1 P112 is true since F3ⴢ1 2, which is even.
8 # 8 18 5 2 # 3 8 # 18 3 2 5 # 3
k k k k k Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Now, by the definition of the
Fibonacci sequence
which is divisible by 5 because 8k 3k is divisible by 5 (by the
induction hypothesis) and 5 ⴢ 3k is clearly divisible by 5. So F31k12 F3k3 F3k2 F3k1
P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of Mathe- F3k1 F3k F3k1
matical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n.
F3k 2 # F3k1
19. Let P1n 2 denote the statement n 2 . n
But F3k is even (by the induction hypothesis) and 2 ⴢ F3k1 is
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 1 21. clearly even, so F31k12 is even. So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k2 .
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then Thus, by the Principle of Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds
for all n.
k 1 2k 1 Induction hypothesis
29. Let P1n2 denote the statement
F 21 F 22 . . . F 2n Fn # Fn1.
2 2k k
Because 1 2k
2 # 2k 2k1
Step 1 P112 is true since F 12 F1 ⴢ F2 (because F1 F2 1).
So P1k 12 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then
Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n.
F 21 F 22 . . . F 2k F 2k1
21. Let P1n2 denote the statement 11 x 2 n 1 nx for
Fk # Fk1 F 2k1 Induction hypothesis
x 1.
Fk1 1Fk Fk1 2
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 11 x 2 1 1 1 # x.
Definition of the
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then Fk1 # Fk2 Fibonacci sequence
11 x 2 k1 11 x2 11 x 2 k So P1k 12 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of

11 x2 11 kx2
Induction hypothesis
31. Let P1n 2 denote the statement c d c n1 d.
1 n
1 1k 1 2 x kx 2
1 F Fn
1 0 Fn Fn1
1 1k 1 2 x
Step 1 P122 is true since c d c d c 3 d.
1 1 2 2 1 F F2
So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of
1 0 1 1 F2 F1
23. Let P1n2 denote the statement an 5 ⴢ 3n1.
c d c d c d
1 1 k1 1 1 k 1 1
Step 1 P112 is true since a1 5 ⴢ 3 5. 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
c dc d
Fk1 Fk 1 1
a k1 3 # a k
Induction hypothesis
Definition of ak1 Fk Fk1 1 0
3 # 5 # 3k1 Induction hypothesis c

Fk1 Fk Fk1
d
Fk Fk1 Fk
5 # 3k
So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of c d
Fk2 Fk1 Definition of the
Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n. Fk1 Fk Fibonacci sequence
25. Let P1n2 denote the statement x y is a factor of x n y n. So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of
Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n 2.
Step 1 P112 is true since x y is a factor of x 1 y 1.
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Now
33. Let P1n2 denote the statement Fn n.
x k1 y k1 x k1 x ky x ky y k1 Step 1 P152 is true since F5 5 (because F5 5).
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Now
x k 1x y2 1x k y k 2 y
Fk1 Fk Fk1 Definition of the Fibonacci sequence
But x k 1x y 2 is clearly divisible by x y and 1x k y k 2 y is
divisible by x y (by the induction hypothesis), so their sum is k Fk1 Induction hypothesis
divisible by x y. So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the k1 Because Fk1 1
Principle of Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n.
Mathematical Induction, P1n2 holds for all n 5.
Section 11.6 ■ page 868 53. Geometric, 9831 55. 13

1. x 6 6x 5y 15x 4y 2 20x 3y 3 15x 2y 4 6xy 5 y 6 57. 65,534 59. $2390.27
4 1 61. 57 63. 12 A3 13B
3. x 4 4x 2 6 2 4 65. Let P1n2 denote the statement
x x
n13n 12
5. x 5 5x 4 10x 3 10x 2 5x 1 1 4 7 . . . 13n 22 .
7. x 10y 5 5x 8y 4 10x 6y 3 10x 4y 2 5x 2y 1 2
9. 8x 3 36x 2y 54xy 2 27y 3 113 # 1 1 2
1 5 10 10 Step 1 P112 is true since 1 .
11. 5 7/2 2 1/2 5x x 5/2 2
x x x x Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then
13. 15 15. 4950 17. 18
19. 32 21. x 4 8x 3y 24x 2y 2 32xy 3 16y 4 1 4 7 . . . 13k 2 2 331k 1 2 2 4
6 15 20 15 6 1 k13k 1 2
23. 1 2 3 4 5 6
x x x x x x 3 3k 1 4 Induction hypothesis
2
25. x 20 40x 19y 760x 18y 2 27. 25a 26/3 a 25/3
29. 48,620x 18 31. 300a 2b 23 33. 100y 99 3k 2 k 6k 2

35. 13,440x 4y 6 37. 495a 8b 8 39. 1x y 2 4 2
41. 12a b2 3 43. 3x 2 3xh h 2 1k 12 13k 22

2
Chapter 11 Review ■ page 870 1k 1 2 331k 12 14
1. 12, 43, 94, 165, 100 3. 0, 14, 0, 321 , 500
1
11 2
5. 1, 3, 15, 105; 654,729,075

7. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49 9. 1, 3, 5, 11, 21, 43, 85
11. (a) 7, 9, 11, 13, 15
(b) a n (c) Arithmetic, common 67. Let P1n2 denote the statement
15 difference 2 A1 11 B A1 12 B . . . A1 1n B n 1.
Step 1 P112 is true since A1 11 B 1 1.

10
5
a1 b a1 b . . . a1 b a1 b
1 1 1 1
0 1 n 1 2 k k1
1k 12 a 1 b
1
13. (a) 34, 98, 27 81 243
16 , 32 , 64 Induction hypothesis
k1
(b) a n (c) Geometric, common
ratio 32 1k 1 2 1
4
3 So P1k 12 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of

2
1 69. Let P1n 2 denote the statement an 2 ⴢ 3n 2.
0 n
Step 1 P11 2 is true since a1 2 ⴢ 31 2 4.
1
Step 2 Suppose P1k2 is true. Then
a k1 3a k 4
15. Arithmetic, 7 17. Arithmetic, 5 12
19. Arithmetic, t 1 21. Geometric, 274 312 # 3k 22 4 Induction hypothesis
23. 2i 25. 5 27. 814 29. (a) An 32,00011.05 2 n1 2 # 3k1 2
(b) $32,000, $33,600, $35,280, $37,044, $38,896.20,
$40,841.01, $42,883.06, $45,027.21 31. 12,288 So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k 2 . Thus, by the Principle of
35. (a) 9 (b) 6 12 37. 126 39. 384 Mathematical Induction, P1n2 holds for all n.
41. 02 12 22 . . . 92 71. Let P1n 2 denote the statement n! 2n for n 4.
3 32 33 350 33 100
43. 2 3 4 . . . 51 45. a 3k 47. a k2k2
2 2 2 2 k1 k1
Step 1 P14 2 is true since 4! 24.
49. Geometric; 4.68559 51. Arithmetic, 5050 15
Step 2 Suppose P1k 2 is true. Then Focus on Modeling ■ page 877

1k 12 ! k!1k 12 1. (a) An 1.0001An1, A0 275,000 (b) A0 275,000,
A1 275,027.50, A2 275,055.00, A3 275,082.51,
2k 1k 1 2 Induction hypothesis A4 275,110.02, A5 275,137.53, A6 275,165.04,
2 k1
Because k 1 2 A7 275,192.56 (c) An 1.0001n 1275,0002
3. (a) An 1.0025An1 100, A0 100 (b) A0 100,
A1 200.25, A2 300.75, A3 401.50, A4 502.51
Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n 4.
(c) An 1003 11.0025n1 12 /0.0025 4 (d) $603.76
73. 255 75. 12,870
5. (b) A0 2400, A1 3120, A2 3336, A3 3400.8,
A4 3420.2 (c) An 3428.611 0.3n1 2
77. 16x 4 32x 3y 24x 2y 2 8xy 3 y 4
79. b40/3 20b37/3 190b34/3
(d) 3427.8 tons, 3428.6 tons
(e) 3600
1. 0, 3, 8, 15; 99 2. 1 3. (a) 3
(b) a n 2 1n 1 23 (c) 104
4. (a) 14 (b) a n 12A 14 B n1 (c) 3/48
58 1
5. (a) 15, 251 (b) 6. (a) 89, 78 (b) 60 0 20
12,500
8. (a) 11 12 2 11 22 2 11 32 2 11 42 2 7. (b) In the 35th year
11 52 2 50 9. (a) R1 104, R2 108, R3 112, R4 116, R5 120,
(b) 11 2 321 11 2 422 11 2 523 11 2 624 10 R6 124, R7 127 250
9. (a) 58,025 (b) 2 12 (b) It approaches 200.
59,049
n1n 1 2 12n 1 2
12 22 . . . n2 .
6
111 12 12 # 1 1 2
Step 1 P11 2 is true since 12
0 50
.
6
Chapter 12
1 2 . . . k 2 1k 1 2 2
2 2
k1k 12 12k 1 2
1k 12 2 Induction hypothesis 1. 41 3. 31 5. 1 7. 1 9. 0.51 11. 12 13. (a) 2
6 (b) 3 (c) Does not exist (d) 4 (e) Not defined
k1k 1 2 12k 12 61k 1 2 2 15. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) Does not exist (d) 2 (e) 0
(f) Does not exist (g) 1 (h) 3 17. 8 19. Does not
6
1k 1 2 3 k12k 1 2 61k 12 4
exist 21. Does not exist
23. (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) 4 y
6
1k 1 2 12k 2 7k 62
4

6
1k 1 2 3 1k 12 1 4 3 21k 12 14
1
6
0 1 2 x
So P1k 1 2 follows from P1k2 . Thus, by the Principle of

Mathematical Induction, P1n 2 holds for all n. 25. (a) 4 (b) 3 (c) Does not exist
y
11. 32x 80x y 80x y 40x y 10xy y
5 4 2 3 4 2 6 8 10
12. a 103 b 13x 2 3 12 2 7 414,720x 3 4
13. (a) a n 10.852 11.24 2 n

(b) 3.09 lb (c) Geometric
0 1 2 x
Section 12.2 ■ page 897 11. y 14 x 74

1. (a) 5 (b) 9 (c) 2 (d) 13
(e) 38 (f) 0 y y = 41 x + 74
(g) Does not exist (h) 11 3. 75 5. 21
6
7. 3 9. 5
y= x+2
11. 2 13. 65 15. 12 17. 16 19. 161
21. 4 23. 32 1
5 1
0 2 x
_3 1
13. f¿122 12 15. g¿ 112 4 17. F¿142 161

_1 2
19. f¿ 1a2 2a 2 21. f¿1a2

1
1a 1 2 2
_1 _3
23. (a) f¿ 1a2 3a 2 2

25. (a) 0.667 1
(b) y 2x 4, y x 2, y 10x 12
(c) 20
_1 1
_3 3
_1
_20
(b) 0.667
x f1x 2 x f1x2 25. 24 ft/s 27. 12a2 6 m/s, 18 m/s, 54 m/s, 114 m/s
29. 0.75/min
0.1 0.71339 0.1 0.61222 31. (a) 38.3 gal/min, 27.8 gal/min (b) 33.3 gal/min
0.01 0.67163 0.01 0.66163
0.001 0.66717 0.001 0.66617 Section 12.4 ■ page 915
0.0001 0.66672 0.0001 0.66662
1. (a) 1, 2 (b) y 1, y 2 3. 0 5. 52 7. 34 9. 2
(c) 2 11. Does not exist 13. 7 15. 14 17. 0 19. 0
3
27. 0 29. Does not exist 31. Does not exist 21. Divergent 23. 0 25. Divergent 27. 32 29. 8
33. (a) 1, 2 (b) Does not exist 31. (b) 30 g/L
(c) y
1. (a) 40, 52
y y
1 y=Ï y=Ï
5 5
0 1 x
0 x 0 x
5 10 5 10
1. 3 3. 11 5. 24 (b) 43.2, 49.2
7. y x 1 9. y x 4 3. 5.25 5. 223 35
7. (a) 77
60 , underestimate (b) 25
12 , overestimate
y y
y y
y = −x + 4
y = x + x2 1.5 1.5
2 2
x
y = x-1 1.0 1.0
0
2 x 0 2 x 0.5 0.5
y = −x − 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 x 0 1 2 3 4 5 x
Answers to Cumulative Review A71
9. (a) 8, 6.875 (b) 5, 5.375 2. (a) 4, 4, 4, 0, 1 (b) y
y y y y
0 1 5 x
2 2 2 2
3. (a) f 1x 2 21 x 22 2 13 (b) Maximum 13

(c) y (d) Increasing on 1q, 24;
0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 1 x
(d) decreasing on 32, q2
10
(e) Shift upward 5 units
11. 37.5 13. 8 15. 166.25 17. 133.5 (f) Shift to the left 3 units
0 1 x
Chapter 12 Review ■ page 925 4. f, D; g, C; r, A; s, F; h, B; k, E

1. 1 3. 0.69 5. Does not exist 7. (a) Does not exist 5. (a) 1, 2, 4, 8, 12 (b) 2, 4, 12
(b) 2.4 (c) 2.4 (d) 2.4 (e) 0.5 (f ) 1 (g) 2 (h) 0 (c) P1x 2 21x 2 2 1x 4 2 Ax 12 B (d) y
9. 3 11. 7 13. 2 15. 1 17. 2 19. Does not exist

21. f¿ 14 2 3 23. f¿ 116 2 18 25. (a) f¿1a2 2
5
(b) 2, 2 27. (a) f¿ 1a 2 1/A2 1a 6B 0 1 x
(b) 1/A4 12B, 1/4 29. y 2x 1 31. y 2x _5
33. y 14 x 1 35. (a) 64 ft/s (b) 32a ft/s

(c) 140 ⬇ 6.32 s (d) 202.4 ft/s 37. 15 39. 12 6. (a) 1 1multiplicity 22; 1, 1 i, 1 i 1multiplicity 12
41. Divergent 43. 3.83 45. 10 47. 56 (b) Q1 x2 1 x 12 2 1x 121x 1 i 21x 1 i2
(c) Q 1x 2 1 x 12 2 1x 121x 2 2x 22
7. x-intercepts 0, 2; y-intercept 0;
horizontal asymptote y 3; vertical asymptotes x 2
1
1. (a) 2 (b) 2 and x 1 y 8. f y
2
g
5
0 1 x
0 1 x
_1.5 1.5
9. (a) 4 (b) 5 log x 12 log1x 12 log12x 3 2

_1
2. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) 0 (e) 0 (f) 0 (g) 4 (h) 2 10. (a) 4 (b) ln 2, ln 4 11. (a) $29,396.15
(i) Does not exist 3. (a) 6 (b) 2 (c) Does not exist (b) After 6.23 years (c) 12.837 years
(d) Does not exist (e) 14 (f) 2 4. (a) f¿1x2 2x 2 12. (a) P1t 2 120e 0.0565t (b) 917 (c) After 49.8 months
(b) 4, 0, 2 5. y 16 x 32 6. (a) 0 (b) Does not exist
89
7. (a) 25 (b) 113 Cumulative Review Test for Chapters 5, 6, 7, and 8
■ page CR5
Focus on Modeling ■ page 931 1. (a) 15/3 (b) 2/3 (c) 15/2 (d) 3 13/5
1. 57,333 13 ft-lb 3. (b) Area under the graph of 2. (a) 2110/7 (b) 7/3 (c) 3110/20
p1x2 375x between x 0 and x 4 (c) 3000 lb 3. (a) 13/2 (b) 1 (c) 213/3 (d) 1
(d) 1500 lb 5. (a) 1625.28 heating-degree hours 4. sin t 24/25, tan t 24/7, cot t 7/24, sec t 25/7,
(b) 70 F (c) 1488 heating-degree hours (d) 75F csc t 25/24 5. (a) 2, p, p/4 (b) y
(e) The day in part (a) 6. y 3 cos 2 A x 3 B

1 p 2
7. (a) h(t) 45 40 cos 8pt

(b) 2 119 ⬇ 8.7 cm 0 5π x
Cumulative Review 8. (a) 7.2 (b) 92.9
π
4 4
_2
Cumulative Review Test for Chapters 2, 3, and 4
■ page CR2 1sec u 12 1sec u 12
1. (a) 1q, q2 (b) 34, q2 (c) 12, 0, 0, 2, 2 13, undefined
9. (a) LHS
tan u 1sec u 12
(d) x 2 4, 1x 6, 4 h 2 (e) 12 sec2 u 1 tan2 u
(f) f ⴰ g x 4 1x 4, g ⴰ f 0 x 2 0 , f 1g11222 0, RHS
tan u 1sec u 12 tan u 1sec u 1 2
g1f 11222 10 (g) g11 x2 x 2 4, x 0
(b) RHS 1 11 2 sin 2 2u 2 2 sin 2 2u 212 sin u cos u2 2
LHS
11. (a) Domain 31, 14 , range 30, p4

7x x 0 0 1
10. 2 cos cos 3
c 6 4 d cy d c 0 d
2 2 1 5 x 5
(b) C C 12 1
2 12 S 5. (a)
y (b) 5p/6 (c) 21 x /x 2
1 0 1
π
12. p/6, 5p/6, 3p/2
13. 18 12, 7p/4 2 , 18 12, 3p/4 2 (b) c
2 32
d (c) X c d (d) x 10, y 15
10
π
y=cos–¡x
3 52 15
x2
2
1 2
6. 2 7. (a) y
x2 x 4 F1 10, 3 152,
x
F2 10, 3 152 ,
_1 0 1 x
(b) 1 x 2 y 2 2 3/2 4xy ellipse

3
14. (a) ¨= 2
π
π
¨=3π
4
¨= 4
_2 0 2 x
F1 10, 02,
¨=π
2 ¨=0
(b) y
F2 18, p2,
2
hyperbola
15. (a) z 2 acos b

11p 11p 0 x
i sin
_8 _4 2
6 6
(b) z„ 12 acos i sin b 6 12 6 12i,
p p
4 4
1x 52 2 y2
z/„ acos b i
1 3p 3p 1
i sin 8. 1
3 2 2 3 16 9
9. y
10. (a) y
(c) z 10 1024 acos i sin b 512 512 13i

p p Y 1
3 3 X
(d) 22 acos b, 2 2 acos b,

1
3 11p 11p 3 23p 23p
i sin i sin 30
x
18 18 18 18 1 0 3 x
2 acos b
3 35p 35p
2 i sin _1
18 18
16. (a) y
u (b) u v 具3, 4 典, (b) x y2 1, parabola
(b) 2u v 具11, 2 典,
2
(b) u 100.3,
Cumulative Review Test for Chapters 11 and 12
(b) projvu 具 45, 85 典
0 2 x
■ page CR10
(c) 82
1. (a) 157 , 20 1
41 , 2
99
(b) 340 81
, 7984 , 0 (c) 372, 115
2 , no limit
(d) 12A 6 B , 12A 6 B , 0 (e) 0.64, 5242.88, no limit
v
5 6 5 19
2. (a) 41.4 (b) 88,572 (c) 5115/512 (d) 9

Cumulative Review Test for Chapters 9 and 10 3. $2644.92 4. Hint: Induction step is
■ page CR8 an1 an 21n 12 1 n 2 2n 1 1n 12 2.
1. (a) Nonlinear (b) 10, 02, 12, 22, 12, 22 5. (a) 32 x 5 40x 4 20x 3 5x 2 58 x 321 (b) 495 4
16 x
(c) Circle, parabola (d), (e) y 6. (a) y (b) (i) 2 (ii) 3 (iii) 2
(iv) 1 (v) 2
7. 12 8. (a) 10 (b) 4
2
1
(c) Does not exist
0 x
9. (a) 3x 2 (b) 27, 0, 3a 2
_2 2
(c) y 12x 16
0 x
2. (a) 13, 0, 12 (b) x t 1, y t 2, z t
1
3. Xavier 4, Yolanda 10, Zachary 6 10. (a) y (b) A lies between the 1 1
4. (a) A B impossible; C D 2 square in the first quadrant,
0 4 2
C 1 4 4 S ; AB c 2 d ; CB impossible;
9 1 5 with corner at the origin, which
has area 1, and the trapezoid
4 2 0
1 1 1 1 with corners (0, 0), (1, 0),
(1, 2), and (0, 1), which has
BD c d ; det(B) impossible; det(C) 2;
1 2 1
area 32 .
12 1 12
det(D) 0 0 1 x (c) 78/64 (d) 4/3
Index
Abel, Niels Henrik, 282 angle of depression, 482 Arithmetic sequences, 833–838
Absolute value, 8–10 angle of elevation, 482 defined, 833
of complex numbers, 597–598 angle of incidence, 570 partial sums, 834–836
equations, 54, 91 angle of inclination, 482 Arrow, Kenneth, 682
properties of, 9 angle of refraction, 570 Arrow diagram, of functions, 150
Absolute value function, 162, 166 defined, 468 Assets, division of, 834–835
Absolute value inequalities, 81–82 quadrantal, 490 Associative Property, 3
Addition reference, 491–492 Astroid, 808
of complex numbers, 286 standard position of, 470–471 Asymptotes, 300–302
graphical, 215 supplement of, 504 defined, 301
of inequalities, 76 Angular speed, 473–474 horizontal, 301, 304–306, 307, 308,
of matrices, 676–678 Annual percentage yield, 366, 367 910–911
of polynomials, 25 Annuities of hyperbolas, 763–764, 767
of rational expressions, 37–38 calculating amount of, 848–850 of rational functions, 303–306, 307,
of vectors, 608, 610, 611 in perpetuity, 853–854 308
Addition and subtraction formulas, present value of, 850–851 slant, 309–310
535–541 Aphelion, 760, 801 vertical, 301, 303–308, 434–436,
Additive identity, 4 Apolune, 761 886–887
Adleman, Leonard, 308 Approval voting, 682 Atmospheric pressure formula, 368
Agnesi, Maria Gaetana, 802 Arccosine function, 553 Augmented matrix, 635, 662–663
Ahmes (Rhind papyrus scribe), 716 Archimedes, 69, 414, 748–749, 902 Automotive design, 256
Airplane design, 245 Architecture, conics in, 771–775 Average rate of change, 174–178, 904
Algebraic errors, avoiding, 40–41 Arcsine function, 551 Avogadro’s number, 23
Algebraic expressions, 24–33, 35 Arctangent function, 555 Axes. see also Rotation of axes
AM (amplitude modulation) radio, 428 Area of a conic, 797
Ambiguous case, of solving triangles, of circular sector, 472–473 of ellipses, 754, 755
503–505, 508 of a triangle, 494–495, 512–513, of hyperbolas, 762
Amortization schedule, 854 711–712, 714–715 of parabolas, 745–748
Amplitude, 421 Area problem, calculus, 916–925 polar axis, 582
decaying, 428 approximating area with calculator, 925 real and imaginary, 596
harmonic motion and, 443 under a curve, 922–924 Axis of symmetry, parabolas, 744
period and, 423–425 defined, 920–922
variable, 427–428 estimating using rectangles, 917–918 Back-substitution, solving linear
Amplitude modulation (AM) radio, 428 under graphs, 929–931 equations, 652, 653
Analogy, used in problem solving, limit of approximating sums, 919–920 Base, change of, 355–356
138–139 Areas, formulas for, inside front cover Base 10 logarithm, 346–347
Ancillary circle of ellipse, 760 Argument of complex number, 598 Bearing, 511
Angle measure, 468–478 Aristarchus of Samos, 480 Beer-Lambert Law, 364, 394
Angles. see also Trigonometric functions, Aristotle, 54 Bell, E.T., 678
of angles Arithmetic mean, 838 Bernoulli, Johann, 805
I1
I2 Index
Best fit as polar graph, 594 Computer graphics

exact fit vs., 660–661 Circular arc, length of, 471–472 applying matrices to generation of,
finding, 240–242, 320–323 Circular function. see Trigonometric 683–684, 700–703
measuring, 242–243 functions rotating an image, 792–794
polynomials of, 320–323 Circular motion, 473–474 Computers
Bhaskara, 75, 144 Circular sector, area of, 472–473 applications of, 178
Binomial coefficients, 863–865 Closed curves, 806 as graphing device, 425
Binomial expansion, 861–863, 865–867 Codes, unbreakable, 308–309 Confocal conics
Binomials, 24, 860 Coefficient matrix, 694 family of, 783
Binomial Theorem, 865–868 Coefficients hyperbolas, 769–770
Bits, changing words/sounds/pictures to, binomial, 863–865 parabolas, 782
30 correlation, 242 Conics. see also by type
Bounded regions, of planes, 725 of polynomials, 250, 253 in architecture, 771–775
Boyle’s Law, 125, 128 Cofunction identities, 528, 537 basic shapes of, 743–744
Brahe, Tycho, 780 Collinear points, 123, 715 confocal, 769–770, 782, 783
Brams, 834 Column transformations, of determinants, degenerate, 780–781
707–708 equivalent description of, 795
CAD (computer-aided design), 256 Comets, paths of, 766 graphing rotated, 787–789
Calculators Common (base 10) logarithms, 346–347 identifying by discriminant, 789–790
evaluating trigonometric functions, 413, Common difference of sequence, 833 polar equations of, 795–801
436 Commutative Property, 3 shifted, 775–783
graphing calculators, 102–104, Complete Factorization Theorem, 291–293 simplifying general equation for,
884–885, 890, 925 Completing the square, 48–49 785–787
as graphing device, 425 Complex conjugates, 287, 289 Conjecture, mathematical induction and,
Calculus Conjugate Zeros Theorem, 296, 299 854–855
addition and subtraction formulas in, Complex numbers, 285–290 Conjugate hyperbolas, 769
537 arithmetic operations on, 286–287 Conjugate Zeros Theorem, 296, 299
preview of. see Limits complex roots of quadratic equations, Constant(s)
Cardano, Gerolamo, 282, 296 288–289, 290 growth, 223
Cardioid, 590 defined, 285 of proportionality, 124
Carrier signals, radio, 428 DeMoivre’s Theorem, 600–601 spring, 127, 452, 931
Carrying capacity, 393 fractals and iterating functions of, Constant coefficient, 250
Cartesian plane, 87–88, 112. see also 605–607 Constant function, 158, 159
Coordinate plane graphing, 596–598 Constant rate of change, 178
CAT (Computer Aided Tomography) scan, multiplication and division of, 599–600 Constant term, 250
746 polar (trigonometric) form of, 598–600 Constraints, 725, 736, 737
Catenary, 331 roots of, 601–603 Continuous functions, 893
Cayley, Arthur, 692 square roots of negative numbers, Continuously compounded interest, 336
Center 287–288 Contradiction, proof by, 133
of ellipse, 754 Complex plane, 596 Cooling, Newton’s Law of, 375–376, 381,
of hyperbola, 762 Complex roots, of quadratic equations, 878
Central box, of hyperbolas, 763, 764 288–289, 290 Coordinate geometry, 87–101
Chang Ch’iu-Chien, 75 Complex zeros, 291–299 circles, 92–95
Change of Base Formula, 356 Composite function, 216–219 coordinate plane, 87–88
Chaos, 224 Compound fractions, 38–39 graphing equations, 90–91
Chevalier, Auguste, 273 Compound interest, 334–336, 340, 367 intercepts, 92
Chu Shikie, 862 annuities and, 849–850 symmetry, 95–96
Circadian rhythms, 453, 464 continuously compounded, 336 Coordinate line (real number line), 7, 9–10
Circles, 92–95 formula for, 335 Coordinate plane, 1, 87–88
ancillary, of ellipse, 760 using logarithmic equations for, Coordinates. see Homogenous coordinates;
area of, 154 365–366, 367 Polar coordinates; Rectangular
equations of, 93, 94–95 Computer-aided design (CAD), 256 coordinates
graphing, 93, 103–104 Computer Aided Tomography (CAT) scan, Correlation, 242–243
involute of a, 810 746 Correlation coefficient, 242
Index I3
Cosecant function, 408 Decibel scale, 378 Dividends, 266

cosecant curves, 439–440 Degenerate conics, 780–781 Division
formula for, 488 Degrees of complex numbers, 287, 599–600
graphing, 435–436, 439–440 as angle measure, 468 long, 265–267, 720
inverse, 556 compared with radians, 469 overview of, 5
special values of, 410 Demand equation, 247 of polynomials, 265–272
trigonometric ratios, 478 Demand function, 232 of rational expressions, 36–37
Cosine function, 408 DeMoivre’s Theorem, 600–601 synthetic, 267–268
addition and subtraction formulas for, Denominators, 5 Division Algorithm, 266
535–536 of partial fractions, 716–719 Divisors, 5, 266
cosine curves, 422, 427–428, 459–461 rationalizing, 20–21, 40 Domains
double-angle formula for, 542, 786 Dependent systems, linear equations, 644, of algebraic expression, 35
formula for, 488 645–646, 654, 655–656, 668–672 of combined functions, 214–215
graphing, 418–420 Dependent variables, 150 finding, from graphs, 161
graphing transformations of, 420–425 Depressed cubic, 282 of functions, 150, 153
half-angle formula for, 544 Depression, angle of, 482 of an inverse function, 227
inverse cosine, 553–554 Derivatives, 902–904 of rational function, 300
Law of Cosines, 508–516, 561 defined, 902 of relation, 171
periodic properties of, 419 estimating from graphs, 907 of trigonometric functions, 411
product-sum formula for, 546 finding at a point, 903 Doppler effect, 315, 454
shifted curves, 423–425 Descartes, René, 87, 112, 140, 275 Dot product, 617–625
special values of, 410 Descartes’ Rule of Signs, 275, 297 calculating work, 623–624
sum of sines and cosines, 538–539 Determinants, 691, 704–715 component of u along v, 620–622
sum-to-product formula for, 547 areas of triangles, 711–712, 714–715 defined, 618
trigonometric ratios, 478 collinear points and, 715 projection of u onto v, 622–623
Cost function, 163 invertibility criterion, 707 properties of, 618
Cotangent function, 408 row and column transformations, of vectors, 617–620
cotangent curves, 437, 438–439 707–708 Dot Product Theorem, 618–619
formula for, 488 zero, matrices with, 715 Double-angle formulas, 541–543, 550, 786
graphing, 435, 436–439 Difference
inverse cotangent, 556, 557 of cubes, 29 Earthquakes, magnitude of, 377–378
special values of, 410 of functions, 214 Ebbinghaus, Hermann, 354–355, 357, 395
trigonometric ratios, 478 of matrices, 767 Eccentricity
Coterminal angles, 470–471 of squares, 29 of a conic, 795, 796
Cramer’s Rule, 708–711 Difference quotients, 151, 177 of an ellipse, 757–758
Cubic formula, 282 Digital images, 683–684, 687 of planetary orbits, 758
Cubic splines, 249, 252 Digital numbers, 30 Ecology, mathematical study of, 696–697
Cumulative voting, 682–683 Diophantus, 20, 75 Economics, use of mathematics in, 850
Curtate cycloid (trochoid), 808 Directed quantities. see Vectors Einstein, Albert, 104, 141, 710, 816
Curve Directrix, 744, 795, 796 Elementary row operations, 663–664
area under, 922–924 Direct substitution, finding limits using, Elements, of sets, 6
slope of a, 900 893–894 Elevation, angle of, 482
Cycles, of vibration, 443 Direct variation, 123–125 Elimination method, 638–640
Cycloid Discriminant Ellipses, 476, 743, 753–761
curtate (trochoid), 808 identifying conics by, 789–790 ancillary circle of, 760
parametric equations, 804–805 invariant under rotation, 789, 791 with center at origin, 754, 755
prolate, 808 of quadratic formula, 50–51 constructing, 775
Cylindrical projection, 630–631, 632 Distance, between points on the real line, eccentricity of, 757–758
9–10 equation of, 757, 758–759
Damped harmonic motion, 449–451, 569 Distance formula, 88–89, 587 foci of, 758
Damping constant, 449 Distributive Property geometric definition of, 753
Data, linearizing, 389–390 combining algebraic expressions, 25 graphing shifted, 776–777
Data matrices, 701 factoring with, 27–28 latus rectum of, 761
Daylight, modeling hours of, 447–448 real numbers and, 1, 3–4 orbits of planets as, 758
I4 Index
Ellipses (continued) Equations, trigonometric, 527, 561–570 inequalities, 79–81

rotating, 799 with functions of multiple angles, polynomials, 291–293, 294
sketching, 755–756 566–567 quadratics, 28
vertices of, 754, 755 solving, 561–565, 567–568 solving trigonometric equations by,
Elongation, 487, 508 Equivalent equations, 44 563–565
Empty set , 7 Equivalent inequalities, 76 by trial and error, 28
Encryption, 308–309 Equivalent systems, 652 Factoring formulas, 29
End behavior Eratosthenes, 476, 825 Factor Theorem, 269–270, 272
of polynomials, 252–254, 255 Error-correcting codes, 38–39 Falling objects, instantaneous velocity of,
of rational functions, 309–311 Euclid, 532 905
e (number), 332–333, 347–348 Eudoxus, 902 False equations, 654
Envelope of lines, parabola as, 703 Euler, Leonhard, 138, 288, 332, 708 Family
Epicycloid, 808 Even function, 188–189, 193, 222 of equations, 57
Equality Even-odd identities, 528 of exponential functions, 330
of matrices, 767 Even-odd properties, 413–414 of lines, graphing, 118
properties of, 44 Everest, Sir George, 505 of logarithmic functions, 344
of vectors, 608, 610 Existence theorem, 283 of polynomials, 261
Equations, 1, 44–58. see also Systems Exponential data, linearizing, 389–390 of power functions, 160
of equations; Systems of linear Exponential equations, 358–361 Fechner, Gustav, 347
equations Exponential form, 342–343 Fermat, Pierre de, 20, 87, 288
absolute value, 54, 91 Exponential function, 327, 328–341 Ferrari, 282
of circles, 93, 94–95 compared with power function, 332 Fibonacci, Leonardo, 825
demand, 247 compound interest, 334–336 Fibonacci numbers, 678, 825–826, 829,
equivalent, 44 family of, 330 832
exponential, 358–361 graphs of, 329–332 Fitt’s Law, 352
false, 654 natural, 332–334 FM (frequency modulation) radio, 428
family of, 57 transformations of, 331, 333 Focal diameter, of parabolas, 748, 749
of functions, 164–165 Exponential growth, 341 Focal length, 752
graphic solutions for, 104–108 Exponential modeling, 369–376, 386–387, Focus
graph of, 90–91 390–392 of a conic, 795
of horizontal lines, 115 Exponential notation, 13, 16–17 of an ellipse, 753, 755, 756–757
of a hyperbola, 762 Exponents of a hyperbola, 762, 766–767
involving fractional expressions, 52–53 fractional, 19, 31, 54 of a parabola, 744, 752
involving fractional powers, 54 integer, 12–16 prime, 752
involving radicals, 53 integer, exponential notation, 13 FOIL method, 26
linear, 45–46, 115–116, 118–120 integer, zero and negative exponents, 13, Force, modeling, 614–615
of lines, 113–116 16 Forgetting, Law of (Forgetting Curve),
logarithmic, 361–364 Laws of, 14–16, 19, 328 355, 357, 395
matrix, 694–697 rational, 19–20 Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 427, 536
modeling with. see Mathematical Extraneous solutions, 53 Fourier analysis, 30
models Extreme values, 193–203 Four-leaved rose, 591, 594
nonlinear, 45 of quadratic functions, 194–198 Fractal image compression, 600
of a parabola, 194 using graphing devices for, 198–200 Fractals, 600, 605–607
polynomial, 277–279 Fractional exponents, 19, 31, 54
Properties of Equality and, 44 Factoring Fractional expressions, 35. see also
quadratic, 46–52 common factors, 27–28 Rational expressions
of quadratic type, 53–54 complex solutions and, 295 compound fractions, 38–39
roots of, 254 differences and sums of cubes, 29–30 solving equations involving, 52–53
of a shifted conic, 780–781 differences of squares, 29 Fractions
solving for unknown functions, 222, 233 expressions with fractional exponents, compound, 38–39
solving using analogy strategy, 138–139 31 LCD and adding, 5–6
two-intercept form of, 121 Finding limit by canceling common partial, 715–721
in two variables, 90–91 factors, 894 properties of, 5
of vertical lines, 115 by grouping, 31 Frequency, harmonic motion and, 443
Index I5
Frequency modulation (FM) radio, 428 GIMPS (Great Internet Mersenne Prime Halley, Edmund, 894
Functions, 146–247 Search), 824 Hamming, Richard, 39
algebra of, 214–215 Global Positioning System (GPS), 643, Hardy, G.H., 840
average rate of change and, 174–178 656–657 Harmonic mean, 837
combining, 214–222 Golden ratio, 829 Harmonic motion, 417, 442–454
common examples of, 148–149 Googol, 352 damped, 449–451, 569
composition of, 216–219 Googolplex, 352 modeling periodic behavior, 443–448,
defined, 149–150 Grads, measuring angles with, 478 459–462
demand, 232 Graphical addition, 216 simple, 443, 575
domain of, 153 Graphical solutions, 104–108 Harmonic sequences, 837
equations of, 164–165 compared with algebraic method, 104, Heating degree-hour, 932–933
evaluating, 151–152 105–106 Heaviside, Oliver, 885
even, 188–189, 193, 222 for equations, 104–108 Heaviside function, 885
extreme values, 193–203 for inequalities, 108 Herons’ Formula, 512–513
graphing, 158–170, 306–312, 315, for systems of equations, 640–641 Hilbert, David, 103, 708
329–332 using graphing calculator, 102–104 Hilbert’s tenth problem, 678
greatest integer, 162 Graphing calculators Hipparchus, 479
identity, 233 approximating area with, 925 Homogenous coordinates, 794
increasing/decreasing, 173–174 choosing viewing rectangle, 426–427 Hooke’s Law, 127, 134, 931
inverse, 226–230 for extreme values of functions, Horizontal asymptotes, 301, 304–306, 307,
iterates of, 223–224 198–200 308, 910–911
limits of, 882–890 pitfalls of, 890 Horizontal lines, 115, 225, 226
logistic, 223 for trigonometric graphs, 425–428 Horizontal line test, 225, 226
methods for representing, 153–154 using, 102–104 Horizontal shifts, of graphs, 183–185
modeling with, 203–213 zoom and trace features of, 884–885 Horizontal stretching and shrinking, of
modeling with, guidelines for, 205 Graphing devices. see Graphing graphs, 187–188
objective, 736, 737, 738 calculators Huygens, Christian, 805
odd, 188–189, 193, 222 Graphing functions, 158–170 Hyperbolas, 743, 762–770
one-to-one, 225–226, 228–230 exponential functions, 329–332 with center at origin, 763–764
relations and, 171–172 rational functions, 306–312, 315 confocal, 769–770
transformations of, 182–193 Graphs conjugate, 769
trigonometric. see Trigonometric of complex numbers, 596–598 constructing, 774
functions of equations of two variables, 90–91 degenerate, 781
Fundamental identities, 414–415, 493, 528 of nonlinear inequalities, 721–723 equation of, 766–767
Fundamental Principle of Analytic of polar equations, 587–596 finding tangent line to, 901
Geometry, 90, 93 of polynomials, 251–260 geometric definition of, 762
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, 291 reflecting, 185–186 rotating, 784–785
shifted, 776–780 shifted, 778–780
Galilei, Galileo, 816, 817 shifts, horizontal, 183–185 sketching, 764–767
Galois, Evariste, 273, 282 shifts, vertical, 182–183, 184–185 with transverse axis, 764–766
Galton, Sir Francis, 247 stretching and shrinking, 186–188 Hyperbolic cosine function, 337
Gateway Arch, 331 of systems of inequalities, 723–728 Hyperbolic sine function, 337
Gaudi, Antoni, 771 Gravity, Newton’s Law of, 46, 126, 388 Hypocycloid, 808
Gauss, Carl Friedrich, 294, 665, 834–835 Greater than ( ), 6 Hypothesis, induction, 856
Gaussian elimination, 652–653, 664–667 Greatest integer function, 162–163, 166
Gauss-Jordan elimination, 667–668 Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search Identities
Gear ratio, 517 (GIMPS), 824 addition and subtraction formulas for,
General conic equation, simplifying, Great Trigonometric Survey of India, 505, 537
785–787 525 Pythagorean, 414, 493, 528
Geometric mean, 845 Grouping, factoring by, 31 reciprocal, 413, 414, 493, 528
Geometric sequences, 838–846 Growth constant, 223 trigonometric, 413, 414–415, 492–494,
Geometry, analytic, 742–819. see also 527, 528–534, 563–564
Conics; Ellipses; Hyperbolas; Half-angle formulas, 541, 543–546 Identity function, 233
Parabolas; Parametric equations Half-life of radioactive elements, 373–374 Identity matrices, 689–690
I6 Index
Image of x under f , 150 Intervals, 7–8 Law of laminar flow, 156

Imaginary axis, 596 graphing, 8 Law of Sines, 501–508
Imaginary part, of complex numbers, 285 open and closed, 7 Law of the Lever, 69, 748
Incidence, angle of, 570 test values for, 78 Law of the pendulum, 127
Inclination, angle of, 482 unions and intersections, 8 Laws of Exponents, 14–16, 328
Inconsistent systems, linear equations, Invariants under rotation, 789, 791 for rational exponents, 19
644–645, 654, 668–670 Invariant Theory, 710 Laws of Logarithms, 352–358
Independent variables, 150 Inverse cosecant, 556 LCD. see Least common denominator
Index of refraction, 570 Inverse cosine, 553–554 (LCD)
Index of summation, 828 Inverse cotangent, 556, 557 Leading coefficients, 250, 253
Induction, mathematical, 854–860 Inverse functions, 226–230 Leading entry in row-echelon form, 665
conjecture and proof, 854–855 defined, 227 Leading terms, 250
induction step, 855–856 finding, 227–230 end behavior of polynomial and,
principle of, 856–858 linear functions becoming, 232 252–254
sums of powers and, 858–859 properties of, 227 Leading variable, 668
Induction hypothesis, 856 Inverse numbers, 5 Learning curve, 368
Inequalities, 76–87. see also Systems of Inverse of matrices, 689–693, 695 Least common denominator (LCD)
inequalities, graphing Inverse secant, 556 adding fractions, 5–6
absolute value, 81–82 Inverse sine, 551–552 using with rational expressions, 37–38
equivalent, 76 Inverse square law for sound, 382 Least squares line, 240–242, 650–651
graphic solutions for, 108 Inverse tangent, 554–556 Left-hand limits, 887–888, 895–897
graphing, 721–723 Inverse trigonometric functions, 527–528, Lemniscates, as polar graph, 594
linear, 77, 724 550–559 Length, vectors, 608, 610, 611
modeling with, 82–84 solving trigonometric equations using, Lens equation, 56
nonlinear, 77–81 567–568 Leontief, Wassily, 850
proving by induction, 858–859 Inverse variation, 125–126 Less than (), 6
rules for, 76 Invertibility criterion, 707 Lever, Law of the, 69, 748
with three factors, 80–81 Involute of a circle, 810 Limaçon, 592, 593, 594
Infinite geometric series, 843–844 Irrational numbers, 2 Limit Laws, 890–893
Infinite series, 841–844 Irreducible quadratic factor, 297–298 finding limits using, 894–895
Infinity Iterates of functions, 223–224 limits at infinity and, 911
limits at, 908–913 Mandelbrot set and bounded, 605–607 Limits, 880–933
symbol, 7 derivative problems, 902–904
Initial point, vectors, 607 Joint variation, 126 finding by direct substitution, 893–894
Initial side, of angles, 468 Jordan, Camille, 273 finding by using algebra and Limit
Inner product, of matrices, 678–679 Laws, 894–895
Installment buying, 851–852 Kantorovick, Leonid, 735 of a function, 882–890
Instantaneous rate of change, 177, Karmarkar, Narendra, 737 instantaneous rates of change, 881–882,
881–882, 904–905 Kepler, Johannes, 388, 389, 580, 758 904–905
defined, 904 Kepler’s Third Law, 23, 129 left- and right-hand limits, 895–897
estimating, 905 Kirchhoff’s Laws, 659 Newton on, 902
instantaneous velocity of falling objects, Knuth, Donald, 165 special, 892–893
905 Koopmans, T.C., 735 tangent line problems, 898–902
Integer exponents, 12–16 Kovalevsky, Sonya, 188 Limits, area problems, 881, 916–925
Integers, as real number type, 2 area defined, 920–922
Intensity levels of sound, 347, 378–379 Laminar flow, law of, 156 area under a curve, 922–924
Intercepts, 92 Latus rectum, 748, 761 area under a graph, 929–931
Interest, on investment, 59–60 Law enforcement, use of mathematics for, estimating area using rectangles,
Intermediate Value Theorem, 255, 283 344–345 917–918
Intersect command, in calculators, 106 Law of Cooling, Newton’s, 375–376, 381 limit of approximating sums, 919–920
Intersections Law of Cosines, 508–516, 561 modeling with, 929–931
finding intersection points, 562–563 Law of Forgetting (Forgetting Curve), 355, Limits at infinity, 908–913
of intervals, 8 357, 395 defined, 909
of sets, 7 Law of Gravity, 46, 126, 388 finding, 912
Index I7
functions with no limit at infinity, 913 Logarithmic form, 342–343 Equality of matrices, 767
at negative infinity, 910, 912 Logarithmic functions, 327, 342–352 identity matrices, 689–690
Limits of sequences, 913–915 applications of, 365–366, 376–379 inverse of matrices, 689–693, 695
defined, 913 common (base 10) logarithms, 346–347 matrix equations, 681–682, 694–697
finding, 914–915 family of, 344 multiplication, 678–683, 700
limits of recursive sequences, 916 graphs of, 343–346 no Zero-Product Property for, 699
Linear and Quadratic Factors Theorem, natural logarithms, 347–349 rotating images in plane, 792–794
297–298 properties of, 343 rotating points in plane, 792
Linear depreciation, 122 Logarithmic model, 397 rotation of axes formulas, 791
Linear equations, 115. see also Systems of Logarithmic scales, 376–379 singular matrix, 693
linear equations Logarithms, Laws of, 352–358 square roots of matrix, 687
applying to rate of change, 118–120 Logistic command, in calculator, 392, 397 stochastic matrices, 683
graph of, 115–116 Logistic curves (or logistic growth model), sum, difference, and scalar product,
solving, 45–46 334, 339, 392–393, 397 767–778
two-intercept form of, 121 Logistic function, 223 transition matrix, 688–689, 697
Linear factors, 297–298 Logistic population growth, 878–879 Matrices, solving linear equations,
Linear fractional transformations, 302–303 Longbow curve, 808 662–675
Linear functions Long division augmented matrix, 635, 662–663
composing, 222 partial fractions and, 720 elementary row operations, 663–664
defined, 158 of polynomials, 265–267 Gaussian elimination, 664–667
graphs of, 166 LORAN (LOng RAnge Navigation), 768 matrix defined, 662
as mathematical models, 239–242 Lorenz Contraction Formula, 898 reduced row-echelon form, 665,
Linear inequalities, 77, 724 Lotka, Alfred J., 696–697 667–668
graphing systems of, 724–726 Lower bounds, 276, 278 row-echelon form, 665–667
Linearizing Matrix equations, 681–682, 694–697
exponential data, 389–390 Machine, function as, 150 linear programming for, 735–741
power data, 390 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 746 local, 199, 260
Linear programming, 735–741 Magnitude modeling with functions to find,
guidelines for, 737 of an earthquake, 377–378 207–208
Karmakar’s technique, 737 of a star, 358 Maximum command, in calculators, 200
Linear speed, 473–474 of vectors, 608, 610 Maximum value(s), maxima, 195–198,
Line of sight, 482 Main diagonal, of matrices, 689 203
Lines, 111–123 Major axes, of ellipses, 754, 755 Mean
of best fit, 240–242 Majority voting, 682 arithmetic, 838
family of, graphing, 118 Mandelbrot, Benoit, 600, 605 geometric, 845
general equation of, 115 Mandelbrot set, 605–607 harmonic, 837
parallel, 116–117 Manning Equation, 23–24 Mersenne numbers, 824
perpendicular, 117–118 Mathematical models, 58–75 Midpoint formula, 90
point-slope form of equation of, constructing, 59–67 Mill, John Stuart, 112
113–114 defined, 239 Minimum command, in calculators, 200
slope-intercept form of equation of, 114 finding line of best fit, 240–242 Minimum value(s), minima, 195–198, 203
slope of, 111–113 functions as, 203–213 local, 199, 260
slope as rate of change, 118–120 guidelines for, 58–59 modeling with functions to find,
vertical and horizontal, 115 guidelines for modeling functions, 205 209–210
Lissajous figure, 806 linear functions as, 239–242 Minor axes, of ellipses, 754, 755
Lithotripsy, reflection property used in, logarithmic model, 397 Modeling. see also Mathematical models
759 measuring fit, 242–243 with area, 929–931
LnReg command, in calculator, 397 using inequalities, 82–84 cylindrical projection, 630–631, 632
Local extrema, of polynomials, 260–261, variation, 123–129 defined, 203
265 Matijasevič, Yuri, 678 with equations, 58–75
Local maximum, 199, 260 Matrices, algebra of, 675–687. see also exponential, 369–376, 386–387,
Local minimum, 199, 260 Determinants 390–392
loga, 342 applied to computer graphics, 683–684, force and velocity, 612–615
Logarithmic equations, 361–364 700–703 harmonic motion, 442–454
I8 Index
Modeling (continued ) Newton’s Law of Cooling, 375–376, 381, relation as collection of, 171
with linear systems, 646–648, 656–657, 878 Origin (O), 6, 87, 582
672–673 Newton’s Law of Gravitation, 46, 126, 388 hyperbola with center at, 763–764
logarithmic, 376–379 n-leaved rose, 591, 594 symmetry with respect to, 95
with logistic functions, 392–393 n! (n factorial), 863
mapping world, 630–633 Nodes, standing wave, 576–577 p, value of, 414
path of a projectile, 816–818 Noether, Emmy, 710 Parabolas, 640, 721, 743, 744–752
with polynomial functions, 320–323 Nonlinear equations, 45 confocal, 782
population growth, 327, 369–373, Nonlinear inequalities, 77–81 constructing, 772–774
386–387, 392–393 graphing, 721–723 family of, 749
with power functions, 388–392 guidelines for solving, 79 focal diameter of, 748, 749
prey/predator models, 432–433, 464, Notation focal point of, 750
696–697 exponential, 13, 16–17 geometric definition of, 744
with recursive sequences, 874–876 scientific, 16–17 graph of, 91
standing waves, 576–577 set-builder, 7 graph of shifted, 777–778
stereographic projection, 631, 632, 633 sigma, 828–830 with horizontal axis, 747–748
surveying, 522–525 summation, 828 latus rectum of, 748
traveling waves, 575–576 use in problem solving, 138 as quadratic function, 194
using linear programming, 735–741 Nowak, Martin, 824 sketching, 748–749
using matrix equations, 696–697 nth root, 18–19 with vertical axis, 745–746
Modulus of complex numbers, 597–598 of complex number, 601–602 Parallax, 487
Monomials, 24, 250, 251–252 Numbers Parallel lines, 116–117
Mortgage payments, 852 complex. see Complex numbers Parameters, 57, 656, 801, 803
amortizing a mortgage, 854 converting sound, pictures, and text into, Parametric curve, graphing, 805–806
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 746 30 Parametric equations, 801–810
Multiple angles, trigonometric functions imaginary, 285–286 for cycloid, 804–805
of, 566–567 inverse, 5 eliminating parameter, 803
Multiplication irrational, 2 graphing parametric curves, 805–806
of algebraic expressions, 26 negative, 4 for path of projectile, 816–818
of complex numbers, 286, 599–600 ordered pair of, 87 plane curves and, 801–802
of functions, 214 polygonal numbers, 847–848 polar equations in parametric form, 806
of inequalities, 76 prime, 824, 825 Pareto, Vilfredo, 357
of matrices, 678–683, 700 rational, 2–3 Pareto’s Principle, 357
of polynomials, 25–26 real. see Real numbers Partial fraction decomposition, 716–720
of rational expressions, 36 Reference, 404–406, 411–412 Partial fractions, 715–721
of vectors by scalars, 608, 611 representing functions with, 154 Partial sums, of sequences, 827–828,
Multiplicative identity, 5 square, 847 834–836, 840–841
Multiplicities, zeros and, 259, 293–295 using geometric shapes to represent, 847 Pascal, Blaise, 805, 858
Numerators, 5 Pascal’s triangle, 861–863, 864
Napier, John, 346 rationalizing, 40, 895 Pattern recognition, 138, 847–848
Nash, John, 850 Numerical method Paulos, John Allen, 242
Natural exponential functions, 332–334 finding values of functions with, 412 Pendulum, law of the, 127
Natural logarithms, 347–349 for finding zeros, 283–284 Pentagonal numbers, 847
Natural numbers, 2 to find trigonometric ratios, 480 Perfect square, 30, 48
Nautical mile, 476 Perihelion, 760, 801
Navigation Objective function, 736, 737, 738 Perilune, 761
bearings, 511 Oblique asymptotes, 310 Period
LORAN, 768 Oblique triangles, 501 amplitude and, 423–425
Negative exponents, 13, 16 Odd functions, 188–189, 193, 222 harmonic motion and, 443
Negative numbers, 4 One-sided limits, 887–888, 895–897 Periodic behavior, modeling, 443–448,
square roots of, 287–288 One-to-one function, 225–226 459–462
Negative of image, 687 finding inverse of, 228–230 Periodic functions, 419, 427, 431
Newton, Sir Isaac, 758, 766, 816, Orbits. see Planetary orbits Periodic properties, 434
894–895, 902 Ordered pair, of numbers, 87 Periodic rent, 849
Index I9
Perpendicular lines, 117–118 zeros of, 254–260, 269 joint, 126

Phase shift, of sine and cosine curves, Population growth, 327, 369–373, Pure imaginary number, 285–286
423–425 386–387, 392–393 Pythagoras, 54
pH scale, 376–377 carrying capacity and, 393 Pythagorean identities, 414, 493, 528
Pi (p), value of, 414 logistic, 878–879 Pythagorean Theorem, 54, 144
Piecewise defined function, 151, 888 Power data, linearizing, 390
graphing, 161–162 Power functions Quadrantal angles, 490
limit of, 896–897 compared with exponential functions, Quadrants, of coordinate plane, 87
Plane(s) 332 Quadratic equations, 46–52
bounded and unbounded regions, 725 graphs of, 160, 166 complex roots of, 288–289, 290
complex, 596 modeling with, 388–392 factoring, 28
coordinate, 1, 87–88 Powers form of, 47
as graph of linear equation in three finding, using DeMoivre’s Theorem, fourth-degree equation of quadratic
variables, 654 601 type, 53–54
Plane curves, 801–802 formulas for lowering, 544 path of projectile modeled by, 51–52
Planetary orbits Predator/prey models, 432–433, 464, solving by completing the square,
eccentricities of, 758 696–697 48–49
Kepler’s description of, 23, 129, 580 Preference voting, 682 solving by factoring, 47
perihelion and aphelion, 760, 801 Present value, 340 solving simple, 47–48
power model for planetary periods, of an annuity (Ap), 850–851 trigonometric identities and, 563–564
388–389 Prime focus, 752 Quadratic factors, 297–298
Plurality voting, 682 Prime numbers, 824, 825 Quadratic formula, 49–50
Point-slope form of equation of lines, Principal, compound interest and, 334 complex solutions and, 295
113–114 Principal nth root, 18 discriminant of, 50–51
Polar axis, 582 Principal square root, 17 using Rational Zeros Theorem and,
Polar coordinates, 581, 582–587 of complex numbers, 288 274–275
graphing polar equations, 587–596 Principle of Mathematical Induction, Quadratic function, 194–198
relationship between rectangular 856–858 extreme values of, 195–198
coordinates and, 584–585 Principle of Substitution, 26 graphing, 194
Polar equations, 585–586 Problem solving, principles, 138–141 maximum/minimum value of, 195–198
of conics, 795–801 Products. see also Multiplication standard form of, 194–195
family of, 593 of functions, 214 Quadratic inequalities, 78–79
graphs of, 587–596 inner, 678–679 Quadratic polynomial of best fit vs. exact
in parametric form, 806 of polynomials, 25–26 fit, 660–661
Polar form of complex numbers, 598–600 positive/negative, 77 QuadReg command, in calculator, 661
Polya, George, 138 scalar, 676, 677, 678 Quotients, 266
Polygonal numbers, 847–848 sign of, 78 difference quotients, 151
Polynomial function, 249, 250, 320–323 Product-sum formulas, 541, 546–547 in division, 5
Polynomials, 24 Projectile of functions, 214
adding and subtracting, 25 modeling path of, 51–52, 816–818 inequalities and, 79–80
of best fit, 320–323 range of, 569 positive/negative, 78
defined, 250 Projection
degrees of, 24–26 cylindrical, 630–631, 632 Radian measure, of angles, 468–469, 472
dividing, 265–272 stereographic, 631, 632, 633 Radicals, 17–19
end behavior of, 252–254, 255 Projection laws, 514 combining, 19
family of, 261 Projection of vectors, 622–623 equations for, 53
graphs of, 251–260 Prolate cycloid, 808 nth root and, 18–19
guidelines for graphing, 255 Proof using, with rational exponents, 20
local extrema of, 260–261 by contradiction, 133 Radio, AM and FM, 428
nested form, 272 mathematical induction and, 854–855 Radioactive decay model, 374–375
product of, 25–26 Proportionality, 123–129 Radioactive elements, half-lives of,
quadratic, 660–661 constant of, 124 373–374
real zeros of, 254, 272–284 direct, 123–125 Radiocarbon dating, 351, 360
Tchebycheff, 549 inverse, 125–126 Ramanujan, Srinivasa, 840
I10 Index
Range limits of, 916 Row-echelon form

finding from graphs, 161 as models, 874–876 of a matrix, 665–667
of functions, 150 Reduced row-echelon form of a matrix, reduced, 665, 667–668
of an inverse function, 227 665, 667–668 solving linear equations, 666–667, 669
of a projectile, 569 Reduction formulas, 418, 442 Row transformations, of determinants,
of a relation, 171 Ref command, in calculator, 667 707–708
Rate of change Reference angle, 491–492 Rref command, in calculators, 668, 673
average, 174–178, 904 Reference numbers, 404–406 RSA code, 308–309
concavity and changing, 181 finding value of trigonometric function Rule of Signs (Descartes), 275, 297
constant, 178 with, 411–412 Rules, for inequalities, 76
instantaneous, 177, 881–882, 904–905 Reflecting graphs, 185–186, 343, 345 Run, vs. rise in slope, 111
slope as, 118–120, 175 Reflection, total internal, 570
Rational exponents, 19–20 Reflection property Scalar product, of matrices, 676, 677, 678
Rational expressions, 35–44 of ellipses, 759 Scalars, 607, 608
adding and subtracting, 37–38 of hyperbolas, 767 Scatter plots, 239–242, 320–323, 386–387
avoiding common errors, 40–41 of parabolas, 750 Scientific notation, 16–17
compound fractions, 38–39 Refraction, angle of, 570 Secant
multiplying and dividing, 36–37 Refraction, Index of, 570 formula for, 488
rationalizing denominator or numerator, Regression line, 240–242, 650–651 inverse, 556
40 Relations, 171–172 trigonometric ratios, 479
simplifying, 36 reciprocal, 480 Secant function, 408
Rational functions, 299–316 Relativity, Theory of, 157, 710, 816 graphing, 435, 436, 440
graphing, 306–312, 315 Remainders, 266 secant curves, 439, 440
simple, 300–302 Remainder Theorem, 268–269 special values of, 410
slant asymptotes and end behavior, Repeating decimal, 2 Secant line, average rate of change as
309–311 Resistance, electrical, 43, 312 slope of, 175
transformations, 302–303, 315–316 Resultant force, 614–615 Sectors, circular, 472–473
Rationalizing the denominator or Rhind papyrus, 75, 716 Semiperimeter, 512
numerator, 20–21, 40, 895 Richter, Charles, 377 Seq mode, calculators, 823–824
Rational numbers, 2–3 Richter scale, 377–378 Sequences, 821–828
Rational zeros. see Real zeros, of Right angles, 478–483 arithmetic, 833–838
polynomials Right-hand limits, 887–888, 895–897 defined, 822
Rational Zeros Theorem, 272–275, 295 Right triangle trigonometry, 467–468, Fibonacci, 678, 825–826, 829, 832
Real axis, 596 478–487 finding terms of, 823–824, 840
Real number line, 6, 9–10 applications, 481–483 geometric, 838–846
Real numbers, 1, 2–12 Rise, vs. run in slope, 111 harmonic, 837
absolute values and distance, 8–10 Rivest, Ron, 308 infinite series, 841–844
Law of Exponents and, 328 Robinson, Julia, 678 partial sums of, 827–828, 834–836,
natural numbers as, 2 Romanus, Adrianus, 414 840–841
order of (less than, greater than), 6 Root functions, 166 polygonal numbers, 847–848
properties of, 3–6 Root-mean-square (rms) method, 448 properties of sums of, 830
real lines and, 6 Roots recursive, 824–825, 874–876, 916
sets and intervals, 6–8 complex, 288–289, 290 sigma notation of, 828–830
Real part, of complex numbers, 285 of complex numbers, 601–603 Sequences, limits of, 913–915
Real zeros, of polynomials, 254, 272–284 of equations, 44 Series, infinite, 841–844
Reciprocal functions, 166 of polynomial equations, 254 Set-builder notation, 7
Reciprocal identities, 413, 414, 493, 528 of unity, 299 Sets
Reciprocal relations, 480 Roses (polar curve), 591, 594 as collection of objects, 6
Reciprocals of inequalities, direction of Rotation of axes, 783–794 unions and intersections, 7
inequality and, 76 eliminating xy-term, 786–787 Shamir, Adi, 308
Rectangles, using to estimate area, equations of, 784 Shanks, William, 414
917–918 graphing rotated conics, 787–789 Shifted conics, 775–783
Rectangular coordinates, 581, 584–586 matrix form of formulas, 791 Sieve of Eratosthenes, 825
Recursive sequences, 824–825 rotating hyperbolas, 784–785 Sight, line of, 482
Index I11
Sigma notation, 828–830 Standard position, of angles, 470–471 modeling with, 646–648, 656–657,
Signs, of trigonometric functions, 411, 490 Standing waves, 576–577 672–673
Similarity and similarity ratio, in Stars, modeling brightness of, 446 several variables, 651–661
trigonometry, 499–501 Step functions, 163, 170 two variables, 644–651
Simple harmonic motion, 443, 575 Stereographic projection, 631, 632, 633 using Cramer’s rule for solving,
Sine Stochastic matrices, 683 708–711
addition and subtraction formulas for, Substitution, Principle of, 26 writing as matrix equations, 681–682
535, 536, 541 Substitution, trigonometric, 532
curves, 422, 428, 461–462 Substitution method Table command, in calculators, 824
double-angle formula for, 542, 786 for solving linear systems, 637–638 Tables, finding limits using, 884–885
formula for, 488 using direct substitution for finding Taking cases, 139
half-angle formula for, 544 limits, 893–894 Tangent, 488, 547
inverse, 551–552 Subtraction addition and subtraction formulas for,
Law of, 501–508 of complex numbers, 286 535, 541, 560
product-sum formula for, 546 of inequalities, 76 double-angle formula for, 542
sum of sines and cosines, 538–539 overview of, 4 half-angle formula for, 544
sum-to-product formula for, 547 of polynomials, 25 inverse, 554–556
trigonometric ratios, 479 of rational expressions, 37–38 to parabola, 773, 774
Sine function, 408 of vectors, 608 trigonometric ratios, 479
applications, 432–433 Subtraction and addition formulas, Tangent function, 408
graphing, 418–420 535–541 graphing, 434–439
graphing transformations of, 420–425 Summation notation, 828 special values of, 410
periodic properties of, 419 Summation variable, 828 tangent curves, 437–438
shifted curves, 423–425 Sums Tangent line, 898–902
special values of, 410 of cubes, 30 to a hyperbola, finding, 901
SinReg command, in calculator, 461, 462 of functions, 214 Taussky-Todd, Olga, 672
Sinusoidal curves, 422, 431 of infinite geometric series, 843–844 Taylor, Brook, 436, 834
Slant asymptotes, 309–310 limits of approximating, 919–920 Tchebycheff, P.L., 549
Slope of matrices, 676–678 Tchebycheff polynomials, 549
indicating rate of change, 118–120, 175 partial sums of sequences, 827–828, Terminal points
of lines, 111–113 834–836, 840–841 reference numbers and, 404–406
Slope-intercept form of equation of a line, of powers, 858–859 on unit circle, 401–404
114 of sequences, properties of, 830 of vectors, 607
Slope of the line tangent to a curve, of sines and cosines, 538–539 Terminal side, of angles, 468
899–900 Sum-to-product formulas, 547 Terminal velocity, 338
Snell’s Law, 570 Supplement of angle, 504 Terms
Solutions. see Roots Surveying, 522–525 combining like, 25
Sound. see also Harmonic motion using triangulation for, 504–505 of polynomial, 24
intensity levels of, 347, 378–379 Symmetry, 95–96 Terms, of sequences
inverse square law for, 382 tests for, 591–592 defined, 822
Special Product Formulas, 26–27, 34 Synthetic division, 267–268 finding, 823–824, 834, 840
Special Theory of Relativity, 816 Systems of equations, 635, 636–644 for recursive sequences, 825
Species, study of survival of, 688–689 elimination method for solving, Test points, graphing, 255, 256, 257, 722
Species-Area relationship, 357–358 638–640 Test values for intervals, 78
Sphere, area of, 156 graphical method for solving, 640–641 Thales of Miletus, 482
Splines, polynomial curves, 249, 252, 256 modeling with, 646–648 Theodolite, 504
Spring constant, 127, 452, 931 substitution method for solving, Theory of Relativity, 157, 710, 816
Square matrix, 704–708 637–638 Tide, modeling height of, 459–462
Square numbers, 847 Systems of inequalities, graphing, Torricelli’s Law, 156, 232, 325
Square roots, 17–19 723–728. see also Inequalities Total internal reflection, 570
of negative numbers, 287–288 Systems of linear equations Trace command, in calculators, 106, 199,
nth root and, 18–19 dependent and inconsistent, 644–646, 725, 884–885
Squaring function, 150 654–656 Transformations
Standard form, of equation of a circle, 93 graph of, 654 of exponential functions, 331, 333
I12 Index
Transformations (continued) Trigonometric identities, 527, 528–534 expressing in terms of i and j, 611–612
of functions, 182–193 of angles, 492–494 geometric description of, 607–608
by matrix multiplication, 700 basic types of, 528 horizontal and vertical components, 609,
of monomials, 251–252 proving, 529–532 612
of rational functions, 302–303, 315–316 quadratic equations and, 563–564 modeling velocity and force, 612–615
of sine and cosine functions, 420–425 of real numbers, 413, 414–415 orthogonal, 619–620
Transition matrix, 688–689, 697 simplifying, 528–529 perpendicularity, checking for, 620
Translation of image, 794 Trigonometric ratios, 467, 478–479, 480, properties of, 611
Transverse axes, of hyperbolas, 762, 481, 488 use of, 607
764–766 Trigonometric substitution, 532 wind as, tacking against, 626
Traveling waves, 575–576 Trinomials, 24 zero, 608, 611
Triangles Triple-angle formula, 543 Velocity
ambiguous case, 503–505, 508 Trochoid, 808 estimating, 907
area of, 494–495, 512–513, 711–712, Tsu Ch’ung-chih, 414 instantaneous, 904–905
714–715 Turing, Alan, 103, 178 modeling, 612–614
Pascal’s triangle, 861–863, 864 Two-intercept form of linear equation, 121 terminal, 338
right triangle trigonometry, 467–468, Two-sided limits, 895 of traveling waves, 575–576
478–487 Vertical asymptotes, 301, 303–308,
solving height problems, 62–63 434–436, 886–887
Unbounded regions, of planes, 725
solving oblique, 501 Vertical axes, of parabolas, 745–746
Unbreakable codes, 308–309
special, 479–481 Vertical lines, 115
Unions
Triangular form, of linear systems, Vertical line test, 163–164
of intervals, 8
651–652 Vertical shifts, graphs, 182–183, 184–185
of sets, 7
Triangular numbers, 847 Vertical stretching and shrinking, graphs,
Unit circle, 400–408
Triangulation, for surveying, 504–505 186–187
points on, 400
Trigonometric equations, 527, 561–570 Vertices
reference numbers, 404–406, 411–412
Trigonometric functions, inverse, 527–528, of ellipses, 754, 755
terminal points, 401–404
550–559, 567–568 of feasible region, 737, 739
Unit vector, 611
Trigonometric functions, of angles, of hyperbolas, 762, 766–767
Universal machine, 178
466–525 of parabolas, 744
Upper and Lower Bounds Theorem,
defined, 488 of systems of inequalities, 723, 724
276–277, 278
reference angle and, 491–492 Viète, François, 49, 498
Upper bounds, 276, 278
relationship to trigonometric functions Viewing rectangle, of graphing calculator,
of real numbers, 489 102
signs of, 490 Value of f at x, 150 Voltage, measuring, 448
Trigonometric functions, of real numbers, Variables Volterra, Vito, 696–697
398–465 correlation of, 242–243 Von Neumann, John, 178
of angles, 409 defined, 24 Voting, fair methods, 682–683
defined, 408 dependent and independent, 150
domains of, 411 leading, 668 Wankel, Felix, 809
even-odd properties, 413–414 in linear systems, 644–661 Wavelet theory, 30
relationship to trigonometric functions summation, 828 Waves
of angles, 489 Variation, modeling standing, 576–577
signs of, 411 direct, 123–125 traveling, 575–576
trigonometric identities, 413, 414–415 inverse, 125–126 Weather prediction, 562
unit circle, 400–408 joint, 126 Weber-Fechner Law, 378
values of, 411–414, 436 Variation in sign, 255 Whispering galleries, reflection property
Trigonometric graphs Vectors, 581–582 used in, 759
of cosecant and secant functions, algebraic operations on, 610–611 Witch of Maria Agnesi (curve), 809
439–440 analytic description of, 609–612 Words, representing functions with, 153,
graphing devices used for, 425–428 angle between, 619 154
of sine and cosine functions, 418–420 calculating components of, 621–622 Work
of tangent and cotangent functions, direction of, 608, 609, 612, 620–622 calculating with dot product, 623–624
434–439 dot product of, 617–620 modeled by area, 929–931
Index I13
x-axis, 87, 95 Zero(s) Zero exponents, 13

x-coordinate, 87 additive identity, 4 Zero-Product Property, 47, 563
x-intercepts, 92 complex, 291–299 Zeros Theorem, 293
graphing rational functions and, Factor Theorem and, 269–270 Zero vector, 608, 611
306–312 multiplicities and, 259, 293–295 Zoom feature, in calculators, 884
numerical method of finding, 283–284 ZSquare command, 104
y-axis, 87, 95 of polynomials, 254–260, 269
y-coordinate, 87 Rational Zeros Theorem, 272–275, 295
y-intercepts, 92 real, 254, 272–284
graphing rational functions and,
306–312
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852 CHAPTER 11 Sequences and Series

Example 5 Calculating Monthly Mortgage Payments

We now illustrate the use of graphing devices in solving problems related to

Example 6 Calculating the Interest Rate from the Size

in the viewing rectangle 30.06, 0.164 3350, 4504, as shown in Figure 2. We

11.5 Mathematical Induction

Conjecture and Proof

P112: The sum of the ﬁrst 1 odd number is 12.

Principle of Mathematical Induction

For each natural number n, let P1n2 be a statement depending on n. Suppose

To apply this principle, there are two steps:

Example 1 A Proof by Mathematical Induction

Having proved Steps 1 and 2, we conclude by the Principle of Mathematical

Example 2 A Proof by Mathematical Induction

Step 2 Assume that P1k2 is true. Thus, our induction hypothesis is

We want to use this to show that P1k 12 is true, that is,

Example 3 Proving an Inequality

Solution Let P1n 2 denote the statement 4n  2n.

We get P(k 1) by replacing k by 41k 12  2k1

 2k1 Property of exponents

11.6 The Binomial Theorem

The exponents of a decrease:

The exponents of b increase:

Óa bÔ8  a8 ? a7b ? a6b2 ? a5b3 ? a4b4 ? a3b5 ? a2b6 ? ab7 b8

To complete the expansion, we need to determine these coefﬁcients. To ﬁnd a pattern,

Example 1 Expanding a Binomial Using Pascal’s Triangle

Example 2 Expanding a Binomial Using

Substituting a  2 and b  3x gives

The Binomial Coefﬁcients

The Binomial Coefﬁcient

Let n and r be nonnegative integers with r

Example 3 Calculating Binomial Coefﬁcients

Key Property of the Binomial Coefﬁcients

For any nonnegative integers r and k with r

The Binomial Theorem

The Binomial Theorem

1a b2 n  a b an a b an1b a b an2b 2 . . . a b ab n1 a b b n

Example 4 Expanding a Binomial Using

Example 5 Expanding a Binomial Using

1a b2 8  a 8 8a 7b 28a 6b 2 56a 5b 3 70a 4b 4 56a 3b 5

Performing the substitutions a  x1/2 and b  1 gives

1 1x 12 8  x 4 8x 7/2 28x 3 56x 5/2 70x 2 56x 3/2 28x 8x 1/2 1 ■

General Term of the Binomial Expansion

The term that contains ar in the expansion of 1a b2 n is

Example 6 Finding a Particular Term in a Binomial Expansion

Example 7 Finding a Particular Term in a Binomial Expansion

Find the coefﬁcient of x8 in the expansion of a x 2 b .

Proof of the Binomial Theorem

1a b 2 n  a b a n a b a n1b a b a n2b 2 . . . a b ab n1 a b b n

1a b2 k  a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k

We use this to show that P1k 12 is true.

 1a b2 c a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k d

 a c a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k d

b c a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k d Property

 a b a k1 a b a kb a b a k1b 2 . . . a b a 2b k1 a b ab k

a b a kb a b a k1b 2 a b a k2b 3 . . . a b ab k a b b k1

k 1 k1 k1 k k 1 k1 2 . . . k1 k 1 k1

1. 1x y 2 6 2. 12x 1 2 4 3. a x b 13. a b 14. a b 15. a b

48. Show that a b  a b

36. Find the term containing y3 in the expansion of A 12 yB 12.

39. x 4 4x 3y 6x 2y 2 4xy 3 y 4 11 ?

40. 1x 12 5 51x 12 4 101x 12 3 121 ?

19. t 3, t 2, t 1, t, . . . 20. t 3, t 2, t, 1, . . . 37–40 ■ Find the sum.

Solution Let P1n 2 denote the statement 4n 2n.

We get P(k 1) by replacing k by 41k 12 2k1

2k1 Property of exponents

Óa bÔ8 a8 ? a7b ? a6b2 ? a5b3 ? a4b4 ? a3b5 ? a2b6 ? ab7 b8

Substituting a 2 and b 3x gives

1a b2 n a b an a b an1b a b an2b 2 . . . a b ab n1 a b b n

1a b2 8 a 8 8a 7b 28a 6b 2 56a 5b 3 70a 4b 4 56a 3b 5

Performing the substitutions a x1/2 and b 1 gives

1 1x 12 8 x 4 8x 7/2 28x 3 56x 5/2 70x 2 56x 3/2 28x 8x 1/2 1 ■

1a b 2 n a b a n a b a n1b a b a n2b 2 . . . a b ab n1 a b b n

1a b2 k a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k

1a b2 c a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k d

a c a b a k a b a k1b a b a k2b 2 . . . a b ab k1 a b b k d

a b a k1 a b a kb a b a k1b 2 . . . a b a 2b k1 a b ab k

48. Show that a b a b

39. x 4 4x 3y 6x 2y 2 4xy 3 y 4 11 ?

40. 1x 12 5 51x 12 4 101x 12 3 121 ?

We see that in general, An 11.0052 nA0.

Rn Rn1 0.08Rn1 0.00041Rn1 2 2, R0 100

lim f1x2 L if and only if lim f1x2 L and lim f1x2 L

Despite this fact, notice that g152 2. ■

(a) Evaluate h1x 2 1tan x x2 /x 3 for x 1, 0.5, 0.1,

2. lim 3f1x2 g1x2 4 lim f1x2 lim g1x2 Limit of a Difference

3. lim 3cf1x2 4 c lim f1x2 Limit of a Constant Multiple

4. lim 3f1x2g1x2 4 lim f1x2 # lim g1x2 Limit of a Product

6. lim 3f1x2 4 n 3 lim f1x2 4 n where n is a positive integer Limit of a Power

lim f1x2 5 lim g1x2 Limit of a Constant Multiple

lim 3f1x2 4 3 3 lim f1x2 4 3 Limit of a Power

Special Limits 1 and 2 are intuitively obvious—looking at the graphs of y c and

2152 2 3152 4 Special Limits 3, 2, and 1

If we let f 1x2 2x 2 3x 4, then f152 39. In Example 2(a), we found that